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Introduction to Combinatorics 1st Edition Walter D.
Wallis Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Walter D. Wallis, John C. George
ISBN(s): 9781498777605, 1498777600
Edition: 1st
File Details: PDF, 2.93 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 INTRODUCTION TO 
COMBINATORICS

K10310_FM.indd 1 7/22/10 12:45:31 PM

 DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor
Kenneth H. Rosen, Ph.D.
R. B. J. T. Allenby and Alan Slomson, How to Count: An Introduction to Combinatorics,
Third Edition
Juergen Bierbrauer, Introduction to Coding Theory
Francine Blanchet-Sadri, Algorithmic Combinatorics on Partial Words
Richard A. Brualdi and Dragos̆ Cvetković, A Combinatorial Approach to Matrix Theory and Its Applications
Kun-Mao Chao and Bang Ye Wu, Spanning Trees and Optimization Problems
Charalambos A. Charalambides, Enumerative Combinatorics
Gary Chartrand and Ping Zhang, Chromatic Graph Theory
Henri Cohen, Gerhard Frey, et al., Handbook of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography
Charles J. Colbourn and Jeffrey H. Dinitz, Handbook of Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
Martin Erickson, Pearls of Discrete Mathematics
Martin Erickson and Anthony Vazzana, Introduction to Number Theory
Steven Furino, Ying Miao, and Jianxing Yin, Frames and Resolvable Designs: Uses, Constructions,
and Existence
Mark S. Gockenbach, Finite-Dimensional Linear Algebra
Randy Goldberg and Lance Riek, A Practical Handbook of Speech Coders
Jacob E. Goodman and Joseph O’Rourke, Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry,
Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross, Combinatorial Methods with Computer Applications
Jonathan L. Gross and Jay Yellen, Graph Theory and Its Applications, Second Edition
Jonathan L. Gross and Jay Yellen, Handbook of Graph Theory
David S. Gunderson, Handbook of Mathematical Induction: Theory and Applications
Darrel R. Hankerson, Greg A. Harris, and Peter D. Johnson, Introduction to Information Theory and
Data Compression, Second Edition
Darel W. Hardy, Fred Richman, and Carol L. Walker, Applied Algebra: Codes, Ciphers, and
Discrete Algorithms, Second Edition
Daryl D. Harms, Miroslav Kraetzl, Charles J. Colbourn, and John S. Devitt, Network Reliability:
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 Titles (continued)
Silvia Heubach and Toufik Mansour, Combinatorics of Compositions and Words
Leslie Hogben, Handbook of Linear Algebra
Derek F. Holt with Bettina Eick and Eamonn A. O’Brien, Handbook of Computational Group Theory
David M. Jackson and Terry I. Visentin, An Atlas of Smaller Maps in Orientable and Nonorientable
Surfaces
Richard E. Klima, Neil P. Sigmon, and Ernest L. Stitzinger, Applications of Abstract Algebra
with Maple™ and MATLAB®, Second Edition
Patrick Knupp and Kambiz Salari, Verification of Computer Codes in Computational Science
and Engineering
William Kocay and Donald L. Kreher, Graphs, Algorithms, and Optimization
Donald L. Kreher and Douglas R. Stinson, Combinatorial Algorithms: Generation Enumeration and Search
C. C. Lindner and C. A. Rodger, Design Theory, Second Edition
Hang T. Lau, A Java Library of Graph Algorithms and Optimization
Elliott Mendelson, Introduction to Mathematical Logic, Fifth Edition
Alfred J. Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschot, and Scott A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography
Richard A. Mollin, Advanced Number Theory with Applications
Richard A. Mollin, Algebraic Number Theory
Richard A. Mollin, Codes: The Guide to Secrecy from Ancient to Modern Times
Richard A. Mollin, Fundamental Number Theory with Applications, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, An Introduction to Cryptography, Second Edition
Richard A. Mollin, Quadratics
Richard A. Mollin, RSA and Public-Key Cryptography
Carlos J. Moreno and Samuel S. Wagstaff, Jr., Sums of Squares of Integers
Dingyi Pei, Authentication Codes and Combinatorial Designs
Kenneth H. Rosen, Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics
Douglas R. Shier and K.T. Wallenius, Applied Mathematical Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Alexander Stanoyevitch, Introduction to Cryptography with Mathematical Foundations and
Computer Implementations
Jörn Steuding, Diophantine Analysis
Douglas R. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice, Third Edition
Roberto Togneri and Christopher J. deSilva, Fundamentals of Information Theory and Coding Design
W. D. Wallis, Introduction to Combinatorial Designs, Second Edition
W. D. Wallis and J. C. George, Introduction to Combinatorics
Lawrence C. Washington, Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography, Second Edition

K10310_FM.indd 3 7/22/10 12:45:31 PM

K10310_FM.indd 4 7/22/10 12:45:31 PM
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor KENNETH H. ROSEN

INTRODUCTION TO 
COMBINATORICS

W. D. Wallis
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, Illinois, USA

J. C. George
Gordon College
Barnesville, Georgia, USA 

K10310_FM.indd 5 7/22/10 12:45:31 PM

Cover images portray permutations, random experiments, sampling, Latin squares, and Kirkman’s Schoolgirl
Problem.

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For Our Families
Contents

List of Figures xiii

Preface xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Some Combinatorial Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Sets, Relations and Proof Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Two Principles of Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 Systems of Distinct Representatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Exercises 1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Exercises 1B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 Fundamentals of Enumeration 27
2.1 Permutations and Combinations! " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
n
2.2 Applications of P (n, k) and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
k
2.3 Permutations and Combinations of Multisets . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Applications and Subtle Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Exercises 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Exercises 2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 The Pigeonhole Principle and Ramsey’s Theorem 47

3.1 The Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Applications of the Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Ramsey’s Theorem — the Graphical Case . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Ramsey Multiplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5 Sum-Free Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6 Bounds on Ramsey Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 The General Form of Ramsey’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Exercises 3A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Exercises 3B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

ix
x

4 The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion 69

4.1 Unions of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 The Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Combinations with Limited Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4 Derangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Exercises 4A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Exercises 4B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5 Generating Functions and Recurrence Relations 85

5.1 Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2 Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3 From Generating Function to Recurrence . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4 Exponential Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Exercises 5A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Exercises 5B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

6 Catalan, Bell and Stirling Numbers 103

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Catalan Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Stirling Numbers of the Second Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4 Bell Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.5 Stirling Numbers of the First Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.6 Computer Algebra and Other Electronic Systems . . . . . . 117
Exercises 6A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exercises 6B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

7 Symmetries and the Pólya-Redfield Method 123

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2 Basics of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3 Permutations and Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4 An Important Counting Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.5 Pólya and Redfield’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Exercises 7A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Exercises 7B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

8 Introduction to Graph Theory 143

8.1 Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.2 Paths and Cycles in Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.3 Maps and Graph Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Exercises 8A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Exercises 8B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
 xi

9 Further Graph Theory 159

9.1 Euler Walks and Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.2 Application of Euler Circuits to Mazes . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.3 Hamilton Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.4 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.5 Spanning Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Exercises 9A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Exercises 9B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

10 Coding Theory 189

10.1 Errors; Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.2 The Venn Diagram Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.3 Binary Codes; Weight; Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.4 Linear Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.5 Hamming Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.6 Codes and the Hat Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.7 Variable-Length Codes and Data Compression . . . . . . . . 201
Exercises 10A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Exercises 10B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

11 Latin Squares 207

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.2 Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.3 Idempotent Latin Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.4 Partial Latin Squares and Subsquares . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Exercises 11A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Exercises 11B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

12 Balanced Incomplete Block Designs 231

12.1 Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.2 Fisher’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.3 Symmetric Balanced Incomplete Block Designs . . . . . . . . 238
12.4 New Designs from Old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.5 Difference Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Exercises 12A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Exercises 12B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
xii

13 Linear Algebra Methods in Combinatorics 251

13.1 Recurrences Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
13.2 State Graphs and the Transfer Matrix Method . . . . . . . . 253
13.3 Kasteleyn’s Permanent Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Exercises 13A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Exercises 13B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Appendix 1: Sets; Proof Techniques 271

A1.1 Sets and Basic Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
A1.2 The Principle of Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . 279
A1.3 Some Applications of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
A1.4 Binary Relations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Exercises A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Exercises B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Appendix 2: Matrices and Vectors 291

A2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
A2.2 Vector and Matrix Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
A2.3 Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
A2.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Exercises A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Exercises B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Appendix 3: Some Combinatorial People 305

Solutions to Set A Exercises 313

Hints for Problems 341

Solutions to Problems 347

References 367

Index 375
List of Figures

1.1 Pancake with three slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 A sudoku puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The Tower of Hanoi puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Königsberg and its bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Some Venn diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 K6 and K3,4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 A graph and its complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 How many ways to walk? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.1 K5 in two colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.2 Decomposition of K8 proving R(3, 4) ≥ 9 . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1 Enumerating X ∪ Y using (4.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.2 Illustration of (4.2) (left) and (4.3) (right) . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6.1 Triangulating the hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

6.2 Rooted binary trees with n internal points . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7.1 Square with numbered corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.2 Three hexagons with labeled vertices and sides . . . . . . . . 129
7.3 Two figures for coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.4 Coloring corners or edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.5 Square with eight points to color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

8.1 Testing degree sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

8.2 Tabular form of Dijkstra’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3 Two representations of K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

9.1 The original Königsberg bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

9.2 The Königsberg bridges today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.3 Find an efficient eulerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.4 Graphical representation of a maze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.5 Two graphs from the map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.6 A labeling of K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.7 All Hamilton cycles of the K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.8 Some trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

xiii
xiv

9.9 Illustration of Lemma 9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

9.10 Graphs for counting trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.11 Counting trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

10.1 Venn diagram encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

10.2 Venn diagram decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3 The codewords in Venn diagram encoding . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.4 The Morse code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

11.1 A golf design for seven clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

11.2 Array to generate a golf design for 17 teams . . . . . . . . . . 225

12.1 Residual and derived designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

12.2 Some difference sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.3 Some supplementary difference sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

13.1 Gear shift graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

13.2 State graph and adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
13.3 A diagram and two adjacency matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.4 Digraph and adjacency matrix for the string problem . . . . . 257
13.5 Digraph and adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
13.6 Digraph and adjacency matrix for domino tiling . . . . . . . . 260

A.1 R ∩ (S ∪ T ) = (R ∩ S) ∪ (R ∩ T ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
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