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 CHAPTER 8
TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING METHODS

ESSENTIAL OUTCOME

After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should be able to
distinguish between and differentiate amongst the various training methods that
constitute technology-based training, and have an appreciation for the important and
increasing role technology plays in the design and delivery of workplace training.

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define and discuss technology-based training, traditional training, computer-based

training, and e-learning.
2. Compare and contrast instructor-led and self-directed learning.
3. Define and give examples of asynchronous and synchronous training.
4. Define and discuss electronic performance support systems.
5. Define and discuss video conferencing, web conferencing, webinars, webcasts, and
the virtual classroom.
6. Define and discuss social constructivism and generative learning.
7. Define and discuss social media, Web 2.0 technologies, and Web 3.0.
8. Define mobile learning and discuss its use for training.
9. Describe how to design computer-based training programs.
10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computer-based training for
individuals and organizations.
11. Discuss the effectiveness of computer-based training.

KEY CONCEPTS: HOW DOES THIS CHAPTER CONNECT TO THE WORLD OF

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT?

1. Technology-based training involves the use of technology to deliver the training,

while traditional training does not. An extension of computer-based training,
e-learning involves using the Web (Internet or intranet) as the medium for
delivery.

2. Technology-based training may be instructor-led or self-directed, and delivered

either synchronously or asynchronously.

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-1

 3. Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) provide information, advice, and
learning experiences to trainees in a “just-in-time” manner to facilitate learning
when it is needed, as it is needed.

4. Video and web conferencing, link trainees with trainers and other experts,
typically at the trainee’s work station or in a virtual classroom, and has the
advantage of reducing or eliminating the costs, inconveniences, and time away
from work that is often involved with traditional training.

5. A trend in technology-based training is the move toward the use of social media
(such as Facebook, Twitter, and wikis), which forms part of what is referred to as
Web 2.0 and which emphasizes the sharing of information and knowledge as
opposed to the one-way transmission of it. A key concept in relation to this is the
notion of social constructivism, which emphasizes learning through social
interaction in a dynamic learning environment. As tablets and smart phone
devices continue to increase in popularity and use, technology-based training
continues to shift more toward mobile learning.

6. When designing computer-based training, it is important to remember that

technology is the medium for delivery and not the focus of it. Regardless of the
delivery medium, effective training programs depend on good design that takes
into account learning theory and preferences and the desired outcomes of the
training. At the same time, computer-based training lends itself to the use of
computer simulations, games, and other techniques that enhance learner
engagement and interaction.

7. Like all training methods, whether on- or off-the-job, technology-based training

has advantages and disadvantages to both trainees and the organization that
must be taken into consideration. If designed appropriately for the training
objectives and under the proper conditions, technology-based training can be
extremely effective and will in all likelihood continue to grow both in popularity
and use.

STUDENT MOTIVATION: WHY SHOULD STUDENTS CARE?

Most students, regardless of their age or background, will have at least some familiarity
and most likely some direct experience with technology-based training. As computers,
smart phones, and tablets are close to the point of being ubiquitous, it is probable that
the interest in this subject matter will be rather strong for most students. As technology
changes faster than textbook examples can keep pace with, it is a good idea to draw on
fresh examples (your own and/or your students’) to illustrate the utility and application of
this topic.

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-2

BARRIERS TO LEARNING: WHAT ARE SOME COMMON STUDENT
MISCONCEPTIONS AND STUMBLING BLOCKS?

The above notwithstanding, you may find a fairly wide range of experiences in your
classroom, particularly if you are teaching a continuing studies class with a mix of
learner age and backgrounds. In other words, you might have more mature students
who have limited exposure to some of the latest technology or students who, through
lack of financial means or even personal interest, have not had much experience with
technology or technology-based training. It might be helpful in this case, without
identifying or referring to individual students, to note that this same challenge exists in
most workplaces as well.

Additionally, you may have students who are tech-savvy to the point where they are
“consumed” by the latest gadget, Apple or Android app, or latest and greatest software
version. These learners may well know more about technology than you do, but
probably not more about technology for training. In any case, their current knowledge
may make valuable contributions to the class.

Finally, acknowledge that the pace and rate of technological change represent great
challenges and opportunities for all concerned. As an example of this, you may wish to
point out that while the textbook makes several references to CD-ROMs and even
“diskettes,” many students will view these media as irrelevant (or even extinct), or at the
very least, quaint references to out-dated technology.

ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES: WHAT CAN I DO IN CLASS?

1. For In-Class Exercise 1, on page 248: Conduct this exercise in pairs if students
have a reasonable amount of experience. If they are less experienced, do in
small teams of 4–6, ensuring each team has a member who can offer and
describe a training program in sufficient detail to enable the rest of the team to
complete the exercise. Debrief.

2. For In-Class Exercise 2, on page 249: Divide the class into groups of 4–5. Have
each group answer the questions for the current class and present their analysis
in class. Summarize the analyses made by the various groups. As an alternative,
determine whether there are students who have done online training and ask
them to make presentations answering these questions in class. (Note: Revert to
the textbook suggestion of allowing the students to select a class for a course of
their choosing if you sense they might be reluctant to critique your class).

3. For In-Class Exercise 3, on page 249: Assign this activity as a group exercise
with a class presentation by each group. Alternatively, if you have engaged the
services of an HR professional as a guest speaker, you may also ask him/her to
respond to these questions as part of the presentation.

4. For In-Class Exercise 4, on page 249: Assign as an in-class group activity with
group representatives presenting and answering queries by classmates.

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-3

 Summarize and debrief. Consider combining this exercise with the Case Study
found on pages 251–253.

5. For In-Class Exercise 5, on page 249: Assign as a small team exercise (see
Lecture Outline, H – Designing Technology-Based Training, below).

Suggestions for Large Class Exercises

a) This is best for classes where there are a large number of students with access to a
laptop during class. Using the class website (if available; if necessary create a google+
group or wiki page for the class), have students participate in live blogging during a
portion of the class to have them post their questions, comments, or observations about
the lecture of the day. Discuss how this tool can be helpful to encourage participation in
large classes. Discuss any disadvantages to this kind of participation.

b) For classes with a dedicated class website, discuss how the course website acts as a
form of web-based learning even in a traditional classroom. How has this helped
students compared to classes they take where this feature is not an option?

Suggestions for Technology-Enhanced Classrooms

a) Ask one or more students in advance to select a web-based training program that
they have access to (ensure there are no confidentiality issues, etc.) and demonstrate it
to the class. Have the other students critique the elements of the course and identify
any recommendations for improvement.

b) Ask a student to bring in a current and popular video game or online game/simulation
(ensure it is appropriate for general audience). Have them demonstrate the
game/simulation. Ask students to identify elements of the game/simulation that are
similar or in keeping with design principles for computer-based learning. How do these
elements make the game/simulation interesting, entertaining, or effective? What
application does this have to web-based learning?

Suggestions for Internet Classes

a) Have students identify the various design elements recommended for web-based
learning that are present in this course. Which are missing and how would these
enhance their learning experience?

b) Debate whether motivation to learn is more important than design features on your
course discussion board.

c) On the course discussion board, discuss how Senge’s concepts of community of

practice (Chapter 2) are evident and used in the design of this course.

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-4

ASSESSMENT TOOLS

You may wish to make use of the Test Bank, PowerPoint slides, or at the end of a class,
ask a student to summarize the key points from the lesson.

REFLECTIONS ON TEACHING: HOW CAN I ASSESS MY OWN “PERFORMANCE”?

Good teaching requires the practice of ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the
completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following and consider
whether or not you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons.

1. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t?

2. Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents?
3. Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning?
4. Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts?
5. What (if anything) should I do differently next time?
6. How can I gather student feedback?
7. How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Chapter Summary

This chapter described technology-based training methods and serves as a

complement to Chapters 6 and 7, which described on-the-job and off-the-job training
methods. First, we described the meaning of technology-based training, computer-
based training, and e-learning. Then we described the differences between instructor-
led training and self-directed learning, and between synchronous and asynchronous
training. This was followed by a description of different types of technology-based
training including electronic performance support systems, video and web conferencing,
webinars and webcasts, and the use of social media and Web 2.0 technologies. We
then described how to design computer-based training programs and their advantages
and disadvantages for individuals and organizations. The chapter concluded with a
discussion of the effectiveness of computer-based training.

Lecture Outline

COMMENTS ACTIVITY
A. Introduction
Unless you have been living in a cave Ask students to identify when, where, and
somewhere for the past few years, under what circumstances they have been
chances are you have had at least some involved in technology-based training, and
experience with technology-based record their answers on the board or
training! flipchart. Show definitions and compare/
contrast with traditional training. Discuss.

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-5

B. Types of Technology-Based Training
Let’s look at the most commonly used Starting with the list the students created,
methods of technology-based training and move through each of the nine types
share some real-life examples. identified in Table 8.1. Ask students to
elaborate on their experiences and
supplement the discussion with your own
examples.

C. How Prevalent Is Technology-Based

Training in Canada and the US?
So, is technology-based training going to Discuss the emergence of this technology
replace traditional training too? and where it seems to be moving.

D. Computer-based Training and

E-Learning
How training is organized and delivered Differentiate e-learning from the more
are important considerations. Let’s look at generic term of computer-based training
some key concepts. and provide examples of each.

E. Instructor-Led and Self-Directed

Learning
One of the most discussed aspects of Ask students to share their thoughts on
technology-based training is the changing the topic, from both an objective and
role of the trainer. What are the various personal perspective. Use the discussion
roles for trainers in technology-based as a way of describing instructor-led
training? technologies and self-directed learning.

F. Asynchronous and Synchronous

Training
The former is training that is prerecorded Discuss examples of asynchronous and
and available to employees and the latter synchronous and the merits of each.
is live, requiring real-time attention from
trainees.

G. Common Forms of Technology-based

Training
Now we will look at a common form of Prepare and provide examples of each,
asynchronous training—electronic depending on your access to technology
performance support systems—and one in the classroom. If you have Internet
popular form of synchronous learning— access, go to http://www.skillsoft.com and
video/web conferencing. show an example of an e-learning course.
To demonstrate an EPSS, enable the
animated Office Assistant in Microsoft
Word or PowerPoint. Offer an example of
video conferencing or ask the class to
share experiences they have with this. Go

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-6

 to http://www.endnote.com/training/ to
show examples of online tutorials as well
as regularly scheduled free webinars.

H. Designing Technology-Based Training

Is technology the focus, or is learning? With students, identify common pitfalls
and mistakes made in designing
technology-based training, and review
adult learning and active practice
principles. This discussion should cover
computer games, simulations, role plays,
stories, customization, personalization,
human interaction, and feedback. In small
teams, have students complete In-Class
Exercise 5 (see Engagement Strategies,
above).

I. Advantages and Disadvantages and

Effectiveness
Like anything, technology-based training In small groups, have students assess the
has an upside and a downside. disadvantages and advantages and
determine how these impact the
effectiveness of technology-based
training. Discuss Trainer’s Notebook 8.1
on strategies for making technology-based
training effective.

J. Future of Technology-Based Training

New learning on social constructivism Review slides on social constructivism.
demonstrates how it lends itself to web- Demonstrate examples of Web 2.0 tools
based learning. such as blogs, wikis, podcasts, and mobile
learning apps. Have students identify how
these could be used in everyday learning
situations.

Web Links

 Training Zone article on technology-based training: Excellent source of free

training articles, but requires setting up a log-in account):
http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/item/14534

 EndNote Product Training website: A good sample of online tutorials as well as

regularly scheduled live webinars:
http://www.endnote.com/training/

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-7

New Case Incident 1

The Shoe Club is a national retailer in Canada. It has locations in all provinces, with
several stores in major cities and rural locations. Customer-service training for staff has
traditionally been done at the closest major city by the regional trainer. However, it has
required a lot of travel and expense on the part of the trainees and a high workload for
the regional trainer, as there is often high turnover in the customer-service staff. The
company is considering moving to a web-based training program but doesn’t want to
lose the “personal touch” of the regional trainer.

a) What factors would make it attractive for the organization to move to a web-based
training program for its customer-service staff?

b) How would you ensure the “personal touch” is not lost in this training?

Answers

a) A variety of factors would make The Shoe Club a good candidate for using web-
based training. The store is national and has multiple locations. The store likely already
has a computerized network and supporting infrastructure to enable the use of web-
based learning. There are stores in rural locations where it becomes costly for the
trainee to travel to the major city for training. High turnover in the customer-service role
means the regional trainer is doing a lot of “repeat” training of the same content that
could easily be provided on demand through web-based learning. The customer-service
content translates well in web-based programs.

b) In order not to lose the “personal touch” in the training, the organization can design in
various elements including some synchronous portions where the trainer and trainee
could be online together; a web/video conference with the trainer at various points
during the training; or periods of time where the trainer can be available for on-demand
support. In addition, there can be the use of an asynchronous discussion board or chat
feature where the trainer can answer trainee questions.

New Case Incident 2

The staff who are responsible for product-buying at The Shoe Club work primarily from
their home offices as well as travel extensively in Europe and Asia, visiting shoe
manufacturers. They have often struggled to stay on top of organizational changes,
information, and new business information, as they are not in the office very often. They
have asked if there are ways in which they can access training, new company
information, and yet not be required to attend sessions at the office or be “chained” to
their desktop computer.

a) As the training manager, how would you use Web 2.0 technologies to meet the
needs of the buyers?

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-8

b) Could these technologies be beneficial within the rest of the organization?

Answers

a) Assuming that the buyers would all have some form of mobile device (Blackberry,
iPhone, etc.), they could definitely make use of Web 2.0 technology to stay up-to-date
with training and organizational information. The training manager could create a wiki
site for buyers to share current information amongst each other and have an RSS feed
to let each other know when new content has been added; they could tap into webinars
or podcasts of organizational messages or short training sessions sent to their mobile
device. Their mobile device would allow them to view PowerPoint slides and/or audio
portion. Accessing these tools via their mobile device would not restrict them to attend
training in the office or require them to be stuck at their desk in their home office. It
would also allow them access to these tools while travelling overseas. The addition of
photo and video technology on mobile devices would also allow them to link into video
conferences as required.

b) Yes, all of these tools could have application with the other staff in the organization;
however, it would be important to match the tool with the content and the audience to
ensure that it meets their needs. Not all staff need or want to learn in these ways.

Flashback Answers

1. Training design and e-learning:

 The strategy for introducing e-learning relied heavily on re-purposing
existing training material designed for traditional classroom-based
delivery. Little thought went into what changes in training design might be
necessary for an effective e-learning course.
 Refer to Table 5.3 on page 146. The e-learning course consisted entirely
of passive learning (watching video clips of the trainer presenting “live,”
augmented with text)—there was no inclusion of active practice (e.g.,
having trainees respond to quiz questions on key information before being
able to proceed to the next learning point, or work on a web-based
simulation as part of the course). Further, the training was hyped as a “big
thing,” but little if anything was done to prepare trainees in advance (pre-
training interventions), and it does not appear that the course incorporated
any of the conditions of practice during training, such as overlearning, task
sequencing, or feedback or knowledge of results (which could also have
been at least partially accomplished by incorporating a quiz component).
2. Use of active learning and adaptive expertise:
 To make full use of these techniques, perhaps sales training was not the
best course to start with, even though the vice president had a rationale
for selecting this course. That said, it was still possible to incorporate
active learning through the above-mentioned quiz technique or by
including features in the course such as various role-play techniques that

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-9

 the trainee has to watch and then decide which technique is most
appropriate for a given sales situation.
 While challenging to incorporate adaptive expertise, the requirement to
select the best option among many could possible also accomplish this.
3. Learning theories and theories of motivation:
 Several aspects of adult learning theory may explain some of the
challenges, including resistance to change and a lack of intrinsic
motivation related to perceiving the training as being helpful for solving
actual problems. Trainees may have in the past been motivated to attend
the live training for its entertainment value, as a change of pace from the
“daily grind” of the job, or even as a “reward” (free coffee and donuts)—
none of which were attached to the new e-learning version. Further, if the
trainees lacked the expectation that the training would actually benefit
them in some way or did not see a connection between the training and
attainment of their goals (assuming they have goals, such as sales
targets), then they will have very low training motivation and will not get
much out of the course.
 The implication is that in order for e-learning to be effective, it must be
seen to be important (leading toward the achievement of desired goals)
and be engaging (involve active learning and active practice).

Copyright © 2013 by Nelson Education Ltd.| C8-10

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Anthony, Canada Bay, and St. John’s); and Nova Scotia (Cape Breton
Island, Sable Island, Halifax, and Yarmouth). South to southern
Nova Scotia (Yarmouth); New Brunswick (Grand Manan); southern
Maine (Gouldsboro, Deer Isle, Bath, and Auburn); New Hampshire
(Concord); central and southern Massachusetts (Marlboro, Webster,
and Pelham); southwestern Vermont (Bennington); northern New
York (Falls Pond and Buffalo); rarely northeastern Pennsylvania
(Pocono Lake); accidentally in northern Maryland (Havre de Grace);
southern Ontario (London and Sarnia); northern Michigan (Crawford
County and Douglas Lake); northern Wisconsin (Antigo, probably,
Trout Lake, Namekagon Lake, and Superior); central Minnesota (St.
Cloud, Brainerd, and Bemidji); southern Manitoba (Winnipeg and
Aweme); central Saskatchewan (Flotten Lake and Prince Albert);
central Alberta (Flagstaff, Camrose, Lobstick River, and Wipiti River);
northern British Columbia (Fort St. John, Ingenika River, and Buckley
Lake); and southern Alaska (Admiralty Island, Sitka, Seldovia, and
Nushagak). West to western Alaska (Nushagak, Russian Mission, St.
Michael, and the Kobuk River).
Winter range.—The myrtle warbler winters in two discontinuous
areas. The principal winter home is north to central Oklahoma
(Oklahoma City); northern Arkansas (Winslow, Little Rock, and
Helena); western Tennessee (Memphis); southern Illinois (Anna and
Mount Carmel); southern Kentucky (Bowling Green); central Virginia
(Lexington); District of Columbia (Washington); southeastern
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia); northern New Jersey (Morristown and
Elizabeth); southern Connecticut (New Haven); Rhode Island
(Providence); and northeastern Massachusetts (Cape Ann). It also
occurs in winter irregularly north to Holly, Colo.; Hays and
Manhattan, Kan.; Madison, Wis.; Chicago, Ill.; Battle Creek and
Rochester (one banded in January), Mich.; Rochester, N. Y.; and
Portland, Maine. East to Massachusetts (Cape Ann) and along the
Atlantic coast to Florida (Miami and Key West); the Bahama Islands
(Little Abaco and Caicos); Dominican Republic (Puerto Plato and
Sánchez); Puerto Rico (San Juan); St. Croix Island; and rarely,
Antigua. South to Antigua, northern Colombia, rare or accidental
(Santa Marta region); and Panamá (Pearl Islands). West to Panamá
(Pearl Islands, Canal Zone, and Almirante); Costa Rica (El General
and Guayabo); eastern Nicaragua (Greytown and the Río
Escondido); northern Honduras (Puerto Castilla and Lancetilla);
western Guatemala (Dueñas and Tecpán); eastern Oaxaca
(Tehuantepec); Veracruz (Orizaba); Tamaulipas (Victoria); Nuevo
León (Monterrey); southwestern Texas (mouth of the Pecos River,
Camp Barkeley, Taylor County, and Fort Worth); and central
Oklahoma (Oklahoma City).
The western winter range is north to central Western Oregon
(Newport and Albany). East to western Oregon (Albany); central
California (Marysville, Stockton, Mariposa County, Redlands, and
Potholes); southern Arizona (Tucson and Tombstone); and
southwestern Sonora (Guaymas). South to southern Sonora. West
to western Sonora (Guaymas and the Colorado River delta); western
California (San Clementi Island, Santa Barbara, San Francisco Bay
region, and Eureka); and western Oregon (Coss Bay and Newport).
The species as outlined is divided into two subspecies or
geographic races. The Alaska myrtle warbler (D. c. hooveri) breeds
from western Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie to central Alberta
and central British Columbia; the eastern myrtle warbler (D. c.
coronata) from western Saskatchewan eastward.
Migration.—Late dates of spring departure from the winter home
are: Costa Rica—Guayabo, March 18. El Salvador—Volcán de San
Miguel, March 22. Guatemala—Nebaj, April 27. Honduras—Lancetilla,
March 17. Mexico—Valles, San Luis Potosí, May 2. Puerto Rico—
Mayagüez, April 8. Haiti—Port-au-Prince, April 27. Cuba—Habana,
April 28. Bahamas—New Providence, April 2. Florida—Pensacola,
May 13. Alabama—Birmingham, May 8. Georgia—Atlanta, May 20.
South Carolina—Greenwood, May 12. Louisiana—Mansfield, May 2.
Mississippi—Oxford, May 8. Tennessee—Nashville, May 17. Arkansas
—Helena, May 18. Texas—Bonham, May 6. Oklahoma—Norman, May
3.
 Early dates of spring arrival are: New York—New York, April 1.
Massachusetts—Lynn, April 11. Vermont—St. Johnsbury, April 12.
Maine—Portland, April 6. New Brunswick—Scotch Lake, April 11.
Nova Scotia—Yarmouth, April 11. Quebec—Hatley, April 22.
Newfoundland—St. Anthony, April 25. Labrador—Cartwright, May 24.
Illinois—Chicago, March 24. Indiana—Bloomington, March 26. Ohio—
Youngstown, April 1. Ontario—Harrow, April 3. Michigan—Sault Ste.
Marie, April 9. Missouri—Columbia, March 27. Iowa—Sigourney, April
3. Wisconsin—New London, April 1. Minnesota—Minneapolis, April 4.
Kansas—Independence, April 7. Nebraska—Red Cloud, April 1. South
Dakota—Brookings, April 7. North Dakota—Fargo, April 13. Manitoba
—Aweme, April 12. Saskatchewan—Eastend, April 22. Mackenzie—
Simpson, May 7. New Mexico—San Antonio, April 18. Colorado—
Colorado Springs, April 17. Wyoming—Laramie, April 15. Montana—
Kirby, April 29. Alberta—Glenevis, April 14. Washington—Seattle,
March 14. British Columbia—Courtenay, March 31; Atlin, April 21.
Yukon—Sheldon Lake, April 26. Alaska—Wrangell, April 29;
Fairbanks, May 7.
Late dates of spring departure of transients are: District of
Columbia—Washington, June 1. Pennsylvania—Warren, June 6.
Illinois—Chicago, June 3. Indiana—Waterloo, June 3. Ohio—Oberlin,
May 31. Missouri—Concordia, May 25. Iowa—Grinnell, June 1.
Nebraska—Nenzel, May 27. North Dakota—Argusville, May 30.
California—Red Bluff, May 3. Nevada—Quinn River Crossing, May 21.
Washington—Tacoma, May 3.
Late dates of fall departure are: British Columbia—Atlin,
September 19; Courtenay, October 14. Mackenzie—Nahami River,
October 25. Wyoming—Laramie, November 25. Saskatchewan—
Yorkton, October 14. Manitoba—Brandon, October 31. North Dakota
—Argusville, November 15. South Dakota—Faulkton, November 15.
Kansas—Lawrence, November 12. Minnesota—St. Paul, November 5.
Wisconsin—Racine, November 16. Iowa—Wall Lake, November 15.
Missouri—Kansas City, November 16. Illinois—Murphysboro,
November 21. Michigan—Detroit, November 19. Indiana—
Indianapolis, November 20. Ontario—Point Pelee, November 23.
Ohio—Toledo, November 17. Newfoundland—Tompkins, October 4.
Prince Edward Island—North River, October 15. Quebec—
Kamouraska, November 9. New Brunswick—Saint John, November 4.
Maine—Portland, November 9. New Hampshire—Durham, November
4. Massachusetts—Boston, November 27. New York—Brooklyn,
November 22. Pennsylvania—Doylestown, November 29.
Early dates of fall arrival are: Washington—Bellingham,
September 28. Oregon—Thurston, October 5. California—Eureka,
October 12. Wyoming—Yellowstone Park, August 25. North Dakota—
Fargo, September 8. South Dakota—September 15. Nebraska—
Fairbury, September 30. Kansas—Lawrence, September 26.
Oklahoma—Oklahoma City, October 12. Texas—Somerset, October
10. Iowa—Grinnell, September 6. Missouri—St Louis, September 17.
Illinois—Chicago, August 31. Indiana—Hobart, September 2. Ohio—
Austinburg, August 25. Kentucky—Bowling Green, September 14.
Tennessee—Athens, October 3. Arkansas—Rogers, October 4.
Louisiana—Monroe, September 26. Mississippi—Edwards, September
22. New York—Rhinebeck, August 31. Pennsylvania—Pittsburgh,
September 8. District of Columbia—Washington, September 9. West
Virginia—Bluefield, September 12. Virginia—Naruna, September 22.
North Carolina—Mount Mitchell, September 30. South Carolina—
Spartanburg, September 21. Georgia—Round Oak, October 10.
Alabama—Anniston, October 8. Florida—New Smyrna, October 4.
Bahamas—Cay Lobos, November 22. Cuba—Habana, November 17.
Dominican Republic—San Juan, October 1. Puerto Rico—Mayagüez,
December 14. Costa Rica—Carrillo, October 2.
Banding.—The myrtle warbler comes rather more readily than
other warblers to banding traps, especially in winter, and so has
yielded several records of migration and of longevity for return to
the place of banding. A myrtle warbler banded at Elmhurst, Long
Island, on October 19, 1936, was recovered on December 9, 1936,
at Awensdaw, S. C. One banded on October 2, 1932, at Fargo, N. D.,
was found dead December 5, 1932, at Clarence, La. Another banded
at Wilton, N. D., on September 25, 1939, was found in January 1940
at Leola, Ark. One banded on February 2, 1930, at Gastonia, N. C.,
was shot on December 25, 1930, at Kings Creek, Cherokee County,
S. C.
A banding station at Thomasville, Ga., obtained several records
indicative of the birds’ tendency to return to the same wintering
place. Three birds banded in March 1920, were retrapped in
February and March of 1921. One banded February 24, 1921, was
retrapped February 5, 12, and 13, 1924, and found dead, apparently
of starvation, on the fifteenth. A myrtle warbler banded on February
28, 1917, was retrapped in March 1920 and several times between
March 1 and 17, 1921. It was then at least 5 years old and had
made four round trips to the breeding grounds.
Another myrtle warbler banded at Huntington, Long Island, on
October 23, 1933, was killed February 1, 1940, at Dunbar, S. C.; it
was then at least 61⁄2 years old.

Casual records.—At least six specimens of the myrtle warbler

have been collected in Greenland: Fiskenaes, May 21, 1841;
Julianehaab, about 1847; Godhavn, July 31, 1878; Nanortalik, May
23, 1880; Agpamiut, in Sukkertoppen District, October 15, 1931; and
Kangea, near Godthaab, October 28, 1937. A specimen was taken
from the stomach of a white gyrfalcon October 7, 1929, killed near
the Post on Southampton Island. Two specimens have been
collected on the Arctic Coast of Alaska: one on June 3, 1898, at
Point Tangent; and one June 4, 1930, near Point Barrow. A myrtle
warbler was collected May 25, 1879, on the northeast coast of
Siberia at latitude 67° N. At sea about 100 miles from Cape Hatteras,
several myrtle warblers were noted on October 16 and 31, 1930.
Egg dates.—Maine: 16 records, May 26 to June 23; 10 records,
June 11 to 20, indicating the height of the season.
New Brunswick: 10 records, June 5 to 28; 6 records, June 13 to
21.
 Nova Scotia: 14 records, May 23 to June 21; 7 records, June 3 to
17 (Harris).

DENDROICA CORONATA HOOVERI

McGregor

ALASKA MYRTLE WARBLER

HABITS
The Alaska myrtle warbler is another subspecies that was
described many years ago but only recently admitted to the A. O. U.
Check-List. Richard C. McGregor (1899) described this warbler, from
specimens collected in California, as a western race and named it for
his friend Theodore J. Hoover, who collected the type and placed his
material at his disposal. He called it Dendroica coronata hooveri,
Hoover’s warbler. In his description of it he says that it is “in colors
and markings like Dendroica coronata, but with wing and tail much
longer.” His table of measurements shows that the wings of
California males average .15 inch longer than those of eastern birds,
and the tails .14 inch longer, less than 1⁄6 inch! Among the wing
measurements of eastern males the individual variation is as great
as the difference in his averages, the shortest measuring 2.80 and
the longest 2.95 inches! It appears to be a quite finely drawn
subspecies.
Dr. Oberholser (1938) says of it: “The Myrtle Warblers breeding
in Alaska are recognizable as a western race of this species. They
differ from the eastern bird in larger size and more solidly black
breast in the male. The upper parts in winter plumage and in the
young are also less rufescent than in the eastern bird.”
 The breeding range of this race, so far as known, extends from
northwestern Mackenzie to western Alaska, and southward to central
British Columbia and central Alberta. It has been found in winter
from California to southeastern Louisiana, in the southeastern United
States, and in northern Baja California and in southern Veracruz, in
Mexico. It may be commoner than is supposed, as it is recognizable
only with specimens in hand.
Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1900) writes of its habits in northern Alaska:
Hoover’s Warblers were numerous summer residents of the timber tracts
throughout the Kowak Valley from the delta eastward. In the latter part of August
scattering companies were frequenting the spruce, birch and cottonwoods, among
the foliage of which they were constantly searching, with oft-repeated ‘chits,’ just
as are their habits in winter in California. The last observed, a straggling flock of
six or eight, were seen in a patch of tall willows about sunset of August 30th. The
following spring the arrival of Hoover’s Warblers was on May 22nd. They were
already in pairs and the males were in full song. At this season they were confined
exclusively to the heavier spruce woods. In the Kowak delta, on the 23rd of June,
a set of five considerably-incubated eggs was secured. The nest was in a small
spruce in a tract of larger growth, and only four feet above the ground. It is a
rather loose structure of fine dry grass-blades, lined with ptarmigan feathers.

In the Atlin region of northern British Columbia, according to Mr.

Swarth (1926), it is a common species, breeding mostly in the
lowlands:
 A nest with five fresh eggs (Mus. Vert. Zool. no. 1992) was taken by Brooks on
June 15. It was in a slender spruce, one of a small thicket in a locality that is
largely poplar grown, about forty feet from the ground and near the top of the
tree. It rested on the twigs forming the terminal forks of a branch, about three
feet from the trunk. The outer walls of the nest were built mostly of the shredded
bark of the fire-weed stalks, with a little fire-weed ‘cotton,’ some coarse grass and
small twigs, and several wing and tail feathers of a small bird. In the lining there
was some horse hair, mountain sheep hair and a few soft feathers.
Another nest, containing newly hatched young on June 28, was in a small jack
pine in open woods on the shore of Lake Atlin.
During the last week in August and the first week in September the southward
exodus was at its height. Flocks of warblers, mostly this species, flitted rapidly
through the poplar woods, and there was a constant stream of myrtle warblers
making long flights overhead. The last one, a single bird, was seen September 19.

As the breeding ranges of Hoover’s warbler and Audubon’s

warbler approach each other in British Columbia and may even
overlap it would not be strange if hybrids between these two closely
related species should occasionally turn up. Joseph Mailliard (1937)
calls attention to a number of such hybrids between both forms of
coronata and auduboni. And more recently, Fred M. Packard writes
to me: “I have inspected skins in most of the major museums in
America to detect these hybrids, and have been surprised at the
number I have found. All but two were taken in the Rockies or
farther west, so that presumably the subspecies concerned is D. c.
hooveri.”

DENDROICA AUDUBONI (Townsend)

PACIFIC AUDUBON’S WARBLER

Plate 34
 HABITS
The Pacific Audubon’s warbler is a handsome western species
closely related to our familiar myrtle warbler, which to a large extent
it replaces, and is much like it in behavior and appearance; but it has
one more touch of color in its brilliant yellow throat, five spots of
yellow instead of four, and it has more white in the wings and tail.
Although its breeding range does not extend nearly as far north as
that of the myrtle warbler, it extends farther south, and to
considerably higher altitudes, breeding largely in the Canadian Zone
among the pines, firs, and spruces. Including the range of the Rocky
Mountain form (memorabilis), which has not yet been admitted to
the A. O. U. Check-List, the type race breeds from central British
Columbia, central Alberta, and west-central Saskatchewan southward
to southern California, northern Arizona, New Mexico, and western
Texas. Throughout most of this range it is widely distributed in the
lowlands only during the winter, retiring to the mountains for the
breeding season.
In the mountains of New Mexico it has been found breeding at
altitudes of from 7,500 feet to over 11,000 feet. In Colorado it
breeds at similar elevations and perhaps up to nearly 12,000 feet. In
southern California, Dr. Joseph Grinnell (1908) found it breeding in
the San Bernardino Mountains from 9,000 feet “almost to timber
limit, 10,500 feet elevation, at least. * * * This was one of the most
abundant birds of the San Bernardino mountains, and was widely
distributed from the lower edge of the Transition zone up through
the Boreal.” Grinnell and Storer (1924) write:
The Audubon Warbler is the most widely distributed and the most abundant of
all the species of wood warblers found in the Yosemite region. It occurs in
numbers throughout the main forested districts of the mountains during the
summer season, and it frequents the deciduous trees and brush of the foothill and
valley country in the winter time.
Altitudinally its summer range extends from the beginning of the Transition
Zone yellow pines on the west slope, at 3300 to 3500 feet, up through the
lodgepole pines and other conifers of the Canadian and Hudsonian zones to the
upper limit of unstunted trees at 10,000 feet or a little higher. * * *
During the summer season the Audubon Warbler keeps mainly to coniferous
trees, foraging from 10 to 50 feet or more above the ground. In the Transition
Zone and part of the Canadian Zone it shares this habitat with the Hermit Warbler,
but at the higher altitudes it is the only warbler present in the evergreen forest.

Farther north, in Mono County, Calif., James B. Dixon tells me

that he found it nesting between 7,600 and 9,500 feet elevation.
Referring to the Toyabe region in Nevada, Dr. Jean M. Linsdale
(1938) found the Rocky Mountain form in a somewhat different
environment: “In the mountains the area occupied by this warbler
agreed fairly well with the area covered with trees. Individuals were
seen most often in aspens, limber pines, birches, willows, and
mountain mahoganies.” Angus M. Woodbury (MS.) says of the
breeding range of the Rocky Mountain form in Utah: “It summers in
altitudes ranging from about 7,000 to 10,000 feet and nests in
almost any of the components of the forests in those altitudes; pine,
fir, spruce, aspen, or oak.”
In Washington, Audubon’s warbler is common and well
distributed from near sea level in the vicinity of Seattle and Tacoma
up to about 8,000 feet in the mountains. Near Tacoma, D. E. Brown
showed us some typical lowland haunts of this warbler in the so-
called “prairie region.” On this smooth, flat land, a fine growth of firs
and cedars was scattered about in the open; the two or three local
species of firs were most abundant and were growing to perfection,
being well branched down to the ground.
Spring.—There is a northward as well as an altitudinal migration
in the spring. Samuel F. Rathbun says in his notes from Seattle:
“Although the Audubon’s is of frequent if not regular occurrence
during the winter, a migration of the bird through the region is to be
noted each spring and fall.” Near Seattle the first birds are seen and
their song is heard about March 10 to 15, and numbers are seen
passing through up to the latter part of April. “By way of
comparison, in the Lake Crescent section the first are seen about
April 2, at the earliest, and after three weeks the last appear to have
passed by, as the species performs its spring migration in a leisurely
manner.” A later wave of migrants passes through Seattle between
April 10 and 25, probably birds that nest farther north.
Migration is evident in Utah, for Woodbury (MS.) says: “In
addition to its summer residence, it is a common migrant through
the state, and a sparse winter resident, mainly at low altitudes. It
migrates through the streamside and cultivated trees of the valleys,
including shade trees and orchards. The migrations cover a period of
about 6 weeks each in spring and fall, usually from about mid-April
to the end of May and from mid-September to the end of October,
but in different years the waves may be a little earlier or later.”
In California, there is a gradual exodus of Audubon’s warblers
from the lowlands to the mountains during April and May. Mrs.
Amelia S. Allen tells me that “by the end of April they have
disappeared from the San Francisco Bay region.” And Swarth
(1926b) says that in May, following the spring molt, “there is a
gradual withdrawal of the birds to the higher mountains and to more
northern latitudes.”
Audubon’s warbler occurs abundantly on the Huachuca
Mountains, Ariz., but as a migrant only, during March, April, and May.
Swarth (1904) writes:
Though distributed over all parts of the mountains, they were at all times more
abundant in the higher pine region, than elsewhere; and on April 24, 1903, I
found them particularly numerous along the divide of the mountains, evidently
migrating. They could hardly be said to be in flocks on this occasion, for along the
ridge, which runs almost due north and south, there was for several miles a
continuous stream of Audubon Warblers travelling rapidly from tree to tree, always
moving in a northerly direction; sometimes a dozen or more in one pine, and
sometimes only two or three, but never stopping long and all moving in the same
direction. Almost all that were seen on this occasion were high plumaged males,
hardly half a dozen females being observed for the day.

This was about two weeks before the local breeding race (D. a.
nigrifrons) might be expected to arrive.
 Dr. Merrill (1888), at Fort Klamath, Oreg., found Audubon’s
warblers “extremely abundant during the migrations. A few males
were seen at Modoc Point on the 8th and 9th of April, and at the
Fort on the 15th; by the 20th they were quite plentiful. A second
‘wave’ composed of both males and females, which latter had not
previously been seen, arrived about the 4th of May, when they
suddenly became more abundant than ever, bringing D. aestiva
morcomi and H. lutescens with them.”
Nesting.—The only two nests of Audubon’s warbler that I have
seen were shown to me in Washington, near the State University at
Seattle. The University is located on high land at the north end of
Lake Washington, where the steep banks, sloping down to the lake,
are heavily wooded with a mixed growth of large and small firs of at
least two species, as well as cedars, alder trees, and maples. In the
more open part of the woods I was shown, on April 29, 1911, a nest
of this warbler placed about 30 feet from the ground on two small
branches and against the trunk of a tall Douglas fir beside a
woodland path. The other nest I saw in the previously described
“prairie region” near Tacoma on May 14, 1911; it was placed only 9
feet from the ground but 10 feet out from the trunk of a dense
Douglas fir growing in the open, and was well concealed in the thick
foliage.
These nests were evidently typical for the region, according to
Rathbun. He mentions in his notes two other nests. One, found May
2, 1909, on the east side of Lake Washington and along a road, was
30 feet from the ground in a small hemlock, near the extremity of
one of the limbs and 7 feet out from the trunk. The other, found May
11, 1913, was in a small fir about 30 feet up and about 4 feet from
the trunk on one of the lower limbs. “The nest is a very beautiful
structure, constructed outwardly of very small twigs from the fir or
hemlock, inside of which are placed smaller ones of the same
character, with black rootlets, and lined with feathers, of which a
quantity are used, and a few horsehairs. It is a compactly built
affair.” Dawson and Bowles (1909) say that the nests are placed
from 40 to 50 feet up, and usually measure 4 inches in width outside
by 23⁄4 in depth; and inside 2 by 11⁄2 inches. They are made
externally of such materials as fir twigs, weed tops, flower pedicels,
rootlets, and catkins, and are heavily lined with feathers of various
birds—including grouse, ptarmigan or domestic fowls—these
feathers often curving upward and inward so as partially to conceal
the eggs.
Dr. J. C. Merrill (1898) found a very different type of nesting near
Fort Sherman, Idaho: “Here a majority of the nests I found were in
deciduous trees and bushes, generally but a few feet from the
ground. One was in a small rose bush growing at the edge of a cut
bank overhanging a road where wagons daily passed close to it.
* * * Occasionally one was seen in deep woods by the roadside near
where hay had been brushed off a load on a passing wagon; this
was utilized for the entire nest except lining, making a conspicuous
yellow object in the dark green fir or pine in which it was placed.”
P. M. Silloway (1901) found a nest of Audubon’s warbler near
Flathead Lake, Mont., that was 18 feet from the ground in a fork of a
willow. “The fork containing the nest was in a main stem, upright, a
number of feet below the leaf-bearing part of the tree, so that the
nest was exposed quite fairly to view.” H. D. Minot (1880) found one
at Seven Lakes, Colo., in an odd situation: “The nest, composed of
shreds and feathers, with a few twigs without and hairs within, was
built in a dead, bare spruce, about twenty feet from the ground,
compressed between the trunk and a piece of bark that was
attached beneath and upheld above, where a bough ran through a
knot-hole, so compressed that the hollow measures 21⁄4 x 13⁄4, and
11⁄2 inches deep.” Dr. Chapman (1907) describes a nest from Estes
Park, Colo., as “loosely constructed of weed-stems and tops, and
strips of bark, lined with fine weeds and horse-hair.”
Mr. Woodbury (MS.) describes Utah nests as “compactly woven,
cup-shaped structures, usually of fine grasses, plant fibers or
shredded bark, lined with feathers or some substitute, and
camouflaged with some fine stringy material holding bracts or other
small particles in place.” He reports nests in such conifers as spruce,
balsam, and ponderosa pine, and in aspen and oak.
J. Stuart Rowley writes to me: “In California, I have found several
nests of this species in the San Bernardino Mountains and in the
Mono County area in the northern part of the State. The nests I
have found have all been beautifully made structures, securely
fastened to small, low hanging branches of lodgepole pine, and
placed about 10 to 12 feet from the ground.”
Dr. Grinnell (1908) records three nests, found in the San
Bernardinos; one “was twenty feet above the ground in the thick
foliage of a short drooping fir bough. It was compactly composed of
weathered grasses, frayed-out plant fibres, and tail and wing
feathers of juncos and other small birds. Internally it was thickly
lined with mountain quail feathers, some of the chestnut-colored
ones sticking above the rim conspicuously. This feather feature
seems to be characteristic of Audubon warblers’ nests, as it was
noticeably present in all that we saw.” Another nest was 25 feet from
the ground in one of the lowest branches of a yellow pine. The third
“was snugly tucked away in a small clump of mistletoe on an alder
branch twelve feet above the ground.”
J. K. Jensen (1923) says of New Mexico nests: “The nests are
usually placed on a horizontal limb of a pine or spruce, but also
among dead twigs on the trunks of cottonwoods, and even in a
cavity of some tree. All nests found were lined with a few feathers of
Bluebirds and Long-crested Jay.”
Nests in tamarack, cedar, and birch have been reported by other
collectors.
Eggs.—Audubon’s warbler lays from 3 to 5 eggs, almost always
4. They are ovate, tending toward short ovate, and are slightly
glossy. They are grayish or creamy white, spotted and blotched with
“raw umber,” “Brussels brown,” “argus brown,” and sometimes
“auburn,” with underlying spots of “pale brownish drab,” “light
brownish drab,” or “light mouse gray.” The markings are often
confined to the large end, and frequently the drab undertones are in
the majority, sometimes running together to form a cap, and this is
relieved with a few superimposed spots or blotches of dark “argus
brown,” or scattered small scrawls so dark as to appear almost black.
The eggs generally are sparsely but rather boldly marked. The
measurements of 50 eggs average 17.6 by 13.5 millimeters; the
eggs showing the four extremes measure 19.4 by 14.0, 19.1 by
14.5, and 15.4 by 12.3 millimeters (Harris).
Young.—The period of incubation is probably between 12 and 13
days, as with the Myrtle warbler. Mrs. Wheelock (1904) writes:
In the brood whose incubation was closely watched, I found that twelve days
elapsed between the laying of the last egg and the advent of the young. The
female did most of the brooding; the male was found on the nest only once, but
was usually perched on a neighboring tree warbling his enthusiastic little song,
“cheree-cheree-cheree-cheree.” After the young were feathered enough to leave
the nest, which occurred when they were two weeks old, the male forgot to sing
and became a veritable family drudge with the brood ever at his heels clamoring
for food. * * * The pair whose young had hatched so early were very friendly,
feeding them without much fear while I sat within three or four feet of the nest
and on a level with it. They usually came with nothing to be seen in their beaks,
but the insect food they had gleaned and carried in their own throats was
regurgitated into the throats of the young. When the latter were five days old the
mother bird, for the first time, brought an insect large enough to be seen, and
crammed it into the open bill of one of the nestlings, and from that time on most
of the food brought was eaten by the young while fresh.

The general opinion seems to be that two broods are often,

perhaps usually, raised in a season. The young birds are the first to
leave their mountain resorts, probably driven out by their parents,
and are the first to appear in the lowlands.
Plumages.—The plumages and molts of Audubon’s warbler are
similar in sequence to those of the myrtle warbler; in juvenal and
first fall plumages the two species are almost indistinguishable,
though there is always more white in the tail feathers of the western
bird, in which the white spot usually reaches the fourth feather even
in young birds. In any plumage the white areas in the tail of
Audubon’s warbler occupy two more feathers on each side of the tail
than in the myrtle warbler.
The juvenal Audubon’s warbler is brown above, streaked with
black and white, and white below, streaked with black; the sexes are
alike. This plumage is worn but a short time; Dr. Grinnell (1908) says
that it “is of very short duration, not more than fifteen days, I should
say”; and Swarth (1926) says that is “worn but a few weeks. Tail
and wing have scarcely attained full length when the first winter
plumage begins to appear, and by the time the birds are drifting
back into the lowlands in September the last vestige of the juvenal
plumage is gone.” This postjuvenal molt involves all the contour
plumage and the wing coverts, but not the rest of the wings or the
tail.
In the first winter plumage there is but slight difference between
the sexes, the female being somewhat duller than the male and
often with little or no yellow on the throat. In both sexes the
plumage is browner throughout, the yellow areas are paler and less
pronounced, the black streaks are less prominent, and the white
areas in the tail are more restricted than in fall adults. Swarth
continues: “All winter long these drab-colored birds pervade the
lowlands, conspicuous only through force of numbers. Then, the
latter part of March, comes the prenuptial molt that brings such
marked changes to the male. This molt is extensive, far more so
than with most of our birds in the spring, since it includes all of the
plumage except flight-feathers and tail-feathers. At the close of the
spring molt, about the middle of April as a rule, the male emerges,
gorgeous in black breast and yellow trimmings, and with a showy
white patch on either wing. The female, with similarly extensive
molt, has changed but little in appearance.” He probably intended
this as a description of the adult prenuptial molt, but that of the
young bird is practically the same. However, the young bird in first
nuptial plumage can always be recognized by the faded and worn
primaries and tail feathers; otherwise, young and old are essentially
alike. Adults have a complete postnuptial molt in August and a
partial prenuptial molt, as outlined, in early spring. Mr. Swarth
(1926) says: “In winter plumage, old and young, male and female,
are all very similar, but there are minor differences by which the old
male, at least, may be told from the others. The dark streaks on the
sides of the breast are a little more pronounced, the yellow markings
a little brighter, and the body color a little clearer gray, as compared
with the browner young birds.”
Hybrids, or intergrades, occur occasionally between the different
races of auduboni and coronata where their ranges approach or
overlap.
Food.—Professor Beal (1907) examined the stomachs of 383
Audubon’s warblers taken in California from July to May, inclusive.
The food consisted of 85 percent of animal matter (insects and
spiders) and a little more than 15 percent of vegetable matter. The
largest item was Hymenoptera, 26 percent, consisting mostly of
ants, with some wasps, and a few parasitic species. Diptera
accounted for 16 percent, including house flies, crane-flies, and
gnats, many of which must have been caught on the wing, as this
warbler is a good flycatcher. Bugs, Hemiptera, amounted to nearly
20 percent of the food, including the black olive scale, other scales,
plant-lice, stink bugs, leaf-hoppers and tree-hoppers. “Plant lice
(Aphididae) were contained in 39 stomachs, and from the number
eaten appear to be favorite food. Several stomachs were entirely
filled with them, and the stomachs in which they were found
contained an average of 71 percent in each.” Caterpillars amounted
to nearly 14 percent and beetles more than 6 percent of the food;
most of the beetles were injurious species. Other insects and spiders
made up about 2 percent.
The vegetable food consisted of fruits, mostly wild and of no
value, less than 5 percent, and seeds, over 9 percent, mostly weed
seeds and seeds of the poison oak. These warblers have been
known to puncture grapes and they probably eat some late fruit, but
they do very little damage to cultivated fruits and berries. C. S.
Sharp (1903) observed a flock of 200 birds, mostly Audubon’s
warblers, greedily eating the raisins in the tray shed of his packing
house; they had to be constantly driven away. Mrs. Amelia S. Allen
says in her notes that they collect in great flocks in the live oaks to
feed on the oak worms in the spring, and that they eat myrica
berries in the fall. John G. Tyler (1913) says: “Audubon warblers
share with Say Phoebes the habit of catching flies from a window,
sometimes becoming so engrossed in this occupation as to cling for
several seconds to the screen where a south-facing window offers a
bountiful supply of this kind of food.”
Behavior.—Audubon’s warbler is a lively and active bird that
seems to be always in a hurry, constantly moving in pursuit of its
prey. Mrs. Bailey (1902) writes:
Its flight and all its movements seem to be regulated by gnats, its days one
continuous hunt for dinner. When insects are scarce it will fly hesitatingly through
the air looking this way and that, its yellow rump spot always in evidence, but
when it comes to an invisible gauzy-winged throng it zigzags through, snapping
them up as it goes; then, perhaps, closing its wings it tumbles down to a bush,
catches itself, and races pellmell after another insect that has caught its eye. In
the parks it is especially fond of the palm tops frequented by the golden-crowned
sparrows, and dashes around them in its mad helter-skelter fashion. The most
straight-laced, conventional thing it ever does is to make flycatcher sallies from a
post of observation when it has caught its insect. If it actually sits still a moment
with wings hanging at its sides, its head is turning alertly, its bright eyes keen for
action, and while you look it dashes away with a nervous quip into midair, in hot
pursuit of its prey.

It is not especially timid, being easy to approach when at its

nest, and it shows its confidence in human nature by building its
nest in trees in parks, over highways, in gardens, and even close to
houses. Its behavior in the defense of its young shows a solicitude
for their welfare. Jensen (1923) says: “If a nest with young is
discovered, both parent birds try every means possible to draw the
attention of the intruder away from the nest. Often I have seen
them drop with folded wings from the top of a tree and flutter
among the leaves as if each had a broken wing.” And Grinnell,
Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) write:
 June 15, 1925, a female Audubon warbler was seen which showed concern
whenever the observer went near a certain thicket of very small pines and willows.
The bird came to within three meters of the intruder and distracted his attention
by going through an elaborate display. The bird spread its tail fan-wise, showing
the white spots to greatest effect, and quivered the partly spread wings, toppling
over backwards at the same time, as if unable to hold to the perch. For an instant
the observer thought the bird’s foot was caught in the forking twigs. The inference
finally made was that partly fledged young were in the low vegetation somewhere
very near.

Voice.—Samuel F. Rathbun sends me the following note on the

song of Audubon’s warbler: “The first note or two is given rather
slowly, then its utterance is more rapid and with a somewhat rising
inflection, the song closing a little hurriedly. It is quite a strong and
sprightly song, but its charm lies mostly in the fact that it is one of
the first, if not the very first, of the warbler songs heard in the
spring. The call note given by both sexes is the same, a quick and
slightly lisping one that is also used in the autumn and at times in
flight.”
Dr. Walter P. Taylor (MS.) says of a song heard at Fort Valley,
Ariz., on June 12, 1925: “The song seems much less full and seems
lacking in quality, as compared with that of the Audubon in
Washington State. It was so lacking in strength and quality that I
took it for a Grace warbler.” He wrote it as wheetlea, wheetlea,
repeated 7 or 8 times, or wheetoo, 7 times repeated, or again
wheetleoo wheet, the final syllable a little different from the others.
Mrs. Bailey (1902) says: “His song is of a strong warbler type,
opening toward the end, chwee, chwee-chwee-ah, chwee, between
the song of the yellow warbler and that of the junco.” At Lake
Burford, N. Mex., in May and June, according to Dr. Wetmore (1920),
“males were found singing from the tops of the tallest pines and
were slow and leisurely in their movements in great contrast to their
habit at other seasons. Frequently while singing they remained on
one perch for some time so that often it was difficult to find them.
The song resembled the syllables tsil tsil tsil tsi tsi tsi tsi. In a way it
was similar to that of the Myrtle Warbler but was louder and more
decided in its character.”
Dr. Merrill (1888) says: “On two or three occasions I have heard
a very sweet and peculiar song by the female, and only after
shooting them in the act of singing could I convince myself of their
identity.”
Field marks.—The male in his gay spring plumage is not likely to
be confused with any other warbler except the myrtle warbler, from
which it differs in having a brilliant yellow throat instead of a white
one; in other words, auduboni has five patches of yellow against
four for coronata. In immature and fall plumages the two species are
much alike, but auduboni has four or five large white patches on
each side of the tail, while coronata has only two or three, in the
different plumages; these white markings are diagnostic in any
plumage. The yellow rump is always conspicuous at any season,
even when the other yellow markings are more obscured.
Fall.—The fall migration is a reversal of the spring migration, from
the north southward and from the mountains down to the valleys
and lowlands. Rathbun tells me that the southward migrants pass
through Washington during October and November, but that a few
remain there and even farther north, in winter. In California,
Audubon’s warblers that have bred in the mountains begin to drift
downward to lower levels in August, the young birds coming first, so
that by September they are well spread out over the lowlands almost
down to sea-level. Soon after the first of October, the first of the
migrants cross the border into Mexico on their way to winter
quarters. Dr. Taylor tells me that in New Mexico during October
these warblers are abundant in the aspens, being “by far the most
numerous species of bird.”
Winter.—Audubon’s warbler is a hardy bird. At least some
individuals remain in winter almost up to the northern limit of its
breeding range; and while it retires entirely from its summer haunts
in the mountains, most of its breeding range elsewhere is not wholly
deserted. It probably remains as far north as it can make a living; its
adaptability in finding a food supply helps in this and makes it one of
the most successful of western birds as well as one of the most
abundant in all parts of its range. A few remain, perhaps regularly, in
coastal British Columbia, for Theed Pearse has given me five
December dates and four February dates, spread out over a period
of 10 years, on which he has recorded one or more Audubon’s
warblers on Vancouver Island; on one of these dates, February 10,
1943, the temperature dropped to -6° F.
Rathbun tells me it is “of frequent, if not regular, occurrence
during the winter” in Washington. And in Oregon Gabrielson and
Jewett (1940) record it as a “permanent resident that has been
noted in every county during summer and throughout western
Oregon in winter. * * * Its little song is heard on every side during
May and June, and its peculiarly distinct call or alarm note is a
familiar sound throughout the balance of the year. This is true not
only of the wooded slopes and bottoms but equally so of the weedy
fence rows of the Willamette Valley, where during the short days of
fall and winter these warblers may be found associating with the
Golden-crowned Sparrows and Willow Goldfinches or sitting on the
telephone wires with the Western Bluebirds.” Swarth (1926) writes:
In much of the West, especially in the Southwest, the Audubon’s warbler is one
of the dominant species during the winter months. In southern California it vies
with the Intermediate Sparrow and House Finch in point of numbers. Wherever
there are birds at all, this bird is sure to be there. From the seacoast to the
mountains, in city parks and gardens, in orchards and in chaparral, the Audubon’s
warbler is equally at home. On any country walk scores are sure to be seen,
starting up from the ground or out of the trees with wavering and erratic flight,
showing in departure a flash of white-marked tail-feathers and a gleaming yellow
rump spot, and uttering the incessant chip that, better than any marking, serves
to identify the fleeting bird.

In colder sections there are some fatalities; in the Fresno district,

according to Tyler (1913), “a period of two or three unusually cold
nights frequently results disastrously for these little warblers, and my
observations show that there is a greater mortality among this
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