(Ebook) The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research by Joseph F. Healey ISBN 9781305093836, 1305093836download
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The essenTials
of sTaTisTiCs
a Tool for social Research
Fourth Edition
Joseph f. healey
Christopher Newport University
Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
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The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool © 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning
for Social Research, Fourth Edition WCN: 02-200-203
Joseph F. Healey
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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Brief Contents
Preface xiii
Prologue: Basic Mathematics Review xx
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
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iv BriEF ContEnts
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Detailed Contents
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
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vi DEtailED ContEnts
GLOSSARY / 55 PROBLEMS / 55 ●
The Mode 64
The Median 66
One Step at a Time: Finding the Median 67
The Mean 68
One Step at a Time: Finding the Mean 69
Three Characteristics of the Mean 69
Using SPSS to Produce Measures of Central Tendency 73
Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency 75
Applying Statistics 3.1: The Mean, Mode, and Median 76
SUMMARY / 78 SUMMARY OF FORMULAS / 78
● ●
GLOSSARY / 78 PROBLEMS / 78 ●
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DEtailED ContEnts vii
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viii DEtailED ContEnts
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DEtailED ContEnts ix
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x DEtailED ContEnts
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DEtailED ContEnts xi
Using SPSS to Conduct a Regression Analysis and Calculate Pearson’s r and r2 347
The Correlation Matrix 347
Using SPSS to Produce a Correlation Matrix 348
Correlation and Causation 350
Correlation and Statistical Significance 350
Correlation, Regression, Level of Measurement, and Dummy Variables 351
Using SPSS to Produce a Regression Analysis with a Dummy Variable 352
Applying Statistics 12.2: Fertility and Women’s Education 353
Becoming a Critical Consumer: Correlation, Causation, and Cancer 354
SUMMARY / 354 SUMMARY OF FORMULAS / 355
● ●
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xii DEtailED ContEnts
Glossary 441
Index 447
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Preface
Statistics are part of the everyday language of sociology and other social sci-
ences (including political science, social work, public administration, criminal
justice, urban studies, and gerontology). These disciplines are research-based
and routinely use statistics to express knowledge and to discuss theory and
research. To join the conversations being conducted in these disciplines, you
must be literate in the vocabulary of research, data analysis, and scientific
thinking. Knowledge of statistics will enable you to understand the profes-
sional research literature, conduct quantitative research yourself, contribute to
the growing body of social science knowledge, and reach your full potential as
a social scientist.
Although essential, learning (and teaching) statistics can be a challenge. Stu-
dents in social science statistics courses typically have a wide range of math-
ematical backgrounds and an equally diverse set of career goals. They are often
puzzled about the relevance of statistics for them, and, not infrequently, there is
some math anxiety to deal with. This text introduces statistical analysis for the
social sciences while addressing these realities.
The text makes minimal assumptions about mathematical background (the
ability to read a simple formula is sufficient preparation for virtually all of the mate-
rial in the text), and a variety of special features help students analyze data success-
fully. The text has been written especially for sociology and social work programs
but is sufficiently flexible to be used in any program with a social science base.
The text is written at an intermediate level and its intent is to show the
relevance and value of statistics for the social sciences. I emphasize interpre-
tation and understanding statistics in the context of social science research,
but I have not sacrificed comprehensive coverage or statistical correctness.
Mathematical explanations are kept at an elementary level, as is appropriate
in a first exposure to social statistics. For example, I do not treat formal prob-
ability theory per se in the text.1 Rather, the background necessary for an un-
derstanding of inferential statistics is introduced, informally and intuitively,
in Chapters 5 and 6 while considering the concepts of the normal curve and
the sampling distribution.
The text does not claim that statistics are “fun” or that the material can be
mastered without considerable effort. At the same time, students are not over-
whelmed with abstract proofs, formula derivations, or mathematical theory,
which can needlessly frustrate the learning experience at this level.
1A presentation of probability is available at the website for this text for those who are interested.
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xiv PrEFaCE
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PrEFaCE xv
allows students to more easily see the relevance of statistics to their own
academic interests. (Not incidentally, they will also see that the disciplines
have a large subject matter in common.)
Also, a series of boxed features entitled “Statistics in Everyday Life”
appear in each chapter and highlight the relevance of statistics in the real
world and provide examples of everyday applications.
●
Interpreting statistics. For most students, interpretation—saying what sta-
tistics mean—is a big challenge. The ability to interpret statistics can be
developed only by exposure and experience. To provide exposure, I have
been careful, in the example problems, to express the meaning of the sta-
tistic in terms of the original research question. To provide experience, the
end-of-chapter problems call for an interpretation of the statistic calculated.
To provide examples, many of the answers to odd-numbered computational
problems in the back of the text are expressed in words as well as numbers.
●
Using statistics: Ideas for research projects. Appendix E offers ideas for in-
dependent data-analysis projects for students. The projects require students
to use SPSS to analyze a dataset. They can be assigned at intervals through-
out the semester or at the end of the course. Each project provides an oppor-
tunity for students to practice and apply their statistical skills and, above all,
to exercise their ability to understand and interpret the statistics they produce.
3. The Ability to Read the Professional Social Science Literature. The sta-
tistically literate person can comprehend and critically appreciate research re-
ports written by others. The development of this skill is a particular problem at
the introductory level because (1) the vocabulary of professional researchers is
so much more concise than the language of the textbook, and (2) the statistics
featured in the literature are more advanced than those covered at the introduc-
tory level. This text helps to bridge this gap by
●
Always expressing the meaning of each statistic in terms of answering a
social science research question.
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xvi PrEFaCE
●
Providing a series of boxed inserts called “Becoming a Critical Consumer”
that help students decipher the statistics they are likely to encounter in
everyday life as well as in the professional literature.
additional features
A number of other features make the text more meaningful for students and more
useful for instructors.
●
Readability and clarity. The writing style is informal and accessible to students
without ignoring the traditional vocabulary of statistics. Problems and examples
have been written to maximize student interest and to focus on issues of concern
and significance. For the more difficult material (such as hypothesis testing),
students are first walked through an example problem before being confronted
by formal terminology and concepts. Each chapter ends with a summary of ma-
jor points and formulas and a glossary of important concepts. A list of frequently
used formulas inside the covers and a glossary can be used for quick reference.
●
Organization and coverage. The text is divided into four parts, with most of
the coverage devoted to univariate descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and
bivariate measures of association. The distinction between description and in-
ference is introduced in the first chapter and maintained throughout the text.
In selecting statistics for inclusion, I have tried to strike a balance between the
essential concepts with which students must be familiar and the amount of mate-
rial students can reasonably be expected to learn in their first (and perhaps only)
statistics course, all the while bearing in mind that different instructors will natu-
rally wish to stress different aspects of the subject. Thus, the text covers a full
gamut of the usual statistics, with each chapter broken into subsections so that
instructors may choose the particular statistics they wish to include.
●
Learning objectives. Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each
chapter. These are intended to serve as “study guides” and to help students
identify and focus on the most important material.
●
Using Statistics. At the beginning of each chapter, some applications of the
statistics to be introduced are presented to give students a context for appre-
ciating the material and some further examples of the usefulness of statistics.
●
Review of mathematical skills. A comprehensive review of all of the math-
ematical skills that will be used in this text is included as a Prologue. Students
who are inexperienced or out of practice with mathematics can study this re-
view early in the course and/or refer to it as needed. A self-test is included so
that students can check their level of preparation for the course.
●
Statistical techniques and end-of-chapter problems are explicitly linked. After
a technique is introduced, students are directed to specific problems for prac-
tice and review. The “how-to-do-it” aspects of calculation are immediately
and clearly reinforced.
●
End-of-chapter problems are organized progressively. Simpler problems with
small datasets are presented first. Often, explicit instructions or hints accompany
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PrEFaCE xvii
the first several problems in a set. The problems gradually become more chal-
lenging and require more decision making by the student (e.g., choosing the
most appropriate statistic for a certain situation). Thus, each problem set de-
velops problem-solving abilities gradually and progressively.
●
Computer applications. This text integrates SPSS, the leading social science
statistics package, to help students take advantage of the power of the
computer. Appendix F provides an introduction to SPSS, and demonstrations
are integrated into the chapters. SPSS-based problems are included at the end
of chapters, and research projects using SPSS are presented in the “You Are
the Researcher” feature.
●
Realistic, up-to-date data. The databases for computer applications in the text
include a shortened version of the 2012 General Social Survey, a dataset that
includes census and crime data for the 50 states, and a dataset that includes
demographic data for 99 nations. These databases will give students the
opportunity to practice their statistical skills on “real-life” data. All databases
are described in Appendix G.
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xviii PrEFaCE
acknowledgments
This text, in one form or another, has been in development for 30 years. An enor-
mous number of people have made contributions, both great and small, to this
project and, at the risk of inadvertently omitting someone, I am bound to at least
attempt to acknowledge my many debts.
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