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CRYPTOLOGY
Classical and Modern
———SECOND EDITION–———
Chapman & Hall/CRC Cryptography
and Network Security Series
Series Editors: Douglas R. Stinson and Jonathan Katz
Algorithmic Cryptanalysis
Antoine Joux
Cryptanalysis of RSA and Its Variants
M. Jason Hinek
Access Control, Security, and Trust: A Logical Approach
Shiu-Kai Chin and Susan Beth Older
Handbook of Financial Cryptography and Security
Burton Rosenberg
Handbook on Soft Computing for Video Surveillance
Sankar K. Pal, Alfredo Petrosino and Lucia Maddalena
Communication System Security
Lidong Chen and Guang Gong
Introduction to Modern Cryptography, Second Edition
Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell
Group Theoretic Cryptography
Maria Isabel Gonzalez Vasco and Rainer Steinwandt
Guide to Pairing-Based Cryptography
Nadia El Mrabet and Marc Joye
Cryptology: Classical and Modern, Second Edition
Richard Klima and Neil Sigmon
Richard Klima
Neil Sigmon
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Preface xi
1 Introduction to Cryptology 1
1.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cryptology in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Why Study Cryptology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Substitution Ciphers 7
2.1 Keyword Substitution Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Simple Keyword Substitution Ciphers . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.2 Keyword Columnar Substitution Ciphers . . . . . . 9
2.1.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Cryptanalysis of Substitution Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Playfair Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 The Navajo Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Transposition Ciphers 29
3.1 Columnar Transposition Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Simple Columnar Transposition Ciphers . . . . . . . 30
3.1.2 Keyword Columnar Transposition Ciphers . . . . . . 32
3.1.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Cryptanalysis of Transposition Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Cryptanalysis of Simple Columnar Ciphers . . . . . 36
3.2.2 Cryptanalysis of Keyword Columnar Ciphers . . . . 38
3.2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 ADFGX and ADFGVX Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
v
vi CONTENTS
Bibliography 435
Index 469
Preface
Several years ago we were invited to create a new general education math-
ematics course for the Honors Academy at Radford University. Wanting to
create a multidisciplinary course that would demonstrate some interesting
mathematical applications and also be accessible and intriguing to students
with a wide variety of interests and backgrounds, we decided on a course in
cryptology. Designed for students whose prior experience with mathemat-
ics includes only a basic understanding of algebra, statistics, and number
theory at the secondary level, the course has been one of the most popular
offerings at the Honors Academy.
When deciding on material for the course, since we expected most of the
students to come from nontechnical fields, our goal was to choose topics that
would be easy to understand, show the importance of cryptology in both
cultural and historical contexts, and demonstrate some stimulating but
relatively simple mathematical applications. A lesser goal was for students
to be motivated to study the subject further and perhaps even consider
careers in mathematics or the sciences.
The first edition of this book grew from our experiences teaching this
course to students from nontechnical fields at Radford University and Ap-
palachian State University. The first edition contained material that fully
served this audience, however when we tried offering the course to students
from more technical fields, we found it necessary to supplement the ma-
terial in the first edition. The second edition of this book is an expanded
version of the first edition that, while keeping all of the material that fully
served students from nontechnical fields, supplements this material with
new content that we believe now allows the book to fully serve students
from more technical fields as well. Thus the second edition of this book,
while retaining the first edition’s ability to reach students at earlier ages,
including pre-college, now has the added feature of being able to fully serve
students from both technical and nontechnical fields throughout all levels
of a collegiate curriculum.
Chapter 1 introduces cryptology, and includes basic terminology as well
as some motivation for why the subject is worth studying. Chapters 2–3
xi
xii PREFACE
Introduction to
Cryptology
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CRYPTOLOGY
would be for an adversary to break the cipher, depends only on how difficult
it would be for an adversary to find the key for the cipher. The benefit to
this is that by correspondents choosing a cipher with an acceptable level
of security, they would not have to worry about keeping the type of cipher
secret from adversaries.
The various types of ciphers that have been and are used in practice split
into two broad categories—symmetric-key and public-key. Symmetric-key
ciphers, the only kind that existed before the 1970s, are also sometimes
called private-key ciphers. When using a symmetric-key cipher, the orig-
inator and intended recipient of a message must keep the key secret from
adversaries. In Chapters 2–8 of this book, we will see a variety of different
types of symmetric-key ciphers that have been used throughout history.
These types of ciphers are more commonly called classical ciphers, since
they are not typically useful in communicating sensitive information in
modern society. They are still fascinating and fun to study, though. In
Chapters 2, 3, and 7, we will see some types of ciphers for which the keys
are formed using English words called keywords. For Enigma machine ci-
phers, which we will study in Chapter 4, the keys are the initial settings
of the machine. In Chapters 6 and 8, we will see some types of ciphers for
which the keys are mathematical quantities such as numbers or matrices.
A deficiency in symmetric-key ciphers is that correspondents must have a
way to identify keys in secret, while the very need for a cipher indicates
that they have no secret way to communicate.
The invention of public-key ciphers in the 1970s revolutionized the sci-
ence of cryptology. Public-key ciphers use a pair of keys, one for encryp-
tion and one for decryption. When using a public-key cipher, the intended
recipient of a message creates both the encryption and decryption keys,
publicizes the encryption key so that anyone can know it, but keeps the
decryption key secret. That way, the originator of the message can know
the encryption key, which he or she needs to encrypt the plaintext, but only
the recipient knows the decryption key. It would seem to be a deficiency
in public-key ciphers that adversaries can know encryption keys. However,
as we will see when we study the two most common types of public-key
ciphers in Chapters 9 and 10, although encryption and decryption keys are
obviously related, it usually is not realistically possible to find decryption
keys from the knowledge of encryption keys.
The development of public-key ciphers did not lead to the demise of
symmetric-key ciphers, though. A major reason for this is the fact that
public-key ciphers typically operate much more slowly than symmetric-key
ciphers. Thus, for correspondents wishing to use a cipher in communicating
a large amount of information, it is often most prudent to use a public-key
cipher to exchange the key for a symmetric-key cipher, and then use the
symmetric-key cipher to actually communicate the information. In Chapter
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CRYPTOLOGY
11, we will see some types of symmetric-key ciphers that are useful in
communicating sensitive information in modern society.
Many fascinating historical accounts of cryptology involve successful
cryptanalysis. In Chapter 5, we will study in detail one celebrated such ac-
count, the attack on the German Enigma machine by Allied cryptanalysts
at Bletchley Park near London, England, during World War II. The goal in
cryptanalysis is often to determine the key for a cipher. The most obvious
method for accomplishing this, known as a brute force attack, involves test-
ing every possible key until finding one that works. Some types of ciphers
have a relatively small number of possible keys, and thus can be attacked
by brute force. However, brute force is not a legitimate method of attack
against most ciphers, even in our technologically advanced society. For
example, for the Advanced Encryption Standard, a type of symmetric-key
cipher that we will study in Chapter 11, the minimum number of possible
keys is 3.4 × 1038 , which would take trillions of years to test even using the
most advanced current technology.
The security of a cipher is not always tied directly to the number of
possible keys, though. For example, although the number of possible keys
for a substitution cipher is more than 4 × 1026 , we will see in Chapter 2
that substitution ciphers can sometimes be broken relatively easily through
a technique called frequency analysis. Also, as we will see in Chapters 3
and 8, there are other types of ciphers against which both a brute force
attack and frequency analysis may be pointless, but which can sometimes
still be broken relatively easily by adversaries who know a small part of the
plaintext, called a crib. In addition, any cipher, no matter how theoretically
secure, is always susceptible to being broken due to human error on the part
of the users of the cipher. For example, the types of public-key ciphers that
we will study in Chapters 9 and 10 are essentially unbreakable, but only
provided certain initial parameters are chosen correctly.
The final cryptologic issues we will consider in this book relate to mes-
sage authentication, specifically verifying that a ciphertext received elec-
tronically was really sent by the person claiming to have sent it, and that
keys identified electronically really belong to the person claiming to own
them. Especially in our digital age, confirming that one is communicating
with whom he or she believes to be communicating can be as important as
what is actually communicated. We will address these issues in Chapter
12, through the ideas of digital signatures and public-key infrastructures.
to study? For that matter, why is the subject of cryptology even important
in our society?
One answer to these questions is that due to the ever-increasing depen-
dence of our society upon technology in the communication of information,
for instance through ATM transactions and credit card purchases, effective
cryptography is essential for commerce that is both private and reliable. Ef-
fective cryptography is also essential for personal privacy by individuals who
use cell phones or email, or who even just have personal information such as
Social Security or driver license numbers stored in government databases.
In fact, the dependence of our government and military upon cryptology
to ensure secure and authentic communication is so profound that it led
to the formation of an entire federal agency, the National Security Agency,
whose primary purpose is to create and analyze cryptologic methods, and
whose published vision includes “global cryptologic dominance.” In the
near future, our society will also likely see an increased dependence upon
devices such as smart cards, which are pocket-size cards with integrated
computer circuits embedded with cryptographic methods, for identification
and financial transactions.
Cryptology is also a multidisciplinary science. As we have noted, the
subject is rich with fascinating historical accounts, several of which we will
comment on in this book. As we will see in the earlier chapters of this book,
The National Security Agency (NSA) is the primary agency for cryptology in the U.S.
It is responsible for collecting and analyzing communications between foreign
entities, and developing methods for protecting communications originating from
U.S. entities. Created in 1952 by President Harry Truman, the NSA specializes in
foreign signals intelligence (SIGINT). SIGINT is information from electronic signals
and targets, and can be derived from sources such as communications systems,
electronic signals, and weapons systems. Research is also a vital component of the
operations of the NSA. Its research goals include dominating global computing and
communications networks, coping with information overload, providing methods for
secure collaboration within the U.S. government and its partners, and penetrating
targets that threaten the U.S.
To achieve its goals, the NSA employs a very large number of mathematicians.
Computer scientists, engineers, and linguists are also in high demand at the NSA.
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CRYPTOLOGY
Substitution Ciphers
One common and popular type of cipher for newspaper games and puzzle
books is a substitution cipher. In simple substitution ciphers, users agree
upon a rearrangement, or permutation, of the alphabet letters, yielding
a collection of correspondences to be used for converting plaintext letters
into ciphertext letters. This rearrangement of the alphabet letters is often
called the cipher alphabet. To say that the cipher alphabet is a permutation
means that each possible plaintext letter in the original alphabet is paired
with one and only one possible ciphertext letter, and vice versa. With
more sophisticated substitution ciphers, messages and cipher alphabets can
include numbers, punctuation marks, or mixtures of multiple characters,
and substitutions can be made for entire words or phrases.
As we will see in this chapter, simple substitution ciphers are not very
secure (meaning they are easy to break). Despite this, substitution ciphers
have a rich history of being used. One of the earliest known ciphers, the
Hebrew Atbash, was a substitution cipher, as was a cipher developed and
used by Julius Caesar that we will consider in Chapter 6, and a cipher
incorporated in Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Gold Bug.” Not all
substitution ciphers are easy to break, though. The cipher famously created
during World War II by the Navajo code talkers, which we will consider in
this chapter, and which was not known to have ever been broken during
a period of use that extended through the Korean War and into the early
stages of the Vietnam War, was essentially a substitution cipher.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS
Example 2.1 Consider a substitution cipher with the following cipher al-
phabet.
Plain: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Cipher: T V X Z U W Y A D G K N Q B E H R O S C F J M P I L
Using this cipher alphabet, the plaintext YOUTH IS WASTED ON THE YOUNG1
encrypts to the ciphertext IEFCA DS MTSCUZ EB CAU IEFBY. This ciphertext
can be decrypted by using the same cipher alphabet but with the corre-
spondences viewed in the reverse order.
A B E L I N C O
D F G H J K M P
Q R S T U V W X
Y Z
Transcribing this array by columns starting from the left yields the following
cipher alphabet.
Plain: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Cipher: A D Q Y B F R Z E G S L H T I J U N K V C M W O P X
2.1.3 Exercises
1. Consider a substitution cipher with the following cipher alphabet.
Plain: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Cipher: X Q K M D B P S E T C L O R U J V A F W Z G H N I Y
(a)∗ Use this cipher to encrypt QUOTH THE RAVEN NEVERMORE.5
(b) Use this cipher to encrypt A FEW WORDS ON SECRET WRITING.
(c) Decrypt WSD BXLL UB WSD SUZFD UB ZFSDA, which was formed
using this cipher.
10. Create and describe a method different from those illustrated in this
section for using a keyword to form the cipher alphabet for a substi-
tution cipher. Give at least one example of your method.
11. Find some information about the Hebrew Atbash cipher, including
how it worked, and write a summary of your findings.
12. Find some information about Edgar Allan Poe’s interest in cryptog-
raphy, including the various cryptographic challenges he offered, and
write a summary of your findings.
13. Find a copy of Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Gold Bug,” and
write a summary of how a substitution cipher is integrated into the
story.
14. Find a copy of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes mystery
The Adventure of the Dancing Men, and write a summary of how a
substitution cipher is integrated into the story and how the cipher
worked.
TH, ER, ON, AN, RE, HE, IN, ED, and ND. The most common trigraphs are
THE, AND, THA, ENT, ION, TIO, FOR, NDE, HAS, and NCE. The most common
repeated letters are LL, EE, SS, TT, OO, MM, and FF. For a thorough analysis
of common letter sequences in ordinary English, see [25].
For a ciphertext that has been formed using a substitution cipher, with
a sufficient number of ciphertext letters and the spacing between words in
the plaintext preserved, frequency analysis can usually be used to break
the cipher.
Example 2.4 Consider the following ciphertext, which was formed using
a substitution cipher.
The frequency with which each letter occurs in this ciphertext is shown in
the following table.
Letter: I S V R T M Z J Y G A O W
Count: 33 28 28 17 17 16 15 11 11 10 7 7 7
Letter: L Q E F P B C H K N U D X
Count: 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 0 0
2.2. CRYPTANALYSIS OF SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS 13
E A E E T, I AI THI E A E I ’T A
JIORSY TGISYGISV, M JTMY SRVZMSP BIOTAJI M YRS’V RWS T
. THE ’ E E THE I T A E E T A I A ’T
PAS. SRW VZIL’KI ORGI CRE VZI CMEJV TGISYGISV TSY M OTS’V
A A THI AT A .
JTL TSLVZMSP TV TFF.
Next, note that the repeated letters RR occur three times in the ciphertext,
each in the middle of the word VRRQ, which suggests that the ciphertext
letter R corresponds to a vowel in the plaintext. The repeated vowels most
likely to occur in ordinary English are EE and OO, and since a ciphertext
letter has already been assigned to the plaintext letter E, it seems reason-
able that the ciphertext letter R corresponds to the plaintext letter O. In
addition, the fact that each time VRRQ occurs in the ciphertext it is followed
by THE in the plaintext suggests that the ciphertext word VRRQ corresponds
to TOOK in the plaintext. Thus, we will assign the ciphertext letter Q to
the plaintext letter K. Also, note that the third most common letter in
14 CHAPTER 2. SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS
The first two words in the plaintext now appear to be WHEN and THEY. Other
resulting apparent words in the plaintext are DON’T, INNOCENT, NOTHING,
and ANYTHING. The corresponding plain/cipher letter assignments give the
following expanded cipher alphabet.
Plain: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Cipher: T O Y I P Z M Q S R V W L
The following again shows the complete ciphertext, along with the part of
the plaintext given by our expanded cipher alphabet.
WHEN THEY TOOK THE O TH A END ENT, I WA I ENT ECA E
WZIS VZIL VRRQ VZI CRAEVZ TGISYGISV, M WTJ JMFISV BIOTAJI
I DON’T DEA D G . WHEN THEY TOOK THE I TH A END ENT, I
M YRS’V YITF YEAPJ. WZIS VZIL VRRQ VZI JMNVZ TGISYGISV, M
2.2. CRYPTANALYSIS OF SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS 15
Thus, the keyword, with spaces and duplicate letters removed, is TIMFREAN,
which indeed is the result of removing the space and duplicate letters from
TIM FREEMAN. Filling in the two missing letters gives the following.
T I M F R E A N
B C D G H J K L
O P Q S U V W X
Y Z
The reason why we were able to break the cipher in Example 2.4 relatively
easily is because a sufficient number of ciphertext letters corresponded to
plaintext letters that occur frequently in ordinary English. Having the
punctuation and spacing between words preserved made it easier to break
as well. A ciphertext with a smaller number of letters or in which punctu-
ation and spacing had been removed could have been much more difficult
to cryptanalyze. Substitution ciphers in which entire plaintext words are
replaced with numbers or words (known as nomenclators) can also be more
difficult to break, as can ciphers in languages in which letter frequencies
are different from those in English. However, history has shown that most
substitution ciphers are insecure and can be broken through persistence.
2.2.1 Exercises
1.∗ Cryptanalyze the following ciphertexts, which were formed using sub-
stitution ciphers.
3.∗ Cryptanalyze the following ciphertext, which was formed using a sub-
stitution cipher, with word divisions (punctuation and spaces) re-
moved from the plaintext during encryption.
HTLYHKYVYNVYHKVYYHKRUDAEYNFFAKTOFQQTYWYVPQNPEYAKTOFQQ
THKRAYWYVPQNPTCTOVFRWYAUOLBYVTUYRAFNODKPTOAKTOFQFNODK
YWYVPQNPUOLBYVHETRAHKRUSPTOAKTOFQAGYUQATLYHRLYRUHKTOD
KHNUQUOLBYVHKVYYRAPTOAKTOFQKNWYPTOVYLTHRTUALTWYQHTHYN
VAJTOFQBYKNGGRUYAATVZTPBOHHKRUSNBTOHRHRCPTOFNODKPTOHK
RUSNUQPTOJVPHKNHANCOFFQNPHKNHANKYJSTCNQNPPTOQTHKNHAYW
YUQNPANEYYSPTOVYDTRUDHTKNWYATLYHKRUDAGYJRNF14
4.∗ The following ciphertext is from the original version of Edgar Allan
Poe’s short story “The Gold Bug.” It was formed using a substitution
cipher, with word divisions (punctuation and spaces) removed from
the plaintext during encryption, and non-letter characters used in the
ciphertext. Cryptanalyze the ciphertext.
53++!305))6*;4826)4+.)4+);806*;48!8‘60))85;1+(;:+*8!8
3(88)5*!;46(;88*96*?;8)*+(;485);5*!2:*+(;4956*2(5*-4)
8‘8*;4069285);)6!8)4++;1(+9;48081;8:8+1;48!85;4)485!5
28806*81(+9;48;(88;4(+?34;48)4+;161;:188;+?;
(a)∗ Use the ciphers in Examples 2.2 on page 8 and 2.3 on page 9 (in
that order) to superencrypt I WAS IN THE POOL.15
(b) Decrypt O VWC OQ UZI BAAD, which was superencrypted using the
ciphers in Examples 2.3 and 2.2 (in that order).
(c) Does superencryption by two substitution ciphers yield more
security than encryption by one substitution cipher? In other
words, if a plaintext P is encrypted using a substitution cipher,
yielding M , and then M is encrypted using another substitution
cipher, yielding C, would C be harder in general to cryptanalyze
than M ? Explain your answer completely, and be as specific as
possible.
6. Find some additional information about the Beale ciphers, and write
a summary of your findings.
14 Jim Valvano, quote.
15 George Costanza, quote.
2.3. PLAYFAIR CIPHERS 19
7. Find some information about the role of the Babington plot and crypt-
analysis in the life and death of Mary, Queen of Scots, and write a
summary of your findings.
8. Find some information about the encrypted messages sent by the
Zodiac killer to the San Francisco Bay area press in 1969–1970, and
write a summary of your findings.
To encrypt a message using a Playfair cipher, spaces are removed from the
plaintext, and the plaintext is then split into digraphs. If any digraphs
20 CHAPTER 2. SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS
Example 2.6 Consider the message IDIOCY OFTEN LOOKS LIKE INTELLI-
GENCE. To encrypt this message using a Playfair cipher, we begin by split-
ting the plaintext into digraphs. This yields the following.
ID IO CY OF TE NL OO KS LI KE IN TE LL IG EN CE
The seventh digraph is the first one that contains repeated letters. Thus, we
insert an X between these letters and again split the plaintext into digraphs.
This yields the following.
ID IO CY OF TE NL OX OK SL IK EI NT EL LI GE NC E
None of these digraphs contain repeated letters, but now we must insert
an X at the end of the plaintext so that the last letter will be in a digraph.
This yields the following.
ID IO CY OF TE NL OX OK SL IK EI NT EL LI GE NC EX
We are now ready to encrypt this message using a Playfair cipher, which
we will do in Example 2.7.
• If the letters in a plaintext digraph are in the same row of the array,
then the ciphertext digraph is formed by replacing each plaintext
letter with the letter in the array in the same row but one position to
the right, wrapping from the end of the row to the start if necessary.
For example, using the array in Example 2.5, the plaintext digraph
ID encrypts to the ciphertext digraph KF, and IK encrypts to KD.
• If the letters in a plaintext digraph are not in the same row or column
of the array, then the ciphertext digraph is formed by replacing the
first plaintext letter with the letter in the array in the same row as
the first plaintext letter and the same column as the second plaintext
letter, and replacing the second plaintext letter with the letter in the
array in the same row as the second plaintext letter and the same
column as the first plaintext letter. For example, using the array in
Example 2.5, IO encrypts to FB, and OX encrypts to NV.
Example 2.7 The Playfair cipher with keyword WHEATSTONE (for which
the array is given in Example 2.5) encrypts the plaintext IDIOCY OFTEN
LOOKS LIKE INTELLIGENCE as follows.
Plain: ID IO CY OF TE NL OX OK SL IK EI NT EL LI GE NC EX
Cipher: KF FB BZ FM WA SP NV CF DU KD AG CE WP QD PN BS NE
For decryption, the rules for encryption are reversed. (The first decryption
rule is identical to the first encryption rule except letters one position to the
left are chosen, wrapping from the start of the row to the end. The second
decryption rule is identical to the second encryption rule except letters one
position up are chosen, wrapping from the top of the column to the bottom.
The third decryption rule is identical to the third encryption rule.)
2.3.1 Exercises
1. Consider a Playfair cipher with keyword SEINFELD.
(a)∗ Use this cipher to encrypt THE SMELLY CAR.
(b) Use this cipher to encrypt THE BIZARRO JERRY.
(c) Decrypt QMSHKZHCILKBXARBIY, which was formed using this ci-
pher.
2. Consider a Playfair cipher with keywords CLINT EASTWOOD.
(a)∗ Use this cipher to encrypt DIRTY HARRY IS A CLASSIC.
22 CHAPTER 2. SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS
6. Find a copy of Dorothy Sayers’ novel Have His Carcase, and write a
summary of how a Playfair cipher is integrated into the story and the
steps described in it for breaking a Playfair cipher.
the Americans throughout the Pacific Campaign during World War II, was
essentially a substitution cipher. The Navajo language was at the time ex-
clusively oral, very complex, and unknown to virtually everyone outside the
Navajo Nation. The idea of using Navajos basically speaking their native
language as a means for encrypting messages originated in 1942 with a man
named Philip Johnston. Having grown up the son of a missionary to the
Navajo, Johnston was very familiar with the Navajo culture, and was one
of only a handful of non-Navajos who spoke the Navajo language fluently.
Johnston was a veteran of World War I, where he may have seen Native
Americans, specifically from the Choctaw Nation, encrypting messages for
the U.S. Army basically by speaking their native language. More likely,
after the attack on Pearl Harbor, which thrust the United States into World
War II, Johnston read of the use of Choctaw by the U.S. Army. Whatever
the origin of his idea, Johnston recruited four Navajos to demonstrate to a
group of U.S. Marine officers how they could quickly and flawlessly translate
English messages into the Navajo language, communicate these messages to
each other via radio, and then translate these messages back into English.
Convinced of the potential of the Navajo language, the Marines ordered
a pilot program in which an eight-week communications training course
was completed by a group of 29 Navajos, who became the original Navajo
code talkers. A graduation picture from this training course is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Before this training course could commence, the Marines had to figure out
a way to overcome a problem that had plagued attempts at using Native
American languages as a means for encrypting messages during World War
I—many military words, for example, SUBMARINE and DIVE BOMBER, had
no translatable equivalent in Native American languages. To overcome this
problem, the Navajo trainees decided that they would indicate such military
words using literal English translations of things in the natural world for
which they had Navajo translations. For example, the word SUBMARINE was
given the literal English translation IRON FISH, which was translatable in
the Navajo language as BESH-LO. A few examples of military words and
some other words, the literal English translations of these words used by
the Navajo code talkers, and the Navajo translations, or code words, of
these literal translations are shown in Table 2.2.
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