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Statistical mechanics a survival guide 1st Edition A. M.
Glazer Digital Instant Download
Author(s): A. M. Glazer, J. S. Wark
ISBN(s): 9780198508168, 0198508166
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.43 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 r:
r
Statistical Mechanics
~
A survival guide

~r~ A. M. GLAZER
Department ofPhysics. University ofOxford

r· and
••....
: J. S. WARK
Department ofPhysics. University of Oxford

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OXFORD
UNIVBRSITY PRESS
~
.....
~
 9
~
~
OXFORD
UNIVBRSITY PRBSS ~
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It fu rthers the University's objective of excellence in research. scholarship.
and education by publishing worldwide in
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Oxford New York To Pam and Tina
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)
with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan
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First published 2001
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without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
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reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
. Oxford University Press, at the address above
You mqst not drculate this book 'in any other binding or cover
and!you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
I·,
~\i ~~tish Library Cataloguingin Publication Data
,", Data available
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Data available
. ISBN 0 19 850815 8 (hbk)
ISBN 0 19 850816 6 (pbk)
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Typeset by the author using laTeX
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
T.]. International Ltd. Padstow
 ~
r·
r~
i

i i
(- Preface
r~
r'"
~~ Statistical mechanics is the science of predicting the observable properties
of a many-body system by studying the statistics of the behaviour of its
~. individual constituents/".- be they atoms, molecules, photons etc. It pro-

....
~. vides the link between macroscopic and microscopic states. For example,

•• it enables us to derive the pressure of an ideal gas (a macroscopic state)

starting from the solutions to Schrodinger's equation for a particle in a
box (the microscopic state). As such it has the potential to be one of the

,.
most satisfying parts of an undergraduate science course - linking in an
elegant manner the quantum world with everyday observables of systems
. containing large numbers of particles .

~
~.
.. However, in our experie~ce, all too often students fail to appr(~ci(\tr the'
beauty of this bridge between worlds owing to the complexity of the lIlal h-
ematics with which they are presented. As with any subject, statistical III'>·

•••
~
chanics contains its subtleties, nuances and insights that can only bl' fully
understood after a thorough grounding in the underlying theory. I !owcvl'r,
the majority of the important, basic concepts are, in our opinion, re'adily
accessible without resorting to such in-depth analysis. Therefore. right at
'1t the outset, it is important to state that the approach to the subject taken
within this book is going to be slightly handwaving: we make no att (~TlI pt
~
......... to be sophisticated (just as well, some might say). We firmly ]){'li"vI' thaI
it is better to grasp the basic concepts, even if they are put forward in
a non-rigorous way, than be prcsellted with rigorous derivations bill not
understand them. For the bravI~·hearted, t.here arc many morr 1I';,fntill;ht

:-..e approaches to the subject, to which we rder in the bibliography

This book grew out of the experience of teaching statistical IIlPchanics

~
to physics undergraduates at the University of Oxford over Dlany years.
At present the Oxford undergraduate encounters this subject towards t lIP

~
end of the second year of a 3 - 4 year course, having previously recei"f'd
a course on classical equilibrium thermodynamics and an introduction to
quantum mechanics. The material presented here covers the entire syllabus
as it is taught at this level, and a more detailed approach (not indudrd

~
here) is then given for those working towards a more theoretical course.
'vVe supply a considerable number of questions, many of which have been
traditionally asked at Oxford, together with worked solutions. The latter

~
no doubt will not endear us to our colleagues, since they will now have to
find new questions (without written answers) to set their students!
There are many approaches to studying this subject, and the most
~
~
~
 VIII Preface Preface ix

appropriate will clearly depend on your starting point. You will get the omirsky and Svetlana Zhitomirskaya produced the diagrams. Peter Sond-
most out of this book if you have a basic knowledge of quantum mechanics hauss patiently answered our questions concerning I¥IE;X. We extend our
(for example, the ability to solve Schrodinger's equation for simple one- thanks to them all.
dimensional potentials), though this is not essential. Furthermore, there is
clearly a very strong connection between thermodynamics and statistical Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford Mike Glazer
mechanics. We assume some prior study of thermodynamics, and thus at 2001 Justin Wark
least a passing familiarity with the concept of entropy - though perhaps you
may still find it somewhat confusing. It is a concept that often engenders
a feeling of unease. If you have taken a thermodynamics course you will no
doubt recall that there are elegant arguments proving that there is such a
quantity called entropy and that it can be shown to be a function of state.
But it would not be surprising if you remained somewhat confused as to
its nature. The other aspect of thermodynamics that can be troubling,
and which illustrates both its elegance and its apparent obscurity, is its
complete generality. The derivation of all the TdS equations and suchlike
is completely independent of the system in question - we can use them for
ideal gases, magnets, and elastic bands - whatever we like. At no stage
in a classical thermodynamic treatment do we worry about the detailed,
nitty-gritty of the system of interest - its quantum states and the nature
of the particles making up the system.
Now that's where statistical mechanics comes in. It will, we hope, give
you a better feel for the nature of entropy, and provide an understanding of
~
that important link between the microscopic and macroscopic world. By the ~
end of this book you should be able to start from the microscopic world of t,•
SchrOdinger's equation and derive the pressure (or entropy, enthalpy, etc.)
of the gas in a steam engine, the magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnet,
the heat capacity of a solid, and many, many more properties of a system
of particles. It is worth realizing that many of the basic ideas in statistical
.'"..-:
mechanics were worked out in the 19th century by those giants of physics, f'
Ludwig Boltzmann, Willard Gibbs, and James Clerk Maxwell. Boltzmann,
in particular, found himself under serious attack by many of his colleagues ~
for espousing the idea that the properties of gases and other systems could ~
be treated in statistical terms. It is most interesting to read through those
early papers and see the often tortuous and difficult arguments with which ~
he had to wrestle, especially since today we think of many of the ideas in
~
much simpler terms. In the event, Boltzmann was eventually shown to be
correct.. It waS not until the 1920s that Heisenberg and others demonstrated ~
the notion that the properties of quantum particles were indeed statistical
~
in nature, rather than deterministic. Therefore, the work of these 19th
century physicists laid the foundation for the modern science of quantum ~
mechanics.
We are very grateful to Stephen Blundell, Dave Donaldson, aI;id Anton ~
Machacek, who took the time to read the draft manuscript of this book and ~~
made many helpful suggestions. Geoff Brooker made helpful comments on ~~
f the original lecture notes upon which this book were based. Victor Zhit- ~
t
.
·
. ~~
~

~
r:r. '.,.1"

:
. .
". j";~;

:" ;": .~ '.

:".;' .

,I
/

" I
,...

r.
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; , i\
Contents
~~
!.

h.
.:: I .:j

:..

:.:.
1 Back to Basics 1
1.1 The Role of Statistical Mechanics, 1
~.' 1.2 Introductior(,to Coin Tossing
1.3 Heads I Win, Tails You Lose
"" 2
2

:.'.•
1.4 Stirling's Theorem 5
1.5 More Flipping Coins '" 6
1.6 Distinguishable Particles " ", i'. 8
1.7 Summary ,\;,
11

:.••
. ~;.' ;.- ,,~,:. ;.
12
1.8 Problems
2 The Statistics of D1stinguishabl~P~ii~i~s , ! ' ;', 14
2.1 The Boltzmann Distribution for DistinguishablePar-'"
ticles ' . .. 14
2.2 Lagrange's Method of Undetermined Multipliers: 15

•• 2.3
2.4
2.5
The Single-Particle Partition Function ' ( ' "
Degeneracy
The Partition Function of a System
21
22
23

~
• 3
2.6
2.7
Summary
Problems
Paramagnets and Oscillators
25
26
29
29
~ 3.1 A Spin-1/2 Paramagnet
3.2 Paramagnets with Angular Momentum J 34
~ 3.3 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 36

..... 3.3.1 An Array of 1-D Simple Harmonic Oscilla-

tors 36
~
....
3,3.2 An Array of 3-D Simple Harmonic Oscilla-
tors 38
3.4 Summary 40
..... 4
3.5 Problems
Indistinguishable Particles and Monatomic Ideal
41

~
Gases 43
'S 4.1 Distinguishable and Indistinguishable States 43
4.2 Identical Gas Particles - Counting the States 45
~ 4.3 The Partition Function of a Monatomic Ideal Gas 51

~
4.4 Properties of the Monatomic Ideal Gas 52
4.5 More about Adiabatic Expansions 53

~ •
 xii Contents
I
,
l
~ Contents xiii
..,
~~

tl.li Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Speeds 56 10.3 Ensembles and Probabilities 107

1
4.7 Gibbs Paradox 56 10.4 The Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein Distributions ·1
oJ

~
0'1.8 Summary 59 Revisited 110
-t.!) Problems 61 10.5 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Revisited 110
10.6 Bose-Einstein Distribution Revisited 111 .~
!j Diatomic Ideal Gases 62 10.7 Summary 111
:>.1 Other Degrees of Freedom 62 :t
c .} 10.8 Problems 112 ~
.J._ Rotational Heat Capacities for Diatomic Gases 63
:" "
.) ...
Tile Vibrational Partition Function of a Diatomic 11 The End is in Sight 113 I
65 11.1 Phase Space 113
~
l:a'i
j.J PULLing it All Together for an Ideal Gas 66 11.2 Equipartition of Energy 115
~
,l.:)
. Summary 67 11.3 Route Map through Statistical Mechanics 116 ~
.''d3 Pmulems 68 11.4 Summary 118
11.5 Problems 118 ~
6 Quantum Statistics 69
1>.1 Indistinguishable Particles and Quantum Statistics 69 A Worked Answers to Problems 119 ~
6.2 Bose-Einstein Statistics 71 A.l Chapter 1 119 ~
1),;\ Fermi-Dirac Statistics 73 A.2 Chapter 2 120
ri.'! More on t.he Quantulll Dist.ribut.ion Functions 73 A.3 Chapter 3 122 ~
6.5 Summary 76 A.4 Chapter 4 124 ~
G.G Problems 76 A.5 Chapter 5 125 "
,
, A
A.6 Chapter 6 126
7 Eledl'oll!l in Metals 77 A.7 Chapter 7 126 '"
7.1 Fermi-Dirac Statistics: Electrons in Metals 77
A.8 Chapter 8 128 ~
7.2 The Heat Capacity of a Fermi Gas 79 A.9· Chapter 9 . ~ "
132 1t
~;,
7.3 The Quantum-Classical Transition 82 A.lO Chapter 10 133
7.4 Summary 85 A.ll Chapter 11 134 tJ
7.5 Problems 86
8 Photons and Phonons
8.1 The Photon Gas
88
88
B
C
U sefnl Integrals
Physical Constants
137
138
"
\
8.2 Generalized Derivation of the Density of States 89
D Bibliography 139 ~
8.3 Blackbody Radiation 90
8.4 Phonons 92 Index 140 C
8.5 Summary /
93 ~
8.6 Problems 94
~
9 Bose-Einstein Condensation 97 ~
9.1 Introduction 97 }
~
~
9.2 The Phenomenon of Bose-Einstein Condensation 97 ,.
~
~
9.3 The Quantum-Classical Transition Revisited 102 ~ ,:: ...
9.4 Summary 102 ~
9.5 Problems 103 l. ::"l
I '-=
10 Ensembles
.1 i
104 t
~
I

10.1 Introduction
I

104 I ..
10.2 The Chemical Potential /
!
i
106 if ~
,
j
:~
C
A
l
1
Back to Basics

Everything in the Uni\'erse is the fruit of chance and necessity.

Diogenes Laertills IX

1.1 The Role of Statistical Mechanics

In any undergraduate physics course, students will meet a certain nurnbN
of 'core' subjects with which any self-respecting physicist must h('conJ('
familiar. Of these, this book relates to three core disciplines.
The first is what is termed classical thermodynamics. This is a su bject
dealing with the very large. It describes the world that we all s{'e in our
daily lives, knows nothing about atoms and molecules and other very small
particles, but instead treats the universe as if it were made up of large-scale
continua. It is therefore a science that considers everything in Illi\croswpic
terms. You should already be somewhat familiar with this subj('ct hy \.Ill'
time you read this book, and so you are already aware that thernl(,dyn:lmics
describes such global quantities as heat, work, and the various fu/lt't.iO/lS of
state, internal energy, entropy, enthalpy and free energies. Armed wit II t 1)('Sl'
concepts, one is able to say a great deal about the behaviour of til(' \\'orld
around us, whether it is simply a matter of heat engines and refri~nat()rs.
the properties of gases, or even fundamental conclusions about th.. Ilnivcrs('.
However, because it is a macroscopic subject., it lacks any percept ion of filll'
detail.
The second related subject is quantum mechanics. This is t.1)(" 01 liN
end of the spectrum from thermodynamics: it deals with the very slllali. It
recognises that the universe is made up of particles: atoms, elect rons, pro-
tons and so on. One of the key features of quantum mechanics, 1I0\\,('v('r,
is that particle behaviour is not precisely determined (if it were, it would
be possible to compute, at least in principle, all past and future behaviour
of particles, such as might be expected in a classical view). Instead, the
behaviour is described through the language of probabilities. This prob-
abilistic approach is enshrined in the concept of the wave function, and
armed with the famous Schrodinger equation a complete description of the
probabilities should be possible. However, in practice, as everyone discov-
ers, while an excellent solution to the hydrogen atom can be found (the
observed energy of the ground state of -13.6 eV can be found easily with
the appropriate wave function), not much else can without the help of
2 Hack to Basics Heads I Win. Tails You Lose 3
..
enonllOIlS computation. \Vhen one brings into play more than one or two and we have listed just 4 of them (chosen at random) above. Now, in
part icl.~s. the problem becomes rapidly insoluble, and so one has to resort the language of statistical mechanics, each of the specific arrangements
to incrc;\.~ingly exotic approximations the more particles are brought into (H HT H, T H HT, . .. ) is called a microstate. We make a postulate:
play. Imagine, therefore, trying to use quantum mechanics to describe the
• Postulate 1: For a system iu equilibrium all microstates m'e
behaviour of 10 30 atoms in a gas l
equally probable.
What we need therefore, if we are to reconcile the two opposite ex-
tremes of on the one hand a classical subject like thermodynamics and the What does this postulate ,mean for this coin problem? Well, it should be
no II-cl ,\..;;si cal quantum mechanics, is some means of bridging the two. This obvious that each time we flip the coin, we have a 50% chance of getting
is wlwrl> the third subject, statistical mechanics, comes to the rescue. Here, a head (or tail). So, we have just as much a chance of getting 4 heads in
hllge Ilulllbers of particles are cOllsidered within certain confined systems: a row, 1I llll If, as geLt.ing the specific ordering HTHT. Each of these is a
no attempt is made at analysing the behaviour of individual particles, but microstate, and each is as likely as any other. All the 16 possible microstates
inst.ead. as in thermodynamics, one arrives at the overall macroscopic be- have the same likelihood of occurrence (obviously, each one has a 1 in 16
haviour llsing probabilities. One therefore :;('(~S the natmal link between chance of occurring). It's a bit like a lottery. In the UK National Lottery
the aVl'rage behaviour of the thermodynamic world and the probabilistic you pick 6 different numbers from 1 to 49. People have various and curious
world of individual particles. It was this linka.ge between the two that was ways of picking their numbers (the date of the cat's birthday, phase of the
the great triumph of the 19th century physicists Maxwell, Gibbs and, es- moon, number of their bank account, etc.) and hold the peculiar belief.,t
pecially, Boltzmann. Well before quantum probabilistic ideas were applied some numbers are luckier than others. Interestingly, most people would not
to individual particles by Heisenberg in the 1920s, these gentlemen were dare to pick the numbers, say, 1,2,3,4,5, and 6 as they have a 'gut' feeling
already treating the world in probabilistic terms. that the lottery would never pick such a set of numbers. Yet this set is as
likely as any other. This gives you some idea of how rare an individl\al
1.2 Introduction to Coin Tossing microstate is! Each set of numbers is an equally-weighted 'microstat~' (see
As with any subject, a grasp of the basic concepts is absolutely essential and Problem 1 in Section 1.8), and each is as likely to condemn you to 15
simple illustrations and toy problems can go a long way in aiding under- minutes of fame and jealous gloating by your former friends as any other
standing. Therefore, rather than launch headlong into areas of real physical selection. Needless to say, neither of us is in this position!
interest, let's start our study of the probabilistic nature of statistical me- So we have learnt what a microstate is (at least for coins). What next?
chanics by looking at a situation with which we are all familiar: flipping Well, we intuitively know something else about the outcome. We know that,
coins. This toy problem will illustrate the baSic ideas, and introduce you in whatever the detailed arrangement, when we flip the coins, the most likely
a non-threatening manner to some of the language of statistical mechanics. thing to happen overall is that we will get 2 heads and 2 tails. The number
Of course, once we have dispensed with coins, we shall then expect to use of heads and tails, regardless of the order in which they come, would be
some of the ideas generated and apply them to large (and we mean really called the macrostate. The macrostate is a macroscopic state of the system
massive) collections of very small particles like atoms and molecules. Al- in which we are really interested. For coins, we are usually only interested
though an atom is far from being equivalent to a coin (an atom doesn't in the total number of heads, and total number of tails, rather than the
have a head or a tail for example!) we shall see that nevertheless coins can detail. That is to say, we are concerned whether we get 2 heads and 2
teach us some useful ideas about statistics in general. And it is because tails, rather than whether the specific order of the flips was H HTT or, for
in reality we want to deal with huge numbers of random particles that example HTHT.
statistics plays such an important role.
• Postulate 2: The observed macrostate is the one with the
1.3 Heads I Win, Tails You Lose most microstates.
Let us assume that we are going to toss a coin 4 times. Let H denote a We said above that we instinctively know that the most likely outcome is
head, and T a tail. Here are a few possible outcomes for the series of 4 to get 2 heads and 2 tails. From a statistical point of view, this is because
flips: H HTH, T H HT, T HTH, TTTT, etc., where T H HT means a tail on it has more microstates than any other macrostate. To be specific, let us
the first flip, a head on the second flip, and so on. There are ;bbviously first look at the macrostate which gets 4 heads. There is only 1 microstate:
more possibilities than just those listed above. How many different· ways H H H H. But the macrostate of 2 heads and 2 tails has 6 microstates: they
in total are there of doing this? Well, we have 2 ways of tossing the coin are H HTT, HTHT, HTTH, TTH H, THTH,TH HT. So we are 6 times as
on each of the 4 throws, so the total numhPr of arrangements is 24 = 16, likely to get the macrostate of 2 heads and 2 tails than we are to get the
 Stirling's Theorem 5

Table 1.1 The 5 macrostates for flipping a coin 4 times with the associated
far·more tightly 'peaked' than in the example involving 4 coins above (as
microstates
an exercise, work out the numbers for tossing 6 coins). It is because the
Macrostate Microstates distribution becomes so tightly peaked that we make the second postulate
above; that the.macrostate observed is the one with the most microstates.
HHHH If we had many, many coins, the probability becomes so narrowly peaked
4 Heads
around half the number of heads and half the number of tails that to say
3 Heads and 1 Tail HHHT this is the observed macrostate does not introduce a large error.
HHTH Also, it should be clear by now that within statistical mechanics we
HTHH will often be interested in the factorial of a number. We can see this by
THHH thinking a little more generally about the coins. Let's flip a coin N times,
and denote by the symbol n the number of ways of getting n heads (and
2 Heads and 2 Tails HHTT therefore (N - n) tails). We find
HTHT
THHT N'
n= (1.1)
" HTTH n.I(N°- n.
)1
" THTH
It is important to understand this equation. If we have N different objects,
TTHH
we can arrange them in N! different ways. However, when we flip a coin
1 Head and 3 Tails N times, and get n heads, then each result of heads looks the same: if you
TTTH
think of the result HTH H, it looks the same if we interchange any of the
TTHT
THTT heads with any other head. Therefore, the number of ways of arranging the
N flips is NI divided by n! (to take into account that all the heads look
HTTT
the same), and obviously divided by (N - n)! to take into account that all
4 Tails TTTT the tails are the same also.
Notice how this fits in with flipping the coins 4 times. In this case, to
=
get 2 heads (and therefore 2 tails) n 4!/(2! x 2!) 6 as expected. When =
we get to real physical problems we will thus be dealing with numbers like
macrostate of 4 heads. In· total, there are 5 possible macrostates, and the 10 23 !, and before proceeding further we are going to make a slight. diversion
microstates associated with each of these macrostates are shown in Table to the topic of Stirling's theorem, which givcs us a handy way to dpal wil h
1.1. n! when n is extremely large. 'rVe will thcn return to the coins.
In this problem, we have the basic elements of statistical mechanics.
We have learnt that a microstate is the detailed arrangement and each mi- 1.4 Stirling's Theorem
crostate is equally probable. However, the macrostate, which we will define Stirling's theorem is an extremely useful formula for nl that we will us(~
to be the situation of macroscopic interest, can contain several microstates, again and again in our subsequent analysis of microstates. TIll' simpl..st
and obviously the most probable macrostate is the one that contains the form of Stirling's theorem states that for large n
most microstates.
Now, in this simple example, it is clear that the most likely outcome Inn! ~ nlnn - 1/

is 2 heads and 2 tails - but not by much. We could have got 3 heads and You may wish to test the accuracy of this formula using a calculator (sPc
1 tail with a 4 in 16 chance, or even all heads (or tails) with a 1 in 16 Problem 5 in Section 1.8). This remarkable forl1lula call bc jusrifi"d by a
chance. However, it is clear that when we come to deal with real physical graphical method. Study Fig. 1.1. The dot.ted line is t.he function !I = III J',
systems, the numbers are going to get much larger than 4. We know that where x is a continuous variable. The area under the curve fWIIl J' = I to
one gram mole of gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP) contains x = n is the integral, J:
6 x 10 23 (Avogadro's number) molecules. When we come to deal with such
systems we will find that the probability for the most likely macrostate is
I = In In xcix = [x In x - x )'1' = 71 In Il - 71 +I
 6 Back to Basics
•
More Flipping Coins 7
..f
(i
~ 1.2 C
y=ln (x) <I)

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0.
2.5 ....0 1.0
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,~ 0.8
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1
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•
AL
'-
...0
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e
I' ..0
E
::l 0 NI2 N
e
o 2 4 8 10 Z c
x Number of heads (nonnalized to N)

Fig, 1.1 Graphical proof of Stirling's theorem - see the text for an explanation. Fig. 1.2 The width of the distribution of the number of microstates per
e
macrostate narrows as the number of coins increases: (i) dotted - about 20 coins, e
\V(~ call obviously ignore t.he I for very large n. Also shown on the figure
an' I WI) stai rcases, one abovc (the dashed line) and one below (the solid
(ii) dashed - about 75 coins, (iii) solid - about 150 coins.
e
lille) till' smooth curve. The area under the upper one, Au, between x = 1 n = N /2 - that is to say, half heads and half tails. For the case of 4 coins we e
alld r == n is t.he serics: showed this explicitly by working out the number of ways it could occur,
and we satisfied ourselves that this was the most likely outcome. But how ~
.1
,~.
Au = 1112+ 111:1+ In4+ +Inn

(a.-; III I = a we don't need to include it.). On the other hand between the
= Inn! do we prove this for an arbitrary number of coins, especially if the number
of flips is very large? Well, if n is very large, we can treat it as a continuous,
rather than discrete, variable, and we can work out where the maximum
••
same limits for the lower staircase:

:\1. == 1112 + In 3 + In 4 + + In(n - 1) = ;n(tH- I)! = In n! -In n

. ~
in 0 is by differentiating it with respect to n, and setting the derivative to
zero. However, rather than differentiate 0 itself with respect to n, we will
differentiate In 0 with respect to n, as this must also maximise at the same ~
•
value of n, and it will turn out that this is far easier to deal with if we use
So /\1.::.= In 11! - In n and Au = In n!. But we knO\~ the area under the line ~
good old Stirling's theorem. So, from eqn (1.1), we get
1 hat
passes right betweell them (the int.egral, n In n - n). From this we can
~
<kd""., Stirling's theorem: In 0 = In N! -In n! -In(N - n)!

with all error term of order (In n) /2.

In n! = n In 71 - n which with the help of Stirling's theorem becomes

In n = N In N - N - n In n +n - (N - n)ln(N - n) + (N - n)
"
~
The importance of this result is that we shall find later that the quan-
~
For a given total number of flips (i.e. keeping N constant) it is trivial to
tity In n plays a very important role in statistical mechanics. This is most ('0
show that
fortunate because using logarithms changes huge numbers into relatively
small, more tractable numbers. Thank goodness for logarithms! d(lnO) =_lnn+ln(N_n)=ln(N-n)
C'
dn n ~
1.5 More Flipping Coins =
which is zero when (N - n) n, and thus n N/2 as expected. =
Armed with Stirling's theorem let us go back to flipping coins. We know We should note that although we have now proved that the most prob-
intllitively, as we have said before, that t.he most probable result is evident.ly able distribution is half heads and half tails, we have still not worked out
o Back to Basics Distinguishable Jl'lfticll'S 9

how sharp the peak is. This point is dealt with in part in Problem 1 in particles. Strictly speaking, for this to happen there must be som.: illterae-
Section 2.7. Here, we simply quote the result: for coins the width of the tion between the particles so that energy can be transferred between them
peak scales as N 1 / 2 . But the total number of particles scales as N, so the - we will assume that the interaction between the particles is just strong
fmctional width scales as N- 1/ 2 • This is best illustrated by Fig. 1.2, where enough for this transfer to take place, but not sufficiently strong to prevent
the distribution (normalized to the peak) is shown for various numbers of us from treating each particle independently. In order to accommodate this
coins. Similarly, we shall assume in the physics that follows that for sys- energy, some of the particles, let's say nl of them, will be in the first cller~y
tems containing large numbers of particles the fluctuations from the most level of their particular potential wells, each with energy [] , SOIlW of t heill.
probable result are limitingly small, and we are justified in taking the most n2, will be in the second energy level [2, and so all. In gCllccal I h.. n' will
probable macrostate (the one with the most microstates) as representing be ni particles each with energy Ei. Clearly, as we have a fixed 1I1111lbcr of
the so-called equilibrium state of the system. particles:

1.6 Distinguishable Particles

Having learnt some of the basics by considering coins, we will now go on to (we didn't write down such an equation for the coills. as it was d"ar thaI
look at situations of greater physical si~nificance. We will start by looking if we had n heads we must have (N - n) tails), In addition, WI' lu\\'(' iI
at the statistics of distinguishable particles, i.e particles to which we can further constraint that didn't bother us with the coins. As we ha\'p ddin..d
attach labels and identify them individually. For example, we can clearly our system as being isolated, the total energy of the system, U. IIlllst be
tell the difference between atoms of different elements: if we have a helium constant. That is to say
atom and a neon atom in a box, and we walk away and return an hour later,
we would still be able to tell them apart. We can also tell the difference
between atoms of the same element, as long as they are localized in space.
Consider Fig. 1.3. Here we ha~e a set of atoms arranged to form a crystal.
The atoms might be the same element, but each is still distinguishable from So, we have (nl' n2, n3, ... , ni, ... ) particles in each of the energy levels
its neighbours because of its position. We might pick a particular atom - (el, [2, [3,
say the one marked by the arrow in the diagram and then walk away. When ... , ei, ... ). This distribution (which tells us hew many particles there are
we return to look at the crystal, we will still be able to distinguish that in each energy level) is now our macrostate. Knowing how many particles
particular atom from all the rest, because it will still be in the same place.
We will assume that each particle can occupy discrete energy levels (like
quantum levels - so you can see one way in which quantum mechanics is
going to enter straight away). Furthermore, to make things easier at this
stage, we will assume that the levels are non-degenerate. That is to say,
for the moment we consider that each energy level represents a different
quantum state, and thus is statistically weighted by the same amount (we
will deal with degeneracy in Section 2.4). So, for the crystal we treat each
atom as though it were in its own little potential well which quantizes the
energies. Note that at this stage we haven't said anything a:bout the shape
of the well, and therefore we don't know anything about the spectrum of
the energy levels. All we know is that there is a spectrum of energy levels,
and this spectrum is the same for each particle, because the shape of!the
potential well is the same for each of them. We say that the energy of the
first level is el, of the second level iSe2, and so on.
Suppose there are a total of N particles in our system of particles, and
we give a total energy U to the _system. We will assurtie our system is
isolated from the rest of the environment, so that no energy can escape. Fig. 1.3. Localized particles in a crystal are distinguishable - we can always
After giving this energy to the system, it will be distributed amongst the identify the particle indicated by the arrow simply from its position.
 -----~
10 U,ICIt to lJi/sics Summary 11

I herp ar.' with a particular energy is analogous to knowing how many heads
and tails we are likely to get when we flip the coin a set number of times. 41:
With t he coins we could only get heads or tails - now there are lots more ~ This is one of 7
31:
~ microstates in the
possibilities - but the basic idea. remains the same. For the particles, a par- 2E Ul same macrostate
t icular Jllicrostate would entail knowing exactly which particular particles ]E

had which particular energies, rather than just knowing the overall num- o
Iwrs - just as for the coins a microstate entailed knowing exactly which
flips gall' the heads, and which ones the tails. For the coins we know that a)
IIII' Illilnost.at.e of half heads a\l(l half tails is the most, likely, as it contains This is one of 105
IIII' 111',,,1 lIlierost.a\.('$. In the same way, we need to find out the number microstates in the
~)f lIlir·ro"t.atcs in a macrostate for the particles. Once we have a formula ~ same macrostate! -
l"lling us thp number of microst.ates in a macrost.at.c. we can find the one g this macrostate is
that has til(' maximullI probability just ;1.S we did for t.he coins. Ul obviously more
likely
For l he particles, the total number of microstates in a given macrostate,
Q, is given by
b)

(1.2) Fig. 1.4 Two particular arrangements (microstates) of 7 simple harmonic os-
cillators with a total energy of 4e (we have neglected the zero point energy). ]n
(a) all of the energy is taken up by one particular particle, whereas in (b) two
Notice how similar this is to the formula for the coins (eqn (1.1)). Instead of
having just heads or tails (which for the coins meant that we divided the N!
by 7I! and (N - n)!), we now have all the different possible energies f 1, f2, f3
particular particles each have energies of Ie while another particular particle has
I

an energy of 2e. The arrangement shown in (a) is one of 7 microstates in the same
macrostate, whereas the arrangement shown in (b) is one of 105 microstates in
,
~

'(
\
etc., containing nl, n2, n3 particles, so we divide the N! by nl!, n2!, n3! etc.
Defore we wade further into the algebra, let us look at a simple example
that sheds light on equation (1.2). Let us suppose that we have 7 localized
the same macrostate.

just as getting half heads and half tails is the most probable macrostate
•
\.1
,~.
particles, with energy levels that are equally spaced with energies 0, f, 2f, 3f
etc., such as occurs in simple harmonic oscillators, ancl we give our system
of particles a total energy 4f. Fig. 1.4 illustrates two possible microstates
for flipping coins. Obviously, just as with the coins, we would like to find a
general way of finding the macrostate which corresponds to the maximum
value Q for the general case where N is very large. How this is done will
•-
~
(there are many, many more in this system). For instance, (i) is a microstate be revealed in the next chapter.
where there are 6 particles in one level and 1 particular one in another. How f
many different ways in total can this be done? Answer = 7 (we could put 1.7 Summary (
any of the particles in the upper state). That is, there are 7 microstates To summarize the important points of this chapter:
in the corresponding macrostate. As for the microstate shown in (ii), this C
• A microstate describes which particles are in which state. All allowed
particular microstate is one of a total of 105 in the same macrostate! The
macrostate corresponds to having 4 particles in the ground state, 2 in the
microstates are assumed equally probable. ~
• A macrostate describes how many particles are in each energy level.
level with energy €, and 1 in the level with energy 2f, and of course the
We assume that the observed macrostate is the one with the most
C
microstate shown tells you elCactly which of the seven particles has which
microstates, ~
energy. There are 105 microstates in this macrostate, as Q =
7!/{4! x
• Stirling's formula (in the form we shall use) is
2! x I!) = 105. One thing you might notice immediately is that the more <.'
probable distribution (the one with 105 microstates) looks as if it could be Inn! = nlnn - n C'
falling roughly exponentially with energy (4 particles in the ground state,
~
I
2 in the next, and 1 in the following state). This exponentiaL fall-off -
the so-called Boltzmann distribution law - is one of the main results of • If we have N distinguishable non-degenerate particles, such that there
statistical mechanics. This law will be justified in Chapter 2. It so happens are ni particles in the energy level fi, the number of arrangements (i.e. ~
that this macrostate is the most prohil.hl~ one for t.his particlIlar problem, the number of microst.ates per macrostate) is ~
 Problems 13
12 Hack to Hasics

N! N! when tossing 6 coins, and the number of ways of getting 2 heads and
n = nl.n2·
I In I n .1
3· .. · ' .... TI n t ! 4 tails, and 1 head and 5 tails, and so forth. Do the same for 10 coins.
i PI~t a graph of your results, with the probability normalized to the
peak of the distribution in each case, and with the number of particles
• For an isolated system of distinguishable particles, the number of par- normalized to the total number. Convince yourself that, in fractional
ticles and the energy are constant: terms, the distribution is getting slightly more sharply peaked as the
number of coins increases. . /
Lnj=N U = Lnjei

1.8 Problems
1. To win the UK National Lottery one must supposedly pick 6 different
numbers from the 49 available. The order in which the numbers are
chosen does not matter. If, being mean, we buy only one ticket, what
are our chances of winning the jackpot?
2. (i) Mr. and Mrs. Fatchance have two children. If they tell you that at
least one of them is a boy, but you do not know the gender of the other
child, what is the probability that they have two boys?
(ii) If they had three children and told you again that at least one was
a boy, what would the probability be that they were all boys?
(iii) Finally, suppose that they had never worked out what was causing
all this procreation, and had N children, and told you again that at
least one was a boy, what would the probability be that they were all
boys?
3. In a particularly hideous game show, a contestant is asked to guess
behind which of three closed doors a prize is hidden. He/she chooses
one of the three doors, and tells the compere his/her choice. That door
remains closed, but the compere (who knows where the prize actually
lies) then opens one of the two remaining doors, showing it to be empty
to the contestant. With the door of his/her original guess still closed,
the contestant is then given the chance to guess again. Is there any
advantage at this point to him/her in changing doors?
4. If we assume that the birthdays of the population are equally dis-
tributed throughout the year, how maIlY people, taken at random,
need to gather together in a room to give a greater than 50% chance
of at least two of them sharing a cammon birthday?
5. Use your calculator to work out In 10! Compare your answer with the
simple version of Stirling's theorem (N In N - N) . How big must N
be for the simple version of Stirling's theorem to be correct to within
(i) 5% (ii) 1% ?
6. In Section 1.3 we worked out the number of ways we could get heads
or tails when we flipped 4 coins (there were 6 ways of getting 2 heads
and 2 tails, 4 ways of getting 1 head and 3 tails etc. etc.). Using eqn
(1.1), work out the number of ways of getting 3 heads and 3 tails
 q
Lagrange's Method of Undetermined MUltipliers 15

just needed to differentiate with respect to the number of heads, n. Clearly,

for the particles it is not quite as simple as this, as we can vary the number
of particles in each of the energy levels, i.e. we can vary nl, or n2, or the
2 number of particles in any level. Therefore, the maximum value of 12 will
occur when

The Statistics of =a
d(ln 12)
In 12 a
In 12 0 In 12
-!::l-dnl + -!::l-dn2 + ... -!::l-dni + ... 0
Unl Un2 Uni
=
Distinguishable Particles But from eqn (2.3)
olnn
- - = -(lnnj + 1)
oni
and so
He uses statistics as a drunken man uses lamp-posts - for support rather than
illumination.
d(ln 12) =- L(ln n; + l)dni = 0 (2.4)
A. Lang
But recall that the total number of particles, and the total internal energy
2.1 The Boltzmann Distribution for Distinguishable Parti- are also constant, and so it follows that
cles
.'.'·'1 In Section 1.G we showed that for a system of N particles the macrostate
Ldn; =0 and LCjdnj =0 (2.5)
which has, in general, ni particles in the non-degenerate energy level Ej
I'
contains 12 microstates: Also, because of eqn (2.5), eqn (2.4) reduces to

n=~ (2.1) k d(ln 12) =- L In njdni = 0 (2.6)

.' nnj!
j
r..
~
.;.

But we also know that the total number of particles is constant, and, as we 2.2 Lagrange's Method of Undetermined MUltipliers
~#""'defitwd the system as being isolated from the environment, so too is the It can be seen from the working above that in order to maximize In 12 (and
",~ Clj('rgy. That is to say hence 12) we have three conditions to satisfy simultaneously:

N = L nj and U =L njEj (2.2) Lin njdnj = 0, Ldni = 0, and

\\,}W[I' (r is t.he total internal energy of the syst.em. We now wish to maximise Physically, this corresponds to finding the macrostate with the maximum
t
\2 10 lind out. the most. probable macrostate. Our approach is going to be number of microstates subject to the constraints of a given number of C
V('ry "illlilar to that for the coins. First. of all, we decide to maximise In 12 particles and a given energy. As we have three quantities that must all be
ratllt'r than 12 it.self, for t.he simple reason that the mathematics is made a
~
zero at the same time, we could certainly multiply two of them by arbitrary
101 ":\.~icr with the help of Stirling's theorem. So, taking logarithms of eqn
(:!.l).
constants, say a and {3: r-
Lin n;dn; = 0, aLdnj=O, and (3LE;dnj =0 . ~
Inn = InN! - LInn;!
~
The two constants, a and {3, are known as Lagrange multipliers. We can
ThcII IIsing Stirling's theorem we obtain now write .' ~
In n = N In N - N - L nj In nj + L nj = N In N - 2: ni In nj . (2.3) L dni(ln ni + a + {3Ei) = 0 (2.7) ~
j j ; 1 ~.....
III ord,'r to find the equilibrium state (the observed macrostate) we must How do we satisfy eqn (2.7)? As we have two unknowns, a and (3, we might ~
maxilJlize t.his quantity. For the coins maximizing 12 was fairly trivial - we argue that we could satisfy two of the terms simultaneously, i.e. we could ~. ,

t~.:..........._.'it iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii' · .7ii5------·1

16 The Statistics of Distinguishable Particles

eliminate the terms in dnl and dn2 by satisfying the two simultaneous
equations
I Total Energy = U
Lagrange's Method of Undetermined Multipliers

Thennally conducting wall

17

and
but even if we did this it would still leave all the other terms in the series
totally independent. Furthermore, there is no particular reason for picking
the first and second terms in the series - we could pick any two we liked, and
still leave all the rest independent. The result of this argument is that the N 2 particles
only way to satisfy eqn (2.7) is to treat all of the terms as being mutually m, in level f:'j
independent, and therefore each term in the series must be exactly zero,
that is to say for all values of i
(In nj + (X + j3e;) = 0
from which it follows that
nj =exp(-a-j3e;) =·Aexp(-j3e;) (2.8)
where for convenience we have written A = exp(-a). Fig. 2.1 Two separate systems of distinguishable non-degenerate particles are
This is starting to look a little like the expected Boltzmann distribution in thermal contact.' Their combined total energy, U = U1 + U2 , is constant.
- the number of particles in a given energy level falls off exponentially with
increasing energy. However, we are still left with the problem of determining We now crank the handle, and put this through the sausage machine
the constants A and 13. Note that if we knew what 13 was, then finding A once more (take logarithms, simplify using Stirling's theorem, and set the
would be trivial. A is just a constant of normalization, which can be seen differential of In n equal to 0 to find the maximum):
by substituting eqn (2.8) into eqn (2.2):
.In n = N 1 In N 1 - 2: nj In nj + N 2 ln N 2 - 2: mj In mj
:,.' N.=.A-2]exp(-j3c;)· '. . '. ,'. j

But how do we show what 13 is? Well, first,we will demonstrate that it d(ln n) = -d(2: nj In nj) - d(2: m;ln ~d ;, 0
must be some function of temperature.. j

Consider two systems separated by a thermally conducting wall as

shown in Fig. 2.1. The number of particles in each of the two boxes is 2: In njdnj + 2: In mjdmj = 0 (2.9)
fixed as N 1 and N 2 respectively. The particles in the first box have a spec-
trum of available energy 'levels C1,C2, ...ej ... , with nj particles in the
where we have made use of the fact that the total number of particles in
energy level Cj, whereas for the sake of generality we will allow the par-
each box is fixed. This is now our condition for equilibrium (i.e. maximizing
ticles in the second box to have their own spectrum of ava.ilable energy
the total number of microstates in the macrostate). As the combined energy
levels (not necessarily the same spectrum as for the first box), with mj
particles occupying the energy level s:.
As heat can flow from one box to
of the two systems is also constant, using Lagrange multipliers once again
we conclude that eqn (2.9) must hold alongside the conditions:
the other, all we know about the energy is that the combined energy of the
two systems, (U1 + U2), is constant.
Now I as the total probability is the product of the partial probabilities,
(Xl 2: dnj = 0, a2 L dmj = 0, and 13[2: ejdnj + L s:dmj] = 0
~~eea~~mber of microstates in a ~state of the two systems together is (2.10)
'!lliIo--
Combining eqns (2.9) and (2.10) we find:
n= Nil x N2!
. TInj! TImj! 2: dnj(~~nj + a1 + j3sd + 2: dmj(ln mj + a2 + j3sD =0
i f jl~ j ,

..
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
books about election and the elect, which they applied serenely to
other people. They were taught that all the people—outside, in the
street—in the world were destined to endless torments: all but a very
few, including themselves. They believed it, or said they did; and the
words never caused them a shudder, a gleam of pity, a thought of
remonstrance. That is what they called believing the doctrine.

Photo by H. N. King
LAST PHOTOGRAPH OF THE PRINCE CONSORT

The Church in 1837 is venerable, but tottering. Within there are

high pews, long pews, square pews, pews with a fireplace, pews in
the chancel; the organ is in the west gallery where the choir sits. In
the middle there is a “three-decker” i.e. a pulpit, a reading-desk, and
a clerk’s desk, one above the other. The original east window has
been destroyed and is replaced by a modern thing. The charity
children sit round the altar rails. The once open roof is squared down
and plastered over, half the windows are bricked up, one aisle has
been pulled down and rebuilt in brick.

Photo by H. N. King
STATUE OF QUEEN AND PRINCE CONSORT AT WINDSOR
 Photo by Valentine
THE ALBERT MEMORIAL, LONDON

These ladies read little; they went nowhere. London was

unknown to them, save for one short visit. They were full of
prejudice. They would not visit their right-hand neighbour, because
her money—not much of it—came from the drapery trade; nor their
left-hand neighbour, because one must draw the line above the
farmer’s daughter. They were full of little pretensions. Their papa was
formerly the vicar—a gentleman and a scholar; or he was a solicitor,
who, though himself sprung from a shop, was a gentleman by right
of his profession; therefore his daughters refused to visit their
cousins. It was truly wonderful to watch the social hedges raised
everywhere.
 Photo by Mayall
A FAMILY GROUP
(Standing)
PRINCE AND PRINCESS OF WALES
DUKE AND DUCHESS OF HESSE
(Seated)
PRINCESS CHRISTIAN
THE QUEEN
PRINCESS BEATRICE
DUKE OF CONNAUGHT
PRINCESS ROYAL
 Somehow or other these hedges troubled the younger folk little.
The young man came along in due course. He came to tea, he
brought his flute, he stayed to supper—bread and cheese and beer,
with a glass of hot brandy and water afterwards. He gazed upon one
of the girls; one Sunday evening he presented her with a rose in the
church porch. The vicar that evening demonstrated the impossibility
of hoping to escape, but the girl with the rose in her hand sat
tremulous, flushed, happy. After the sermon the young man walked
home with her, the sister giving up her place and walking with the
brother. The young man stayed to supper—cold lamb and a lettuce,
with beer and a glass of hot brandy and water. They talked of the
sermon of despair, and the text, with no escape possible. While they
talked, the spring of love was welling up in the girl’s young heart—
thus is the soundest theology mocked by Nature. In two or three
months there followed the wedding, with the breakfast and the pink
champagne.
Not every country town has experienced this decline; some few
have escaped, but all have suffered more or less which depend
entirely on the agricultural interest. Of one class I speak with great
sympathy—the Nonconformist ministers. They were none too well
paid in the most palmy days. The chapel contained perhaps a
hundred and twenty members; these members paid two shillings a
quarter each for his seat, or eight shillings a year. There was no
endowment; the minister therefore received forty pounds a year. This
was increased by voluntary gifts from the richer members of the
congregation, so that the minister probably reckoned on a hundred
or a hundred and twenty pounds a year for his stipend. Now, alas!
there are no richer members, there are no voluntary offerings; the
poor man has to keep himself and his family on forty pounds a year.
What is this country town like after all these years? There are a
few changes in the buildings, but not many. The market-place, the
corn exchange, the cross, the old inn, are all there. The church has
been restored; the pillars have been deprived of their plaster and are
once more of polished stone, the high pews are replaced by low
benches, the roof is opened up, the east window is restored, other
 windows are in
course of
restoration; it is
now a noble and
very beautiful old
church. The organ
and choir have
been sent to the
chancel; the “three-
decker” has made
way for a small and
richly-carved pulpit;
there is light,
colour, brightness
in the church and
its decorations, a
light and colour
which appear also
in the service.
The other
changes in the
town are not so
apparent. You will
find, however, that
the farmers’
Photo By Gunn & Stuart
ordinary is no
longer held—the
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES
times are now too
bad. Nor do
gentlemen drink port all the evening; the old port is all gone. The inn
is a house of call for bicyclists, who drink beer or tea; there are not
so many finely appointed dog-carts driving in and out—landlords, like
their tenants, are badly hit. The market is not so well attended—
there are fewer rustics. The saddler especially is a melancholy man,
because the agricultural depression has struck him hard—a man can
go on using an old
saddle for years.
All the
shopkeepers,
however, are
gloomy, their shops
hardly yield them a
living. The lawyer’s
income has
suffered grievously,
so has the
doctor’s; their
daughters have left
the town and are
getting their own
living by working at
something or other.
All the young men
have gone.
Everybody leaves
the town who can,
for it is a place of
decay.
Yet is the town
really brighter and
better than before; Photo by Gunn & Stuart
far and wide its
H.R.H. THE PRINCESS OF WALES
arms stretch out to
its sons who have
gone away. Some are ranching in Canada, some are fruit farming in
California, some are practising medicine on Ocean Liners or in
colonial towns, some are teaching in schools and colleges at home
and in the colonies, some are labourers on farms in Manitoba or
British Columbia, soon to be themselves owners of farms. The town
is poorer, there are fewer people; yet, apart from money, it is a far
richer place than it was, with broader minds, with fewer prejudices,
and greater knowledge.
 CHAPTER VII

THE DAY OF NEW IDEAS

“Voices call us—whither? Ah! whither?”

T is doubtful business to ascribe new ideas to a whole

people. For change of ideas is more gradual than change
of manners. We may go on for a long time acting under
one influence and thinking that we believe in another. But
from all that has gone before, I think we may assume a change in the
governing beliefs and sentiments of the nation greater than any change
since the time of Queen Elizabeth, when the old faith gave way to the
new and with the new faith came new courage, new arts, new
enterprise, a new literature.
As to our religion, that has indeed changed. The Calvinist, the old
Evangelical, lingers yet here and there, but he is comparatively rare;
even in the narrower sects there has been a broadening influence at
work. In the Anglican faith—the Church of England—which is
apparently destined to absorb all other forms, we have agreed tacitly to
talk no more about the salvation of our souls, neither to talk about it,
nor to think about it; to believe ourselves to be one flock in one fold,
with one shepherd. Whether this change conduces to the higher
spiritual life, I cannot venture to affirm or to deny; I am no theologian.
That the world has become, through this change, through the cessation
of the awful question which formerly poisoned life, far, very far happier
than it was, I do declare without hesitation and from my own personal
knowledge and experience. There was no very high spiritual life,
formerly, so far as I remember, among those who sought the hardest to
limit the mercy of Heaven; they led the common life of the lower
slopes, with trade in their minds and trade on their souls. There is no
very high spiritual life under the changed conditions; still the common
folk live the common life. Here and there among the clergy is found a
Stanley; here and there among the crowd one lights upon a saint.
Always there is the common life for the multitude; always there is the
saintly life for the chosen few, whether the leader is St. Francis or
Calvin, whether the head of the Church be the Pope, or the Archbishop
of Canterbury, or John Wesley. Let us teach men and women to live
well, with full consideration for each other—which is the most
comprehensive virtue; the life which thinks of others is the happiest.
Another ingredient in
happiness is physical comfort. We
are all much better fed than we
were, better housed, better clad;
all along the line the standard of
comfort has been advanced. The
huge barracks in which the
working-classes of the great
cities now live are not pretty, but
consider how much more
comfortable they are than the old
court of tumble-down cottages
with a street about four feet
wide. The new barracks are fully
provided with water, they are
kept in a sanitary condition as
good as any palace of prince or
Photo by Russell & Sons peer, they are light and airy. Go
into any of the old courts—there
H.R.H. THE DUKE OF YORK
are a few still at Westminster—
and see for yourselves the dirty,
dilapidated dens in which the people formerly lived. Then, while you
think of the advanced standard of comfort, remember the cheap bread,
the cheap tea, the cheap meat, the cheap butter, cheese, bacon, eggs,
fruit, which are now offered to the working-man. Not only have his
wages gone up, but their purchasing power has advanced as well. If
instead of eighteen shillings a week
he now gets thirty, and if a shilling
now could buy twice as much as a
shilling sixty years ago, the
standard of comfort for this man
and his family has been advanced
indeed.
This standard of comfort, this
increase in solid happiness, has by
long custom and usage become the
right of the people. They consider
it as much their right as any of the
liberties secured by Act of
Parliament. This new right
constitutes a danger, because a
national disaster might run food up
to famine prices, and then we
should see, what we have not seen Photo by Russell & Sons
for a long time, the tigerish side of H.R.H. THE DUCHESS OF YORK
the Anglo-Saxon.
THE JUBILEE PROCESSION (1887) LEAVING BUCKINGHAM PALACE
 Photo by Hughes & Mullins
HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN IN JUBILEE DRESS, 1887

We have learned that the old revolutionary cry has quite died away
and is almost forgotten. This also is partly the result of the increased
comfort. At the same time the advance of democratic ideas has been
most marked. Slowly but surely, the whole power in the country has
passed into the hands of the Commons. The dominant idea at the
present moment of our people is that the country must be governed for
them and by them. This would have seemed a most terrible thing sixty
years ago. That we should be governed by working-men! Incredible! It
is, however, the fact; we are governed by the people. Only, what the
prophets did not understand, the governing power is delegated by the
people to representatives, who are not, as a rule, working-men; one or
two working-men are in the House and doing well. The people,
however, are very chary of electing one of themselves; they prefer to
send to the House as their representatives such men as John Morley
and James Bryce, scholars and students, responsible persons, whom
they know and can trust; they will not send demagogues and wind-
bags and political adventurers. You have seen how they treat the
House of Lords; so long as it gives no trouble it may remain, but only
on condition that it is recruited from new families. If it were to obstruct
any really popular movement—which the House will not do—we should
see what would happen. Meantime, the people look abroad and judge
for themselves. They observe that the great colonies are all Republics,
and are doing well under republican institutions. If we were not doing
well under our institutions, it is quite certain that the revolutionary cry
would be heard again.

THE JUBILEE PROCESSION (1887) APPROACHING TRAFALGAR SQUARE

THE JUBILEE PROCESSION (1887) IN REGENT STREET
 Copyright Foster & Dickinson
THE GOVERNMENT SIDE OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS ON THE NIGHT OF THE
DIVISION ON THE HOME RULE BILL,
8th September 1893
The Lord Chancellor about to ‘Put the Question’

As regards work and wages, the people are firmly persuaded that
they are entitled to be the dictators. They think that they have a right
to exact what wages they think are fair, and to work for such hours as
they think right. There have been desperate struggles, in which the
employers have lost huge sums of money, while the men have suffered
terrible privations. It is not for me to discuss in this place the right or
the wrong of Trades Unions; it is enough to state that the working-men
hold this belief, and are ready, whenever it is possible, to act upon it.
 Copyright Foster & Dickinson
THE CONSERVATIVE BENCHES OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS ON THE NIGHT OF THE
DIVISION ON THE HOME RULE BILL,
8th September 1893
The Marquis of Salisbury speaking

It is sometimes maintained that the British workman is a socialist;

well, it is certainly true that socialism exists in his ranks; yet he is not a
socialist. Out of the vague socialism which floats about everywhere are
springing up ideas, not adopting the theory of universal equality of
work and pay, whether to the able man or to the fool, but ideas as to
the rights of labour, ideas as to the power and the share which should
be allotted to Capital. That these questions should be discussed by the
working-classes, whom they so closely concern, appears to me most
wholesome for the State. Capital was formerly a despot; Capital took
what it pleased, and tossed the workman what it pleased. Capital can
do so no longer; Capital has now to reckon with a rival power, far
greater than itself in strength as soon as it proves equally great in
resolution. I believe so fully in the sense of justice which underlies
everything in our working-man’s mind, that I do not believe that,
however strong he will be, he will ignore the rights of Capital.

A GARDEN PARTY AT BUCKINGHAM PALACE

As to the educational and informing influences of which we have

already spoken, they are only beginning to be felt. Everywhere is to be
seen the working lad studying in the Free Library side by side with
those who only read for amusement. The young fellow who studies is
going to rise in the world; he will become an employer, or he will
become a political leader. We may reckon upon seeing the House of
Commons, in fifty years, filled with such popular leaders sent up by the
constituents. They will not be necessarily demagogues; they will not be
necessarily adventurers seeking fortune and place by politics
(fortunately members of the House of Commons are unpaid, this
discourages the adventurers); they will, however, be leaders of the
people, sprung from the people.
 Copyright S. Hildesheimer & Co., Ltd.
THE HOUSE OF COMMONS DURING THE HOME RULE DEBATE
Mr. Gladstone addressing the House

Everything points, I repeat, to the advance of democratic ideas in

all directions. For instance, most of the Civil Service is now open to
competitive examination; the lads of the Polytechnics will get these
appointments. There are some branches not yet open; these will also
be thrown open. The law and medicine now require a five years’
training, at a cost of over a thousand pounds; these professions will be
thrown open to the lads who can pass the examinations. It is now
impossible for a poor lad to enter the army or the navy; by changes in
the management and daily life of a regiment or a ship, poor lads will be
enabled to win commissions.
 Photo by Hughes & Mullins
A BREAKFAST PARTY AT OSBORNE
PRINCESS MARIE VICTORIA OF EDINBURGH
PRINCESS ALEXANDRA OF EDINBURGH
PRINCESS BEATRICE OF EDINBURGH
THE QUEEN
PRINCESS ALICE OF HESSE
DUKE OF CONNAUGHT
PRINCESS HENRY OF BATTENBERG
PRINCESS IRENE OF HESSE

These changes for the lads and working-men I foresee very clearly.
With regard to the position of women I also foresee important changes.
At the present moment there is a wild and insensate game of “grab”
going on. Women admit of no restrictions, they claim everything. They
are not satisfied with the whole intellectual field, they would overrun
the field of physical labour. They take the men’s work at half the pay,
they drive the men out of the country, they remove from themselves
the possibility of marriage, they deny the country that increase of
population which the country has a right to expect. This folly will
presently cease; calmer and more sensible counsels will prevail. It will
be recognised that Nature assigns limitations and prescribes certain
kinds of work for men, and certain other kinds for women. Above all, it
will be remembered that if a man owes himself to his country as a
soldier or a workman, so a woman owes to her country the duties of
maternity.
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