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Discover the thorough instruction you need to build dynamic, interactive Web sites from
scratch with NEW PERSPECTIVES ON HTML5, CSS3, AND JAVASCRIPT, 6E. This
user-friendly book provides comprehensive coverage of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
with an inviting approach that starts with the basics and does not require any prior
knowledge on the subject. Detailed explanations of key concepts and skills make even
the most challenging topics clear and accessible. Case scenarios and case problems
place the most complex concepts within an understandable and practical context. You
develop important problem solving skills as you work through realistic exercises. Proven
applications and an interesting approach help you retain the material and apply what
you’ve learned in a professional environment.

1. Preface
2. Brief Contents
3. Table of Contents
4. Tutorial 1: Getting Started with HTML5: Creating a Website for a Food Vendor
5. Session 1.1 Visual Overview: The Structure of an HTML Document
6. Exploring the World Wide Web
7. Introducing HTML
8. Tools for Working with HTML
9. Exploring an HTML Document
10. Creating the Document Head
11. Adding Comments to Your Document
12. Session 1.1 Quick Check
13. Session 1.2 Visual Overview: HTML Page Elements
14. Writing the Page Body
15. Linking an HTML Document to a Style Sheet
16. Working with Character Sets and Special Characters
17. Working with Inline Images
18. Working with Block Quotes and Other Elements
19. Session 1.2 Quick Check
20. Session 1.3 Visual Overview: Lists and Hypertext Links
21. Working with Lists
22. Working with Hypertext Links
23. Specifying the Folder Path
24. Linking to a Location within a Document
25. Linking to the Internet and Other Resources
26. Working with Hypertext Attributes
27. Session 1.3 Quick Check
28. Review Assignments
29. Case Problems
30. Tutorial 2: Getting Started with CSS: Designing a Website for a Fitness Club
31. Session 2.1 Visual Overview: CSS Styles and Colors
32. Introducing CSS
33. Exploring Style Rules
34. Creating a Style Sheet
35. Working with Color in CSS
36. Employing Progressive Enhancement
37. Session 2.1 Quick Check
38. Session 2.2 Visual Overview: CSS Typography
39. Exploring Selector Patterns
40. Working with Fonts
41. Setting the Font Size
42. Controlling Spacing and Indentation
43. Working with Font Styles
44. Session 2.2 Quick Check
45. Session 2.3 Visual Overview: Pseudo Elements and Classes
46. Formatting Lists
47. Working with Margins and Padding
48. Using Pseudo-Classes and Pseudo-Elements
49. Generating Content with CSS
50. Inserting Quotation Marks
51. Session 2.3 Quick Check
52. Review Assignments
53. Case Problems
54. Tutorial 3: Designing a Page Layout: Creating a Website for a Chocolatier
55. Session 3.1 Visual Overview: Page Layout with Floating Elements
56. Introducing the display Style
57. Creating a Reset Style Sheet
58. Exploring Page Layout Designs
59. Working with Width and Height
60. Floating Page Content
61. Session 3.1 Quick Check
62. Session 3.2 Visual Overview: Page Layout Grids
63. Introducing Grid Layouts
64. Setting up a Grid
65. Outlining a Grid
66. Introducing CSS Grids
67. Session 3.2 Quick Check
68. Session 3.3 Visual Overview: Layout with Positioning Styles
69. Positioning Objects
70. Handling Overflow
71. Clipping an Element
72. Stacking Elements
73. Session 3.3 Quick Check
74. Review Assignments
75. Case Problems
76. Tutorial 4: Graphic Design with CSS: Creating a Graphic Design for a Genealogy
Website
77. Session 4.1 Visual Overview: Backgrounds and Borders
78. Creating Figure Boxes
79. Exploring Background Styles
80. Working with Borders
81. Session 4.1 Quick Check
82. Session 4.2 Visual Overview: Shadows and Gradients
83. Creating Drop Shadows
84. Applying a Color Gradient
85. Creating Semi-Transparent Objects
86. Session 4.2 Quick Check
87. Session 4.3 Visual Overview: Transformations and Filters
88. Transforming Page Objects
89. Exploring CSS Filters
90. Working with Image Maps
91. Session 4.3 Quick Check
92. Review Assignments
93. Case Problems
94. Tutorial 5: Designing for the Mobile Web: Creating a Mobile Website for a Daycare
Center
95. Session 5.1 Visual Overview: Media Queries
96. Introducing Responsive Design
97. Introducing Media Queries
98. Exploring Viewports and Device Width
99. Creating a Mobile Design
100. Creating a Tablet Design
101. Creating a Desktop Design
102. Session 5.1 Quick Check
103. Session 5.2 Visual Overview: Flexbox Layouts
104. Introducing Flexible Boxes
105. Working with Flex Items
106. Reordering Page Content with Flexboxes
107. Exploring Flexbox Layouts
108. Creating a Navicon Menu
109. Session 5.2 Quick Check
110. Session 5.3 Visual Overview: Print Styles
111. Designing for Printed Media
112. Working with the @page Rule
113. Working with Page Breaks
114. Session 5.3 Quick Check
115. Review Assignments
116. Case Problems
117. Tutorial 6: Working with Tables and Columns: Creating a Program Schedule
for a Radio Station
118. Session 6.1 Visual Overview: Structure of a Web Table
119. Introducing Web Tables
120. Adding Table Borders with CSS
121. Spanning Rows and Columns
122. Creating a Table Caption
123. Session 6.1 Quick Check
124. Session 6.2 Visual Overview: Rows and Column Groups
125. Creating Row Groups
126. Creating Column Groups
127. Exploring CSS Styles and Web Tables
128. Tables and Responsive Design
129. Designing a Column Layout
130. Session 6.2 Quick Check
131. Review Assignments
132. Case Problems
133. Tutorial 7: Designing a Web Form: Creating a Survey Form
134. Session 7.1 Visual Overview: Structure of a Web Form
135. Introducing Web Forms
136. Starting a Web Form
137. Creating a Field Set
138. Creating Input Boxes
139. Adding Field Labels
140. Designing a Form Layout
141. Defining Default Values and Placeholders
142. Session 7.1 Quick Check
143. Session 7.2 Visual Overview: Web Form Widgets
144. Entering Date and Time Values
145. Creating a Selection List
146. Creating Option Buttons
147. Creating Check Boxes
148. Creating a Text Area Box
149. Session 7.2 Quick Check
150. Session 7.3 Visual Overview: Data Validation
151. Entering Numeric Data
152. Suggesting Options with Data Lists
153. Working with Form Buttons
154. Validating a Web Form
155. Applying Inline Validation
156. Session 7.3 Quick Check
157. Review Assignments
158. Case Problems
159. Tutorial 8: Enhancing a Website with Multimedia: Working with Sound, Video,
and Animation
160. Session 8.1 Visual Overview: Playing Web Audio
161. Introducing Multimedia on the Web
162. Working with the audio Element
163. Exploring Embedded Objects
164. Session 8.1 Quick Check
165. Session 8.2 Visual Overview: Playing Web Video
166. Exploring Digital Video
167. Using the HTML5 video Element
168. Adding a Text Track to Video
169. Using Third-Party Video Players
170. Session 8.2 Quick Check
171. Session 8.3 Visual Overview: Transitions and Animations
172. Creating Transitions with CSS
173. Animating Objects with CSS
174. Session 8.3 Quick Check
175. Review Assignments
176. Case Problems
177. Tutorial 9: Getting Started with JavaScript: Creating a Countdown Clock
178. Session 9.1 Visual Overview: Creating a JavaScript File
179. Introducing JavaScript
180. Working with the script Element
181. Creating a JavaScript Program
182. Debugging Your Code
183. Session 9.1 Quick Check
184. Session 9.2 Visual Overview: JavaScript Variables and Dates
185. Introducing Objects
186. Changing Properties and Applying Methods
187. Writing HTML Code
188. Working with Variables
189. Working with Date Objects
190. Session 9.2 Quick Check
191. Session 9.3 Visual Overview: JavaScript Functions and Expressions
192. Working with Operators and Operands
193. Working with the Math Object
194. Working with JavaScript Functions
195. Running Timed Commands
196. Controlling How JavaScript Works with Numeric Values
197. Session 9.3 Quick Check
198. Review Assignments
199. Case Problems
200. Tutorial 10: Exploring Arrays, Loops, and Conditional Statements: Creating a
Monthly Calendar
201. Session 10.1 Visual Overview: Creating and Using Arrays
202. Introducing the Monthly Calendar
203. Introducing Arrays
204. Session 10.1 Quick Check
205. Session 10.2 Visual Overview: Applying a Program Loop
206. Working with Program Loops
207. Comparison and Logical Operators
208. Program Loops and Arrays
209. Session 10.2 Quick Check
210. Session 10.3 Visual Overview: Conditional Statements
211. Introducing Conditional Statements
212. Completing the Calendar App
213. Managing Program Loops and Conditional Statements
214. Session 10.3 Quick Check
215. Review Assignments
216. Case Problems
217. Tutorial 11: Working with Events and Styles: Designing an Interactive Puzzle
218. Session 11.1 Visual Overview: Event Handlers and Event Objects
219. Introducing JavaScript Events
220. Creating an Event Handler
221. Using the Event Object
222. Exploring Object Properties
223. Session 11.1 Quick Check
224. Session 11.2 Visual Overview: Event Listeners and Cursors
225. Working with Mouse Events
226. Introducing the Event Model
227. Exploring Keyboard Events
228. Changing the Cursor Style
229. Session 11.2 Quick Check
230. Session 11.3 Visual Overview: Anonymous Functions and Dialog Boxes
231. Working with Functions as Objects
232. Displaying Dialog Boxes
233. Session 11.3 Quick Check
234. Review Assignments
235. Case Problems
236. Tutorial 12: Working with Document Nodes and Style Sheets: Creating a
Dynamic Document Outline
237. Session 12.1 Visual Overview: Exploring the Node Tree
238. Introducing Nodes
239. Creating and Appending Nodes
240. Working with Node Types, Names, and Values
241. Session 12.1 Quick Check
242. Session 12.2 Visual Overview: Exploring Attribute Nodes
243. Creating a Nested List
244. Working with Attribute Nodes
245. Session 12.2 Quick Check
246. Session 12.3 Visual Overview: Style Sheets and Style Rules
247. Working with Style Sheets
248. Working with Style Sheet Rules
249. Session 12.3 Quick Check
250. Review Assignments
251. Case Problems
252. Tutorial 13: Programming for Web Forms: Creatings Forms for Orders and
Payments
253. Session 13.1 Visual Overview: Forms and Elements
254. Exploring the Forms Object
255. Working with Form Elements
256. Working with Input Fields
257. Working with Selection Lists
258. Working with Options Buttons and Check Boxes
259. Formatting Numeric Values
260. Applying Form Events
261. Working with Hidden Fields
262. Session 13.1 Quick Check
263. Session 13.2 Visual Overview: Passing Data between Forms
264. Sharing Data between Forms
265. Working with Text Strings
266. Introducing Regular Expressions
267. Programming with Regular Expressions
268. Session 13.2 Quick Check
269. Session 13.3 Visual Overview: Validating Form Data
270. Validating Data with JavaScript
271. Testing a Form Field against a Regular Expression
272. Testing for Legitimate Card Numbers
273. Session 13.3 Quick Check
274. Review Assignments
275. Case Problems
276. Tutorial 14: Exploring Object-Based Programming: Designing an Online Poker
Game
277. Session 14.1 Visual Overview: Custom Objects, Properties, and Methods
278. Working with Nested Functions
279. Introducing Custom Objects
280. Session 14.1 Quick Check
281. Session 14.2 Visual Overview: Object Classes and Prototypes
282. Defining an Object Type
283. Working with Object Prototypes
284. Session 14.2 Quick Check
285. Session 14.3 Visual Overview: Objects and Arrays
286. Combining Objects
287. Combining Objects and Arrays
288. Session 14.3 Quick Check
289. Review Assignments
290. Case Problems
291. Appendix A: Color Names with Color Values, and HTML Character Entities
292. Appendix B: HTML Elements and Attributes
293. Appendix C: Cascading Styles and Selectors
294. Appendix D: Making the Web More Accessible
295. Appendix E: Designing for the Web
296. Appendix F: Page Validation with XHTML
297. Glossary
298. Index
Other documents randomly have
different content
winding forms, mixt with foliage, twisting about them, are made use of
in all ornaments; a kind of composition calculated merely to please the
eye. Divest these of their serpentine twinings, and they immediately
lose all grace, and return to the poor gothic taste they were in an
hundred years ago [Fig. 63 B p. II].

Fig. [64 B p. II] is meant to represent the manner, in which most of the
muscles, (those of the limbs in particular) are twisted round the bones,
and conform themselves to their length and shape; but with no
anatomical exactness. As to the running of their fibres, some
anatomists have compared them to skains of thread, loose in the
middle, and tight at each end, which, when they are thus consider'd as
twisted contrary ways round the bone, gives the strongest idea
possible of a composition of serpentine-lines.
Of these fine winding forms then are the muscles and bones
composed, and which, by their varied situations with each other,
become more intricately pleasing, and form a continued waving of
winding forms from one into the other, as may be best seen by
examining a good anatomical figure, part of which you have here
represented, in the muscular leg and thigh, fig. [65 p. I]: which shews
the serpentine forms and varied situations of the muscles, as they
appear when the skin is taken off. It was drawn from a plaster of paris
figure cast off nature, the original of which was prepared for the mould
by Cowper, the famous anatomist. In this last figure, as the skin is
taken off the parts are too distinctly traced by the eye, for that intricate
delicacy which is necessary to the utmost beauty; yet the winding
figures of the muscles, with the variety of their situations, must always
be allow'd elegant forms: however, they lose in the imagination some
of the beauty, which they really have, by the idea of their being flayed;
nevertheless, by what has already been shewn both of them and the
bones, the human frame hath more of its parts composed of
serpentine-lines than any other object in nature; which is a proof both
of its superior beauty to all others, and, at the same time, that its
beauty proceeds from those lines: for although they may be required
sometimes to be bulging in their twists, as in the thick swelling muscles
of the Hercules, yet elegance and greatness of taste is still preserved;
but when these lines lose so much of their twists as to become almost
straight, all elegance of taste vanishes.
Thus fig. [66 p. I], was also taken from nature, and drawn in the same
position, but treated in a more dry, stiff, and what the painters call,
sticky manner, than the nature of flesh is ever capable of appearing in,
unless when its moisture is dryed away: it must be allowed, that the
parts of this figure are of as right dimensions, and as truly situated, as
in the former; it wants only the true twist of the lines to give it taste.
To prove this further, and to put the mean effect of these plain or
unvaried lines in a stronger light, see fig. [67 p. I], where, by the
uniform, unvaried shapes and situation of the muscles, without so
much as a waving-line in them, it becomes so wooden a form, that he
that can fashion the leg of a joint-stool may carve this figure as well as
the best sculptor. In the same manner, divest one of the best antique
statues of all its serpentine winding parts, and it becomes from an
exquisite piece of art, a figure of such ordinary lines and unvaried
contents, that a common stone-mason or carpenter, with the help of
his rule, calipers, and compasses, might carve out an exact imitation of
it: and were it not for these lines a turner, in his lathe, might turn a
much finer neck than that of the grecian Venus, as according to the
common notion of a beautiful neck, it would be more truly round. For
the same reason, legs much swoln with disease, are as easy to imitate
as a post, having lost their drawing, as the painters call it; that is,
having their serpentine-lines all effaced, by the skin's being equally
puffed up, as figure [68].
If in comparing these three figures one with another, the reader, notwithstanding the
prejudice his imagination may have conceiv'd against them, as anatomical figures, has been
enabled only to perceive that one of them is not so disagreeable as the others; he will easily
be led to see further, that this tendency to beauty in one, is not owing to any greater degree
of exactness in the proportions of its parts, but merely to the more pleasing turns, and
intertwistings of the lines, which compose its external form; for in all the three figures the
same proportions have been observ'd, and, on that account, they have all an equal claim to
beauty.
And if he pursues this anatomical enquiry but a very little further, just to form a true idea of
the elegant use that is made of the skin and fat beneath it, to conceal from the eye all that
is hard and disagreeable, and at the same time to preserve to it whatever is necessary in the
shapes of the parts beneath, to give grace and beauty to the whole limb: he will find himself
insensibly led into the principles of that grace and beauty which is to be found in well-turn'd
limbs, in fine, elegant, healthy life, or in those of the best antique statues; as well as into
the reason why his eye has so often unknowingly been pleased and delighted with them.
Thus, in all other parts of the body, as well as these, wherever, for the sake of the necessary
motion of the parts, with proper strength and agility, the insertions of the muscles are too
hard and sudden, their swellings too bold, or the hollows between them too deep, for their
out-lines to be beautiful; nature most judiciously softens these hardnesses, and plumps up
these vacancies with a proper supply of fat, and covers the whole with the soft, smooth,
springy, and, in delicate life, almost transparent skin, which, conforming itself to the external
shape of all the parts beneath, expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the utmost
delicacy of beauty and grace.
The skin, therefore, thus tenderly embracing, and gently conforming itself to the varied
shapes of every one of the outward muscles of the body, soften'd underneath by the fat,
where, otherwise, the same hard lines and furrows would appear, as we find come on with
age in the face, and with labour, in the limbs, is evidently a shell-like surface (to keep up the
idea I set out with) form'd with the utmost delicacy in nature; and therefore the most proper
subject of the study of every one, who desires to imitate the works of nature, as a master
should do, or to judge of the performances of others as a real connoisseur ought.
I cannot be too long, I think, on this subject, as so much will be found to depend upon it;
and therefore shall endeavour to give a clear idea of the different effect such anatomical
figures have on the eye, from what the same parts have, when cover'd by the fat and skin;
by supposing a small wire (that has lost its spring and so will retain every shape it is twisted
into) to be held fast to the out-side of the hip (fig. 65. plate I) and thence brought down the
other side of the thigh obliquely over the calf of the leg, down to the outward ancle (all the
while press'd so close as to touch and conform itself to the shape of every muscle it passes
over) and then to be taken off. If this wire be now examined it will be found that the general
uninterrupted flowing twist, which the winding round the limbs would otherwise have given
to it, is broken into little better than so many separate plain curves, by the sharp indentures
it every where has receiv'd on being closely press'd in between the muscles.

Suppose, in the next place, such a wire was in the same manner twisted round a living well-
shaped leg and thigh, or those of a fine statue; when you take it off you will find no such
sharp indentures, nor any of those regular engralings (as the heralds express it) which
displeased the eye before. On the contrary, you will see how gradually the changes in its
shape are produced; how imperceptibly the different curvatures run into each other, and
how easily the eye glides along the varied wavings of its sweep. To enforce this still further,
if a line were to be drawn by a pencil exactly where these wires have been supposed to
pass, the point of the pencil, in the muscular leg and thigh, would perpetually meet with
stops and rubs, whilst in the others it would flow from muscle to muscle along the elastic
skin, as pleasantly as the lightest skiff dances over the gentlest wave.
This idea of the wire, retaining thus the shape of the parts it passes over, seems of so much
consequence, that I would by no means have it forgot; as it may properly be consider'd as
one of the threads (or outlines) of the shell (or external surface) of the human form: and the
frequently recurring to it will assist the imagination in its conceptions of those parts of it,
whose shapes are most intricately varied: for the same sort of observations may be made,
with equal justice, on the shapes of ever so many such wires twisted in the same manner in
ever so many directions over every part of a well made man, woman, or statue.
And if the reader will follow in his imagination the most exquisite turns of the chisel in the
hands of a master, when he is putting the finishing touches to a statue; he will soon be led
to understand what it is the real judges expect from the hand of such a master, which the
Italians call, the little more, Il poco piu, and which in reality distinguishes the original
master-pieces at Rome from even the best copies of them.
An example or two will sufficiently explain what is here meant; for as these exquisite turns
are to be found, in some degree of beauty or other, all over the whole surface of the body
and limbs: we may by taking any one part of a fine figure (though so small a one that only a
few muscles are express'd in it) explain the manner in which so much beauty and grace has
been given to them, as to convince a skilful artist, almost at sight, that it must have been
the work of a master.

I have chosen, for this purpose, a small piece of the body of a statue, fig. [76 T p. II],
representing part of the left side under the arm, together with a little of the breast,
(including a very particular muscle, which, from the likeness its edges bear to the teeth of a
saw, is, if consider'd by itself, void of beauty) as most proper to the point in hand, because
this its regular shape more peculiarly requires the skill of the artist to give it a little more
variety than it generally has, even in nature.
First, then, I will give you a representation of this part of the body, from an anatomical
figure [Fig. 77 T p. II], to show what a sameness there is in the shapes of all the teeth-like
insertions of this muscle; and how regularly the fibres, which compose it, follow the almost
parallel out-lines of the ribs they partly cover.

From what has been said before of the use of the natural covering of the skin, &c. the next
figure [78 T p. II] will easily be understood to mean so tame a representation of the same
part of the body, that tho' the hard and stiff appearance of the edges of this muscle is taken
off by that covering, yet enough of its regularity and sameness remains to render it
disagreeable.
Now as regularity and sameness, according to our doctrine, is want of elegance and true
taste, we shall endeavour in the next place to show how this very part (in which the muscles
take so very regular a form) may be brought to have as much variety as any other part of
the body whatever. In order to this, though some alteration must be made in almost every
part of it, yet it should be so inconsiderable in each, that no remarkable change may appear
in the shape and situation of any.

Thus, let the parts mark'd 1, 2, 3, 4, (which appear so exactly similar in shape, and parallel
in situation in the muscular figure 77) and not much mended in fig. 78, be first varied in
their sizes, but not gradually from the uppermost to the lowest, as in fig. [79 T p. II], nor
alternately one long and one short, as in fig. [80 T p. II], for in either of these cases there
would still remain too great a formality. We should therefore endeavour, in the next place, to
vary them every way in our power, without losing entirely the true idea of the parts
themselves. Suppose them then to have changed their situations a little, and slip'd beside
each other irregularly, (some how as is represented in fig. [81 T p. II], merely with regard to
their situation) and the external appearance of the whole piece of the body, now under our
consideration, will assume the more varied and pleasing form, represented in fig. 76, easily
to be discern'd by comparing the three figures, 76, 77, 78, one with another; and it will as
easily be seen, that were lines to be drawn, or wires to be bent, over these muscles, from
one to the other, and so on to the adjoining parts; they would have a continued waving flow,
let them pass in any direction whatever.
The unskilful, in drawing these parts after the life, as their regularities are much more easily
seen and copied than their fine variations, seldom fail of making them more regular and
poor than they really appear even in a consumptive person.
The difference will appear evident by comparing fig. 78, purposely drawn in this tasteless
manner, with fig. 76. But will be more perfectly understood by examining this part in the
Torso of Michael Angelo [Fig. 54 p. I], whence this figure was taken.

Note, there are casts of a small copy of that famous trunk of a body to be had at almost
every plaster-figure makers, wherein what has been here described may be sufficiently seen,
not only in the part which figure 76 was taken from, but all over that curious piece of
antiquity.
I must here again press my reader to a particular attention to the windings of these
superficial lines, even in their passing over every joint, what alterations soever may be made
in the surface of the skin by the various bendings of the limbs: and tho' the space allow'd for
it, just in the joints, be ever so small, and consequently the lines ever so short, the
application of this principle of varying these lines, as far as their lengths will admit of, will be
found to have its effect as gracefully as in the more lengthen'd muscles of the body.
It should be observ'd in the fingers, where the joints are but short, and the tendons straight;
and where beauty seems to submit, in some degree, to use, yet not so much but you trace
in a full-grown taper finger, these little winding lines among the wrinkles, or in (what is more
pretty because more simple) the dimples of the nuckles. As we always distinguish things
best by seeing their reverse set in opposition with them; if fig. 82 T p. II, by the straightness
of its lines, shews fig. 83 T p. II, to have some little taste in it, tho' it is so slightly sketch'd;
the difference will more evidently appear when you in like manner compare a straight coarse
finger in common life with the taper dimpled one of a fine lady.

There is an elegant degree of plumpness peculiar to the skin of the softer sex, that
occasions these delicate dimplings in all their other joints, as well as these of the fingers;
which so perfectly distinguishes them from those even of a graceful man; and which,
assisted by the more soften'd shapes of the muscles underneath, presents to the eye all the
varieties in the whole figure of the body, with gentler and fewer parts more sweetly
connected together, and with such a fine simplicity as will always give the turn of the female
frame, represented in the Venus [Fig. 13 p. I], the preference to that of the Apollo [Fig. 12
p. I].

Now whoever can conceive lines thus constantly flowing, and delicately varying over every
part of the body even to the fingers ends, and will call to his remembrance what led us to
this last description of what the Italians call, Il poco piu (the little more that is expected from
the hand of a master) will, in my mind, want very little more than what his own observation
on the works of art and nature will lead him to, to acquire a true idea of the word Taste,
when applied to form; however inexplicable this word may hitherto have been imagined.
We have all along had recourse chiefly to the works of the ancients, not because the
moderns have not produced some as excellent; but because the works of the former are
more generally known: nor would we have it thought, that either of them have ever yet
come up to the utmost beauty of nature. Who but a bigot, even to the antiques, will say that
he has not seen faces and necks, hands and arms in living women, that even the Grecian
Venus doth but coarsely imitate?
And what sufficient reason can be given why the same may not be said of the rest of the
body?

CHAPTER XI.

Of Proportion.
If anyone should ask, what it is that constitutes a fine-proportion'd human figure? how ready
and seemingly decisive is the common answer: a just symmetry and harmony of parts with
respect to the whole. But as probably this vague answer took its rise from doctrines not
belonging to form, or idle schemes built on them, I apprehend it will cease to be thought
much to the purpose after a proper enquiry has been made.
Preparatory to which, it becomes necessary in this place, to mention one reason more which
may be added to those given in the introduction, for my having persuaded the reader to
consider objects scoop'd out like thin shells; which is, that partly by this conception, he may
be the better able to separate and keep asunder the two following general ideas, as we will
call them, belonging to form; which are apt to coincide and mix with each other in the mind,
and which it is necessary (for the sake of making each more fully and particularly clear)
should be kept apart, and consider'd singly.
First, the general ideas of what hath already been discussed in the foregoing chapters,
which only comprehends the surface of form, viewing it in no other light than merely as
being ornamental or not.
Secondly, that general idea, now to be discussed, which we commonly have of form
altogether, as arising chiefly from a fitness to some design'd purpose or use.
Hitherto our main drift hath been to establish and illustrate the first idea only, by shewing,
first the nature of variety, and then its effects on the mind; with the manner how such
impressions are made by means of the different feelings given to the eye, from its
movements in tracing and coursing[5] over surfaces of all kinds.
[5] See Chapter V, page 25.
The surface of a piece of ornament, that hath every turn in it that lines are capable of
moving into, and at the same time no way applied, nor of any manner of use, but merely to
entertain the eye, would be such an object as would answer to this first idea alone.
The figure like a leaf, at the bottom of plate I, near to fig. 67, is something of this kind; it
was taken from an ash-tree, and was a sort of Lusus naturæ, growing only like an
excressence, but so beautiful in the lines of its shell-like windings, as would have been
above the power of a Gibbons to have equalled, even in its own materials; nor could the
graver of an Edlinck, or Drevet, have done it justice on copper.

Note, the present taste of ornaments seems to have been partly taken from productions of
this sort, which are to be found about autumn among plants, particularly asparagus, when it
is running to seed.
I shall now endeavour to explain what is included in what I have called for distinction sake,
the second general idea of form, in a much fuller manner than was done in Chapter I, of
Fitness. And begin with observing, that though surfaces will unavoidably be still included, yet
we must no longer confine ourselves to the particular notice of them as surfaces only, as we
heretofore have done; we must now open our view to general, as well as particular bulk and
solidity; and also look into what may have filled up, or given rise thereto, such as certain
given quantities and dimensions of parts, for inclosing any substance, or for performing of
motion, purchase, stedfastness, and other matters of use to living beings, which, I
apprehend, at length, will bring us to a tolerable conception of the word proportion.
As to these joint-sensations of bulk and motion, do we not at first sight almost, even without
making trial, seem to feel when a leaver of any kind is too weak, or not long enough to
make such or such a purchase? or when a spring is not sufficient? and don't we find by
experience what weight, or dimension should be given, or taken away, on this or that
account? if so, as the general as well as particular bulks of form, are made up of materials
moulded together under mechanical directions, for some known purpose or other; how
naturally, from these considerations, shall we fall into a judgment of fit proportion; which is
one part of beauty to the mind tho' not always so to the eye.
Our necessities have taught us to mould matter into various shapes, and to give them fit
proportions for particular uses, as bottles, glasses, knives, dishes, &c. Hath not offence given
rise to the form of the sword, and defence to that of the shield? And what else but proper
fitness of parts hath fix'd the different dimensions of pistols, muskets, great guns, fowling-
pieces and blunderbusses; which differences as to figure, may as properly be called the
different characters of fire-arms, as the different shapes of men are called characters of
men.
We find also that the profuse variety of shapes, which present themselves from the whole
animal creation, arise chiefly from the nice fitness of their parts, designed for accomplishing
the peculiar movements of each.
And here I think will be the proper place to speak of a most curious difference between the
living machines of nature, in respect of fitness, and such poor ones, in comparison with
them, as men are only capable of making; by means of which distinction, I am in hopes of
shewing what particularly constitutes the utmost beauty of proportion in the human figure.
A clock, by the government's order, has been made, and another now making, by Mr.
Harrison, for the keeping of true time at sea; which perhaps is one of the most exquisite
movements ever made. Happy the ingenious contriver! although the form of the whole, or of
every part of this curious machine, should be ever so confused, or displeasingly shaped to
the eye; and although even its movements should be disagreeable to look at, provided it
answers the end proposed. An ornamental composition was no part of his scheme,
otherwise than as a pollish might be necessary. If ornaments are required to be added to
mend its shape, care must be taken that they are no obstruction to the movement itself, and
the more as they would be superfluous, as to the main design.—But in nature's machines,
how wonderfully do we see beauty and use go hand in hand!
Had a machine for this purpose been nature's work, the whole and every individual part
would have had exquisite beauty of form without danger of destroying the exquisiteness of
its motion, even as if ornament had been the sole aim; its movements too would have been
graceful, without one superfluous tittle added for either of these lovely purposes.—Now this
is that curious difference between the fitness of nature's machines (one of which is man)
and those made by mortal hands: which distinction is to lead us to our main point proposed;
I mean, to the shewing what constitutes the utmost beauty of proportion.
There was brought from France some years ago, a little clock-work machine, with a duck's
head and legs fixt to it, which was so contrived as to have some resemblance of that animal
standing upon one foot, and stretching back its leg, turning its head, opening and shutting
its bill, moving its wings, and shaking its tail; all of them the plainest and easiest directions
in living movements: yet for the poorly performing of these few motions, this silly, but much
extoll'd machine, being uncover'd, appeared a most complicated, confused, and disagreeable
object: nor would its being covered with a skin closely adhering to its parts, as that of a real
duck's doth, have much mended its figure; at best, a bag of hob-nails, broken hinges, and
patten-rings, would have looked as well, unless by other means it had been stuffed out to
bring it into form.
Thus again you see, the more variety we pretend to give to our trifling movements, the
more confused and unornamental the forms become; nay chance but seldom helps them.—
How much the reverse are nature's! the greater the variety her movements have, the more
beautiful are the parts that cause them.
The finny race of animals, as they have fewer motions than other creatures, so are their
forms less remarkable for beauty. It is also to be noted of every species, that the
handsomest of each move best: birds of a clumsy make seldom fly well, nor do lumpy fish
glide so well through the water as those of a neater make; and beasts of the most elegant
form, always excel in speed; of this, the horse and greyhound are beautiful examples: and
even among themselves, the most elegantly made seldom fail of being the swiftest.
The war-horse is more equally made for strength than the race-horse, which surplus of
power in the former, if suppos'd added to the latter, as it would throw more weight into
improper parts for the business of mere speed, so of course it would lessen, in some degree,
that admirable quality, and partly destroy that delicate fitness of his make; but then a quality
in movement, superior to that of speed, would be given to him by the addition, as he would
be render'd thereby more fit to move with ease in such varied, or graceful directions, as are
so delightful to the eye in the carriage of the fine manag'd war-horse; and as at the same
time, something stately and graceful would be added to his figure, which before could only
be said to have an elegant neatness. This noble creature stands foremost among brutes;
and it is but consistent with nature's propriety, that the most useful animal in the brute-
creation, should be thus signalized also for the most beauty.
Yet, properly speaking, no living creatures are capable of moving in such truly varied and
graceful directions, as the human species; and it would be needless to say how much
superior in beauty their forms and textures likewise are. And surely also after what has been
said relating to figure and motion, it is plain and evident that nature has thought fit to make
beauty of proportion, and beauty of movement, necessary to each other: so that the
observation before made on animals, will hold equally good with regard to man: i. e. that he
who is most exquisitely well-proportion'd is most capable of exquisite movements, such as
ease and grace in deportment, or in dancing.
It may be a sort of collateral confirmation of what has been said of this method of nature's
working, as well as otherwise worth our notice, that when any parts belonging to the human
body are conceal'd, and not immediately concern'd in movement, all such ornamental
shapes, as evidently appear in the muscles and bones[6], are totally neglected as
unnecessary, for nature doth nothing in vain! this is plainly the case of the intestines, none
of them having the least beauty, as to form, except the heart; which noble part, and indeed
kind of first mover, is a simple and well-varied figure; conformable to which, some of the
most elegant Roman urns and vases have been fashion'd.
[6] See Chapter IX on Compositions with the Serpentine-line.
Now, thus much being kept in remembrance, our next step will be to speak of, first, general
measurements; such as the whole height of the body to its breadth, or the length of a limb
to its thickness: and, secondly, of such appearances of dimensions as are too intricately
varied to admit of a description by lines.
The former will be confined to a very few straight lines, crossing each other, which will easily
be understood by everyone; but the latter will require somewhat more attention, because it
will extend to the precision of every modification, bound, or limit, of the human figure.
To be somewhat more explicit. As to the first part, I shall begin with shewing what
practicable sort of measuring may be used in order to produce the most proper variety in the
proportions of the parts of any body. I say, practicable, because the vast variety of intricately
situated parts, belonging to the human form, will not admit of measuring the distances of
one part by another, by lines or points, beyond a certain degree or number, without great
perplexity in the operation itself, or confusion to the imagination. For instance, say, a line
representing one breadth and an half of the wrist, would be equal to the true breadth of the
thickest part of the arm above the elbow; may it not then be ask'd, what part of the wrist is
meant? for if you place a pair of calipers a little nearer or further from the hand, the
distance of the points will differ, and so they will if they are moved close to the wrist all
round, because it is flatter one way than the other; but suppose, for argument sake, one
certain diameter should be fix'd upon; may it not again be ask'd, how is it to be apply'd, if to
the flattest side of the arm or the roundest, and how far from the elbow, and must it be
when the arm is extended or when it is bent? for this also will make a sensible difference,
because in the latter position, the muscle, call'd the biceps, in the front of that part of the
arm, swells up like a ball one way, and narrows itself another; nay all the muscles shift their
appearances in different movements, so that whatever may have been pretended by some
authors, no exact mathematical measurements by lines, can be given for the true proportion
of a human body.

It comes then to this, that no longer than whilst we suppose all the lengths and breadths of
the body, or limbs, to be as regular figures as cylinders, or as the leg, figure 68 in plate I,
which is as round as a rolling-stone, are the measures of lengths to breadths practicable, or
of any use to the knowledge of proportion: so that as all mathematical schemes are foreign
to this purpose, we will endeavour to root them quite out of our way: therefore I must not
omit taking notice, that Albert Durer, Lomazzo, (see two tasteless figures taken from their
books of proportion [Fig. 55 p. I]) and some others, have not only puzzled mankind with a
heap of minute unnecessary divisions, but also with a strange notion that those divisions are
govern'd by the laws of music; which mistake they seem to have been led into, by having
seen certain uniform and consonant divisions upon one string produce harmony to the ear,
and by persuading themselves, that similar distances in lines belonging to form, would, in
like manner, delight the eye. The very reverse of which has been shewn to be true, in
Chapter III, on Uniformity. "The length of the foot," say they, "in respect to the breadth,
makes a double suprabipartient, a diapason, and a diatesseron[7]:" which, in my opinion,
would have been full as applicable to the ear, or to a plant, or to a tree, or any other form
whatsoever; yet these sort of notions have so far prevail'd by time, that the words, harmony
of parts, seem as applicable to form, as to music.
[7] Note, these authors assure you, that this curious method of measuring, will produce beauty far beyond any
nature doth afford. Lomazzo, recommends also another scheme, with a triangle, to correct the poverty of
nature, as they express themselves. These nature-menders put one in mind of Gulliver's tailor at Laputa, who,
having taken measure of him for a suit of clothes, with a rule, quadrant, and compasses, after a considerable
time spent, brought them home ill-made.
Notwithstanding the absurdity of the above schemes, such measures as are to be taken from
antique statues, may be of some service to painters and sculptors, especially to young
beginners, but nothing nigh of such use to them, as the measures, taken the same way,
from ancient buildings, have been, and are, to architects and builders; because the latter
have to do with little else but plain geometrical figures: which measures, however, serve only
in copying what has been done before.
The few measures I shall speak of, for the setting out the general dimensions of a figure,
shall be taken by straight lines only, for the more easy conception of what may indeed be
properly call'd, gaging the contents of the body, supposing it solid like a marble statue, as
the wires were described to do [Fig. 2 p. I] in the introduction: by which plain method, clear
ideas may be acquir'd of what alone seem to me to require measuring, of what certain
lengths to what breadths make the most eligible proportions in general.

The most general dimensions of a body, or limbs, are lengths, breadths, or thicknesses: now
the whole gentility of a figure, according to its character, depends upon the first
proportioning these lines or wires (which are its measures) properly one to another; and the
more varied these lines are, with respect to each other, the more may the future divisions be
varied likewise, that are to be made on them; and of course the less varied these lines are,
the parts influenced by them, as they must conform themselves to them, must have less
variety too. For example, the exact cross [Fig. 69 R p. II] of two equal lines, cutting each
other in the middle, would confine the figure of a man, drawn conformable to them, to the
disagreeable character of his being as broad as he is long. And the two lines crossing each
other, to make the height and breadth of a figure, will want variety a contrary way, by one
line being very short in proportion to the other, and therefore, also incapable of producing a
figure of tolerable variety. To prove this, it will be very easy for the reader to make the
experiment, by drawing a figure or two (tho' ever so imperfectly) confin'd within such limits.

There is a medium between these, proper for every character, which the eye will easily and
accurately determine.
Thus, if the lines, fig. [70 R p. II], were to be the measure of the extreme length and
breadth, set out either for the figure of a man or a vase, the eye soon sees the longest of
these is not quite sufficiently so, in proportion to the other, for a genteel man; and yet it
would make a vase too taper to be elegant; no rule or compasses would decide this matter
either so quickly or so precisely as a good eye. It may be observed, that minute differences
in great lengths, are of little or no consequence as to proportion, because they are not to be
discerned; for a man is half an inch shorter when he goes to bed at night, than when he
rises in the morning, without the possibility of its being perceived. In case of a wager the
application of a rule or compasses may be necessary, but seldom on any other occasion.
Thus much I apprehend is sufficient for the consideration of general lengths to breadths.
Where, by the way, I apprehend I have plainly shewn, that there is no practicable rule, by
lines, for minutely setting out proportions for the human body, and if there were, the eye
alone must determine us in our choice of what is most pleasing to itself.
Thus having dispatch'd general dimension, which we may say is almost as much of
proportion, as is to be seen when we have our cloaths on: I shall in the second, and more
extensive method proposed for considering it, set out in the familiar path of common
observation, and appeal as I go on to our usual feeling, or joint-sensation, of figure and
motion.
Perhaps by mentioning two or three known instances it will be found that almost every one
is farther advanced in the knowledge of this speculative part of proportion than he imagines;
especially he who hath been used to observe naked figures doing bodily exercise, and more
especially if he be any way interested in the success of them; and the better he is
acquainted with the nature of the exercise itself, still the better judge he becomes of the
figure that is to perform it. For this reason, no sooner are two boxers stript to fight, but even
a butcher, thus skill'd, shews himself a considerable critic in proportion; and on this sort of
judgment, often gives, or takes the odds, at bare sight only of the combatants. I have heard
a blacksmith harangue like an anatomist, or sculptor, on the beauty of a boxer's figure, tho'
not perhaps in the same terms; and I firmly believe, that one of our common proficients in
the athletic art, would be able to instruct and direct the best sculptor living, (who hath not
seen, or is wholly ignorant of this exercise) in what would give the statue of an English-
boxer, a much better proportion, as to character, than is to be seen, even in the famous
group of antique boxers, (or as some call them, Roman wrestlers) so much admired to this
day.
Indeed, as many parts of the body are so constantly kept cover'd, the proportion of the
whole cannot be equally known; but as stockings are so close and thin a covering, every one
judges of the different shapes and proportions of legs with great accuracy. The ladies always
speak skilfully of necks, hands, and arms; and often will point out such particular beauties or
defects in their make, as might easily escape the observation of a man of science.
Surely, such determinations could not be made and pronounced with such critical truth, if
the eye were not capable of measuring or judging of thicknesses by lengths, with great
preciseness. Nay more, in order to determine so nicely as they often do, it must also at the
same time, trace with some skill those delicate windings upon the surface which have been
described in page 64 and 65, which altogether may be observ'd to include the two general
ideas mention'd at the beginning of this chapter.
If so, certainly it is in the power of a man of science, with as observing an eye, to go still
further, and conceive, with a very little turn of thought, many other necessary circumstances
concerning proportion, as of what size and in what manner the bones help to make up the
bulk, and support the other parts; as well as what certain weights or dimensions of muscles
are proper (according to the principle of the steelyard) to move such or such a length of arm
with this or that degree of swiftness or force.
But though much of this matter, may be easily understood by common observation, assisted
by science, still I fear it will be difficult to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes, or
composes the utmost beauty of proportion; such as is seen in the Antinous; which is allowed
to be the most perfect in this respect, of any of the antique statues; and tho' the lovely
likewise seems to have been as much the sculptor's aim, as in the Venus; yet a manly
strength in its proportion is equally express'd from head to foot in it.

Let us try, however, and as this master-piece of art is so well known, we will set it up before
us as a pattern, and endeavour to fabricate, or put together in the mind, such kind of parts
as shall seem to build another figure like it. In doing which, we shall soon find that it is
chiefly to be effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain
quantities or dimensions of parts, are fittest to produce the utmost strength for moving, or
supporting great weights; and of what are most fit for the utmost light agility, as also for
every degree, between these two extremes.
He who hath best perfected his ideas of these matters by common observations, and by the
assistance of arts relative thereto, will probably be most precisely just and clear, in
conceiving the application of the various parts and dimensions, that will occur to him, in the
following descriptive manner of disposing of them, in order to form the idea of a fine-
proportion'd figure.
Having set up the Antinous as our pattern, we will suppose there were placed on one side of
it, the unwieldy elephant-like figure of an Atlas, made up of such thick bones and muscles,
as would best fit him for supporting a vast weight, according to his character of extreme
heavy strength. And, on the other side, imagine the slim figure of a Mercury, every where
neatly formed for the utmost light agility, with slender bones and taper muscles fit for his
nimble bounding from the ground.—Both these figures must be supposed of equal height,
and not exceeding six foot[8].
[8] If the scale of either of these proportions were to exceed six foot in the life, the quality of strength in one,
and agility in the other, would gradually decrease, the larger the person grew. There are sufficient proofs of
this, both from mechanical reasonings and common observation.
Our extremes thus placed, now imagine the Atlas throwing off by degrees, certain portions
of bone and muscle, proper for the attainment of light agility, as if aiming at the Mercury's
airy form and quality, whilst on the other hand, see the Mercury augmenting his taper figure
by equal degrees, and growing towards an Atlas in equal time, by receiving to the like places
from whence they came, the very quantities that the other had been casting off, when, as
they approach each other in weight, their forms of course may be imagined to grow more
and more alike, till at a certain point of time, they meet in just similitude; which being an
exact medium between the two extremes, we may thence conclude it to be the precise form
of exact proportion, fittest for perfect active strength or graceful movement; such as the
Antinous we proposed to imitate and figure in the mind[9].
[9] The jocky who knows to an ounce what flesh or bone in a horse is fittest for speed or strength, will as
easily conceive the like process between the strongest dray-horse and the fleetest racer, and soon conclude,
that the fine war-horse must be the medium between the two extremes.
I am apprehensive that this part of my scheme, for explaining exact proportion, may not be
thought so sufficiently determinate as could be wished: be this as it will, I must submit it to
the reader, as my best resource in so difficult a case: and shall therefore beg leave to try to
illustrate it a little more, by observing, that, in like manner, any two opposite colours in the
rainbow, form a third between them, by thus imparting to each other their peculiar qualities;
as for example, the brightest yellow, and the lively blue that is placed at some distance from
it, visibly approach, and blend by interchangable degrees, and, as above, temper rather than
destroy each other's vigour, till they meet in one firm compound; whence, at a certain point,
the sight of what they were originally, is quite lost; but in their stead, a most pleasing green
is found, which colour nature hath chose for the vestment of the earth, and with the beauty
of which the eye is never tired.
From the order of the ideas which the description of the above three figures may have
raised in the mind, we may easily compose between them, various other proportions. And as
the painter, by means of a certain order in the arrangement of the colours upon his pallet,
readily mixes up what kind of tint he pleases, so may we mix up and compound in the
imagination such fit parts as will be consistent with this or that particular character, or at
least be able thereby to discover how such characters are composed, when we see them
either in art or nature.
But perhaps even the word character, as it relates to form, may not be quite understood by
every one, tho' it is so frequently used: nor do I remember to have seen it explained any
where. Therefore on this account—and also as it will further shew the use of thinking of
form and motion together, it will not be improper to observe,—that notwithstanding a
character, in this sense, chiefly depends on a figure being remarkable as to its form, either in
some particular part, or altogether; yet surely no figure, be it ever so singular, can be
perfectly conceived as a character, till we find it connected with some remarkable
circumstance or cause, for such particularity of appearance; for instance, a fat bloted person
doth not call to mind the character of a Silenus, till we have joined the idea of
voluptuousness with it; so likewise strength to support, and clumsiness of figure, are united,
as well in the character of an Atlas as in a porter.
When we consider the great weight chairmen often have to carry, do we not readily consent
that there is a propriety and fitness in the tuscan order of their legs, by which they properly
become characters as to figure?
Watermen too, are of a distinct cast, or character, whose legs are no less remarkable for
their smallness: for as there is naturally the greatest call for nutriment to the parts that are
most exercised, so of course these that lye so much stretched out, are apt to dwindle, or not
grow to their full size. There is scarcely a waterman that rows upon the Thames, whose
figure doth not confirm this observation. Therefore were I to paint the character of a
Charon, I would thus distinguish his make from that of a common man's; and, in spite of the
word low, venture to give him a broad pair of shoulders, and spindle shanks, whether I had
the authority of an antique statue, or basso-relievo, for it or not.
May be, I cannot throw a stronger light on what has been hitherto said of proportion, than
by animadverting on a remarkable beauty in the Apollo-belvedere; which hath given it the
preference even to the Antinous: I mean a super-addition of greatness, to at least as much
beauty and grace, as is found in the latter.
These two master-pieces of art, are seen together in the same palace at Rome, where the
Antinous fills the spectator with admiration only, whilst the Apollo strikes him with surprise,
and, as travellers express themselves, with an appearance of something more than human;
which they of course are always at a loss to describe: and this effect, they say, is the more
astonishing, as upon examination its disproportion is evident even to a common eye. One of
the best sculptors we have in England, who lately went to see them, confirm'd to me what
has been now said, particularly as to the legs and thighs being too long, and too large for
the upper parts. And Andrea Sacchi, one of the great Italian painters, seems to have been of
the same opinion, or he would hardly have given his Apollo, crowning Pasquilini the
musician, the exact proportion of the Antinous, (in a famous picture of his now in England)
as otherwise it seems to be a direct copy from the Apollo.
Although in very great works we often see an inferior part neglected, yet here it cannot be
the case, because in a fine statue, just proportion is one of its essential beauties: therefore it
stands to reason, that these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose, otherwise it
might easily have been avoided.
So that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly, we may reasonably conclude,
that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably excellent in its general appearance,
hath been owing to what hath seem'd a blemish in a part of it: but let us endeavour to make
this matter as clear as possible, as it may add more force to what has been said.
Statues by being bigger than life, (as this is one, and larger than the Antinous) always gain
some nobleness in effect, according to the principle of quantity[10] but this alone is not
sufficient to give what is properly to be called, greatness in proportion; for were figures 17
and 18, in plate I, to be drawn or carved by a scale of ten feet high, they would still be but
pigmy proportions, as, on the other hand, a figure of but two inches, may represent a
gigantic height.

[10] See Chapter VI.

Therefore greatness of proportion must be considered, as depending on the application of
quantity to those parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement,
as to the neck for the larger and swan-like turns of the head, and to the legs and thighs, for
the more ample sway of all the upper parts together.
By which we find that the Antinous's being equally magnified to the Apollo's height, would
not sufficiently produce that superiority of effect, as to greatness, so evidently seen in the
latter. The additions necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion, as it there
appears added to grace, must then be, by the proper application of them, to the parts
mention'd only.
I know not how further to prove this matter than by appealing to the reader's eye, and
common observation, as before.
The Antinous being allowed to have the justest proportion possible, let us see what addition,
upon the principle of quantity, can be made to it, without taking away any of its beauty.
If we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head, we shall immediately conceive it would
only deform—if to the hands or feet, we are sensible of something gross and ungenteel,—if
to the whole lengths of the arms, we feel they would be dangling and aukward—if by an
addition of length or breadth to the body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy—
there remains then only the neck, with the legs and thighs to speak of; but, to these we
find, that not only certain additions may be admitted without causing any disagreeable
effect, but that thereby greatness, the last perfection as to proportion, is given to the human
form; as is evidently express'd in the Apollo: and may still be further confirmed by examining
the drawings of Parmigiano, where these particulars are seen in excess; yet on this account
his works are said, by all true connoisseurs, to have an inexpressible greatness of taste in
them, though otherwise very incorrect.
Let us now return to the two general ideas we set out with at the beginning of this chapter,
and recollect that under the first, on surface, I have shewn in what manner, and how far
human proportion is measureable, by varying the contents of the body, conformable to the
given proportion of two lines. And that under the second and more extensive general idea of
form, as arising from fitness for movement, &c. I have endeavour'd to explain, by every
means I could devise, that every particular and minute dimension of the body, should
conform to such purposes of movement, &c. as have been first properly considered and
determined: on which conjunctively, the true proportion of every character must depend;
and is found so to do, by our joint-sensation of bulk and motion. Which account of the
proportion of the human body, however imperfect, may possibly stand its ground, till one
more plausible shall be given.
As the Apollo [Fig. 12 p. I] has been only mention'd on account of the greatness of its
proportion, I think in justice to so fine a performance; and also as it is not foreign to the
point we have been upon, we may subjoin an Observation or two on its perfections.

Besides, what is commonly allow'd, if we consider it by the rules here given for constituting
or composing character, it will discover the author's great sagacity, in choosing a proportion
for this deity, which has served two noble purposes at once; in that these very dimensions
which appear to have given it so much dignity, are the same that are best fitted to produce
the utmost speed. And what could characterise the god of day, either so strongly or
elegantly, to be expressive in a statue, as superior swiftness, and beauty dignify'd? and how
poetically doth the action it is put into, carry on the allusion to speed,[11] as he is lightly
stepping forward, and seeming to shoot his arrows from him; if the arrows may be allowed
to signify the sun's rays? This at least may as well be supposed as the common surmise,
that he is killing the dragon, Python; which certainly is very inconsistent with so erect an
attitude, and benign an aspect[12].
[11]——the sun: which cometh forth as a bridegroom out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a giant to run his
course. Psalm xix. 5.
[12] The accounts given, in relation to this statue, make it so highly probable that it was the great Apollo of
Delphos, that, for my own part, I make no manner of doubt of its being so.
Nor are the inferior parts neglected: the drapery also that depends from his shoulders, and
folds over his extended arm, hath its treble office. As first, it assists in keeping the general
appearance within the boundary of a pyramid, which being inverted, is, for a single figure,
rather more natural and genteel than one upon its basis. Secondly, it fills up the vacant
angle under the arm, and takes off the straightness of the lines the arm necessarily makes
with the body in such an action; and, lastly, spreading as it doth, in pleasing folds, it helps to
satisfy the eye with a noble quantity in the composition altogether, without depriving the
beholder of any part of the beauties of the naked: in short, this figure might serve, were a
lecture to be read over it, to exemplify every principle that hath been hitherto advanced. We
shall therefore close not only all we have to say on proportion with it, but our whole lineal
account of form, except what we have particularly to offer as to the face; which it will be
proper to defer, till we have spoken of light and shade and colour.
As some of the ancient statues have been of such singular use to me, I shall beg leave to
conclude this chapter with an observation or two on them in general.
It is allowed by the most skilful in the imitative arts, that tho' there are many of the remains
of antiquity, that have great excellencies about them; yet there are not, moderately
speaking, above twenty that may be justly called capital. There is one reason, nevertheless,
besides the blind veneration that generally is paid to antiquity, for holding even many very
imperfect pieces in some degree of estimation: I mean that peculiar taste of elegance which
so visibly runs through them all, down to the most incorrect of their basso-relievos: which
taste, I am persuaded, my reader will now conceive to have been entirely owing to the
perfect knowledge the ancients must have had of the use of the precise serpentine-line.
But this cause of elegance not having been since sufficiently understood, no wonder such
effects should have appear'd mysterious, and have drawn mankind into a sort of religious
esteem, and even bigotry, to the works of antiquity.
Nor have there been wanting of artful people, who have made good profit of those whose
unbounded admiration hath run them into enthusiasm. Nay there are, I believe, some who
still carry on a comfortable trade in such originals as have been so defaced and maimed by
time, that it would be impossible, without a pair of double-ground connoisseur-spectacles, to
see whether they have ever been good or bad: they deal also in cook'd-up copies, which
they are very apt to put off for originals. And whoever dares be bold enough to detect such
impositions, finds himself immediately branded, and given out as one of low ideas, ignorant
of the true sublime, self-conceited, envious, &c.
But as there are a great part of mankind that delight most in what they least understand; for
ought I know, the emolument may be equal between the bubler and the bubled: at least this
seems to have been Butler's opinion:
Doubtless the pleasure is as great
In being cheated, as to cheat.

CHAPTER XII.
 Of Light and Shade, and the manner in which objects are
explained to the eye by them.
Although both this and the next chapter may seem more particularly relative to the art of
painting, than any of the foregoing; yet, as hitherto, I have endeavour'd to be understood by
every reader, so here also I shall avoid, as much as the subject will permit, speaking of what
would only be well-conceived by painters.
There is such a subtile variety in the nature of appearances, that probably we shall not be
able to gain much ground by this enquiry, unless we exert and apply the full use of every
sense, that will convey to us any information concerning them.
So far as we have already gone, the sense of feeling, as well as that of seeing, hath been
apply'd to; so that perhaps a man born blind, may, by his better touch than is common to
those who have their sight, together with the regular process that has been here given of
lines, so feel out the nature of forms, as to make a tolerable judgment of what is beautiful to
sight.
Here again our other senses must assist us, notwithstanding in this chapter we shall be
more confined to what is communicated to the eye by rays of light; and tho' things must
now be consider'd as appearances only; produced and made out merely by means of lights,
shades, and colours.
By the various circumstances of which, every one knows we have represented on the flat
surface of the looking-glass, pictures equal to the originals reflected by it. The painter too,
by proper dispositions of lights, shades, and colours, on his canvas, will raise the like ideas.
Even prints, by means of lights and shades alone, will perfectly inform the eye of every
shape and distance whatsoever, in which even lines must be consider'd as narrow parts of
shade, a number of them, drawn or engrav'd neatly side by side, called hatching, serve as
shades in prints, and when they are artfully managed, are a kind of pleasing succedaneum
to the delicacy of nature's.
Could mezzo-tinto prints be wrought as accurately as those with the graver, they would
come nearest to nature, because they are done without strokes or lines.
I have often thought that a landskip, in the process of this way of representing it, doth a
little resemble the first coming on of day. The copper-plate it is done upon, when the artist
first takes it into hand, is wrought all over with an edg'd-tool, so as to make it print one
even black, like night: and his whole work after this, is merely introducing the lights into it;
which he does by scraping off the rough grain according to his design, artfully smoothing it
most where light is most required: but as he proceeds in burnishing the lights, and clearing
up the shades, he is obliged to take off frequent impressions to prove the progress of the
work, so that each proof appears like the different times of a foggy morning, till one
becomes so finish'd as to be distinct and clear enough to imitate a day-light piece. I have
given this description because I think the whole operation, in the simplest manner, shews
what lights and shades alone will do.
As light must always be supposed, I need only speak of such privations of it as are called
shades or shadows, wherein I shall endeavour to point out and regularly describe a certain
order and arrangement in their appearance, in which order we may conceive different kinds
of softnings and modulations of the rays of light which are said to fall upon the eye from
every object it sees, and to cause those more or less-pleasing vibrations of the optic nerves,
which serve to inform the mind concerning every different shape or figure that presents
itself.
The best light for seeing the shadows of objects truly, is, that which comes in at a common
sized window, where the sun doth not shine; I shall therefore speak of their order as seen
by this kind of light: and shall take the liberty in the present and following chapter, to
consider colours but as variegated shades, which together with common shades, will now be
divided into two general parts or branches.
The first we shall call prime tints, by which is meant any colour or colours on the surfaces of
objects; and the use we shall make of these different hues will be to consider them as
shades to one another. Thus gold is a shade to silver, &c. exclusive of those additional
shades which may be made in any degree by the privation of light.
The second branch may be called retiring shades, which gradate or go off by degrees, as figs.
[84 and 85 T p. II]. These shades, as they vary more or less, produce beauty, whether they
are occasioned by the privation of light, or made by the pencilings of art or nature.

When I come to treat of colouring, I shall particularly shew in what manner the gradating of
prime tints serve to the making a beautiful complexion; in this place we shall only observe
how nature hath by these gradating shades ornamented the surfaces of animals; fish
generally have this kind of shade from their backs downward; birds have their feathers
enriched with it; and many flowers, particularly the rose, shew it by the gradually-increasing
colours of their leaves.
The sky always gradates one way or other, and the rising or setting sun exhibits it in great
perfection, the imitating of which was Claud. de Loraine's peculiar excellence, and is now Mr.
Lambert's: there is so much of what is called harmony to the eye to be produced by this
shade, that I believe we may venture to say, in art it is the painter's gamut, which nature
has sweetly pointed out to us in what we call the eyes of a peacock's tail: and the nicest
needle-workers are taught to weave it into every flower and leaf, right or wrong, as if it was
as constantly to be observed as it is seen in flames of fire; because it is always found to
entertain the eye. There is a sort of needle-work called Irish-stitch, done in these shades
only; which pleases still, tho' it has long been out of fashion.
There is so strict an analogy between shade and sound, that they may well serve to
illustrate each other's qualities: for as sounds gradually decreasing and increasing give the
idea of progression from, or to the ear, just so do retiring shades shew progression, by
figuring it to the eye. Thus, as by objects growing still fainter, we judge of distances in
prospects, so by the decreasing noise of thunder, we form the idea of its moving further
from us. And with regard to their similitude in beauty, like as the gradating shade pleases
the eye, so the increasing, or swelling note, delights the ear.
I have call'd it the retiring shade, because by the successive, or continual change in its
appearance, it is equally instrumental with converging lines[13], in shewing how much
objects, or any parts of them, retire or recede from the eye; without which, a floor, or
horizontal-plane, would often seem to stand upright like a wall. And notwithstanding all the
other ways by which we learn to know at what distances things are from us, frequent
deceptions happen to the eye on account of deficiencies in this shade: for if the light
chances to be so disposed on objects as not to give this shade its true gradating
appearance, not only spaces are confounded, but round things appear flat, and flat ones
round.
[13] See p. 17. The two converging lines from the ship, to the point C, under fig. 47, plate I.

But although the retiring shade hath this property, when seen with converging lines, yet if it
describes no particular form, as none of those do in fig. 94, on top of plate II, it can only
appear as a flat-pencil'd shade; but being inclosed within some known boundary or out-line,
such as may signify a wall, a road, a globe, or any other form in perspective where the parts
retire, it will then shew its retiring quality: as for example, the retiring shade on the floor, in
plate II, which gradates from the dog's feet to those of the dancer's, shews, that by this
means a level appearance is given to the ground: so when a cube is put into true
perspective on paper, with lines only, which do but barely hint the directions every face of it
is meant to take, these shades make them seem to retire just as the perspective lines direct;
thus mutually compleating the idea of those recessions which neither of them alone could
do.
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