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 Machine Learning

Step-by-Step Guide To Implement

Machine Learning Algorithms with Python

Author
Rudolph Russell
 © Copyright 2018 - All rights reserved.

If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an
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with an express written consent from the Publisher. All additional right reserved.
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE LEARNING
Theory
What is machine learning?
Why machine learning?
When should you use machine learning?
Types of Systems of Machine Learning
Supervised and unsupervised learning
Supervised Learning
The most important supervised algorithms
Unsupervised Learning
The most important unsupervised algorithms
Reinforcement Learning
Batch Learning
Online Learning
Instance based learning
Model-based learning
Bad and Insufficient Quantity of Training Data
Poor-Quality Data
Irrelevant Features
Feature Engineering
Testing
Overfitting the Data
Solutions
Underfitting the Data
Solutions
EXERCISES
SUMMARY
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION
Installation
The MNIST
Measures of Performance
Confusion Matrix
Recall
Recall Tradeoff
ROC
Multi-class Classification
Training a Random Forest Classifier
Error Analysis
Multi-label Classifications
Multi-output Classification
EXERCISES
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 3
HOW TO TRAIN A MODEL
Linear Regression
Computational Complexity
Gradient Descent
Batch Gradient Descent
Stochastic Gradient Descent
Mini-Batch Gradient Descent
Polynomial Regression
Learning Curves
Regularized Linear Models
Ridge Regression
Lasso Regression
EXERCISES
SUMMARY
REFERENCES

Chapter 4
Different models combinations
Implementing a simple majority classifer
Combining different algorithms for classification with majority vote
Questions
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE LEARNING

Theory
If I ask you about “Machine learning,” you'll probably imagine a robot or
something like the Terminator. In reality t, machine learning is involved not
only in robotics, but also in many other applications. You can also imagine
something like a spam filter as being one of the first applications in machine
learning, which helps improve the lives of millions of people. In this chapter,
I'll introduce you what machine learning is, and how it works.
What is machine learning?
Machine learning is the practice of programming computers to learn from data.
In the above example, the program will easily be able to determine if given are
important or are “spam”. In machine learning, data referred to as called training
sets or examples.
 Why machine learning?
Let’s assume that you'd like to write the filter program without using machine
learning methods. In this case, you would have to carry out the following steps:

∙ In the beginning, you'd take a look at what spam e-mails looks like. You might
select them for the words or phrases they use, like “debit card,” “free,” and so
on, and also from patterns that are used in the sender’s name or in the body of
the email

∙ Second, you'd write an algorithm to detect the patterns that you've seen, and
then the software would flag emails as spam if a certain number of those patterns
are detected.

∙ Finally, you'd test the program, and then redo the first two steps again until the
results are good enough.

Because the program is not software, it contains a very long list of rules that are
difficult to maintain. But if you developed the same software using ML, you'll
be able to maintain it properly.
In addition, the email senders can change their e-mail templates so that a word
like “4U” is now “for you,” since their emails have been determined to be
spam. The program using traditional techniques would need to be updated,
which means that, if there were any other changes, you would l need to update
your code again and again and again.
On the other hand, a program that uses ML techniques will automatically detect
this change by users, and it starts to flag them without you manually telling it to.

Also, we can use ,machine learning to solve problems that are very complex for
non-machine learning software. For example, speech recognition: when you say
“one” or “two”, the program should be able to distinguish the difference. So, for
this task, you'll need to develop an algorithm that measures sound.
In the end, machine learning will help us to learn, and machine-learning
algorithms can help us see what we have learned.
When should you use machine learning?
• When you have a problem that requires many long lists of rules to find the
solution. In this case, machine-learning techniques can simplify your code and
improve performance.
• Very complex problems for which there is no solution with a traditional
approach.
• Non- stable environments’: machine-learning software can adapt to new data.
Types of Systems of Machine Learning
There are different types of machine-learning systems. We can divide them into
categories, depending on whether
• They have been trained with humans or not
- Supervised
- Unsupervised
- Semi-supervised
- Reinforcement Learning
• If they can learn incrementally
• If they work simply by comparing new data points to find data points, or can
detect new patterns in the data ,and then will build a model.
Supervised and unsupervised learning
We can classify machine learning systems according to the type and amount of
human supervision during the training. You can find four major categories, as
we explained before.
- Supervised learning
- Unsupervised learning
- Semi-supervised learning
- Reinforcement learning

Supervised Learning
In this type of machine-learning system, the data that you feed into the
algorithm, with the desired solution, are referred to as “labels.”

- Supervised learning groups together a tasks of classification. The above

program is a good example of this because it's been trained with many emails
at the same time as their class.

Another example is to predict a numeric value like the price of a flat, given a set
of features (location, number of rooms, facilities) called predictors; this type of
task is called regression.
You should keep in mind that some regression algorithms can be used for
classifications as well, and vice versa.

The most important supervised algorithms

- K-nears neighbors
- Linear regression
- Neural networks
- Support vector machines
- Logistic regression
- Decision trees and random forests
Unsupervised Learning
In this type of machine-learning system, you can guess that the data is unlabeled.

The most important unsupervised algorithms

- Clustering: k-means, hierarchical cluster analysis
- Association rule learning: Eclat, apriori
- Visualization and dimensionality reduction: kernel PCA, t-distributed,
PCA
As an example, suppose you've got many data on visitor Using of one of our
algorithms for detecting groups with similar visitors. It may find that 65% of
your visitors are males who love watching movies in the evening, while 30%
watch plays in the evening; in this case, by using a clustering algorithm, it will
divide every group into smaller sub-groups.

There are some very important algorithms, like visualization algorithms; these
are unsupervised learning algorithms. You'll need to give them many data and
unlabeled data as an input, and then you'll get 2D or 3D visualization as an
output.

The goal here is to make the output as simple as possible without losing any of
the information. To handle this problem. it will combine several related features
into one feature: for example, it will cmbn a car’s make with its model. This is
called feature extraction.
Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is another type of machine-learning system. An agent
“AI system” will observe the environment, perform given actions, and then
receive t rewards in return. With this type, the agent must learn by itself. Ties
called a policy.

You can find this type of learning type in many robotics applications that learn
how to walk
Batch Learning
In this kind of machine-learning systems, the system can’t learn incrementally:
the system must obtain all the needed data . That means it will require many
resources and a huge amount of time, so it’s always done offline. So, to work
with this type of learning, the first thing to do is to train the system, and then
launch it without any learning.
Online Learning
This kind of learning is the opposite of batch learning. I mean that, here, the
system can learn incrementally by providing the system with all the available
data as instances (groups or individually), and then the system can learn on the
fly.

You can use this type of system for problems that require the continuous flow of
data, which also needs to adapt quickly to any changes. Also, you can use this
type of system to work with very large data sets,

You should know how fast your system can adapt to any changes in the data’s
“learning rate.” If the speed is high, means that the system will learn quite,
quickly, but it also will forget old data quickly.
Instance based learning
This is the simplest type of learning that you should learn by heart. By using
this type of learning in our email program, it will flag all of the emails that were
flagged by users.

.
Model-based learning
There is another type of learning in which learning from examples allows
construction to make predictions
Bad and Insufficient Quantity of Training Data
Machine-learning systems are not like children, who can distinguish apples and
oranges in all sorts of colors and shapes, but they require lot of data to work
effectively, whether you're working with very simple programs and problems, or
complex applications like image processing and speech recognition. Here is an
example of the unreasonable effectiveness of data, showing the MS project,
which includes simple data and the complex problem of NLP.
Poor-Quality Data
If you're working with training data that is full of errors and outliers, this will
make it very hard for the system to detect patterns , so it won't work properly.
So, if you want your program to work well, you must spend more time cleaning
up your training data.
Irrelevant Features
The system will only be able to learn if the training data contains enough
features and data that aren’t too irrelevant. The most important part of any ML
project is to develop good features “of feature engineering”.

Feature Engineering
The process of feature engineering goes like this:
. Selection of features: selecting the most useful features.
. Extraction of features: combining existing features to provide more useful
features.
. Creation of new features: creation of new features, based on data.
Testing
If you'd like to make sure that your model is working well and that model can
generalize with new cases, you can try out new cases with it by putting the
model in the environment and then monitoring how it will perform. This is a
good method, but if your model is inadequate, the user will complain.

You should divide your data into two sets, one set for training and the second
one for testing, so that you can train your model using the first one and test it
using the second. The generalization error is the rate of error by evaluation of
your model on the test set. The value you get will tell you if your model is good
enough, and if it will work properly.

If the error rate is low, the model is good and will perform properly. In contrast,
if your rate is high, this means your model will perform badly and not work
properly. My advice to you is to use 80% of the data for training and 20% for
testing purposes, so that it’s very simple to test or evaluate a model.
Overfitting the Data
If you're in a foreign country and someone steals something of yours, you might
say that everyone is a thief. This is an overgeneralization, and, in machine
learning, is called “overfitting”. This means that machines do the same thing:
they can perform well when they're working with the training data, but they can't
generalize them properly. For example, in the following figure you'll find a high
degree of life satisfaction model that overfits the data, but it works well with the
training data.

When does this occur?

Overfitting occurs when the model is very complex for the amount of training
data given.

Solutions
To solve the overfitting problem, you should do the following:
- Gather more data for “training data”
- Reduce the noise level
- Select one with fewer parameters
Underfitting the Data
From its name, underfitting is the opposite of overfitting, and you'll encounter
this when the model is very simple to learn. For example, using the example of
quality of life, real life is more complex than your model, so the predictions
won't yield the same, even in the training examples.

Solutions
To fix this problem:
- Select the most powerful model, which has many parameters.
- Feed the best features into your algorithm. Here, I'm referring to feature
engineering.
- Reduce the constraints on your model.
 EXERCISES

In this chapter, we have covered many concepts of machine learning. The

following chapters will be very practical, and you'll write code, but you should
answer the following questions just to make sure you're on the right track.

1. Define machine learning

2. Describe the four types of machine-learning systems.

3. What is the difference between supervised and unsupervised learning.

4. Name the unsupervised tasks.

5. Why are testing and validation important?

6. In one sentence, describe what online learning is.

7. What is the difference between batch and offline learning?

8. Which type of machine learning system should you use to make a

robot learn how to walk?
 SUMMARY

In this chapter, you've learned many useful concepts, so let’s review some
concepts that you may feel a bit lost with. Machine learning: ML refers to
making machines work better at some task, using given data.

. Machine learning comes in many types, such as supervised, batch,

unsupervised, and online learning.

. To perform an ML project, you need to gather data in a training set, and then
feed that set to a learning algorithm to get an output, “predictions”.

. If you want to get the right output, your system should use clear data, which is
not too small and which does not have irrelevant features.
 REFERENCES
.
http://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/fr//pubs/archive/35179.pdf
 CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION
Installation
You'll need to install Python, Matplotlib and Scikit-learn for this chapter. Just go
to the references section and follow the steps indicated.
The MNIST
In this chapter, you'll go deeper into classification systems, and work with the
MNIST data set. This is a set of 70,000 images of digits handwritten by students
and employees. You'll find that each image has a label and a digit that represents
it. This project is like the “Hello, world” example of traditional programming.
So every beginner to machine learning should start with this project to learn
about the classification algorithm. Scikit-Learn has many functions, including
the MNIST. Let’s take a look at the code:
>>> from sklearn.data sets import fetch_mldata
>>> mn= fetch_mldata('MNIST original')
>>> mn
{'COL_NAMES': ['label', 'data'],
'Description': 'mldata.org data set: mn-original',
'data': array([[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0],
...,
[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0,..., 0, 0, 0]], dataType=uint8),
'tar': array([ 0., 0., 0.,..., 9., 9., 9.])} de
. Description is a key that describes the data set.
. The data key here contains an array with just one row for instance, and a
column for every feature.
. This target key contains an array with labels.
Let’s work with some of the code:
>>> X, y = mn["data"], mn["tar"]
>>> X.shape
(70000, 784)
>>> y.shape
(70000,)
. 7000 here means that there are 70,000 images, and every image has more than
700 features: “784”. Because, as you can see, every image is 28 x 28 pixels, you
can imagine that every pixel is one feature.

Let’s take another example from the data set. You'll only need to grab an
instance’s feature, then make it 26 x 26 arrays, and then display them using the
imshow function:
%matplotlib inline
import matplotlib
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
yourDigit = X[36000]
Your_image = your_image.reshape(26, 26)
plt.imshow(Your_image, cmap = matplotlib.cm.binary,
interpolation="nearest")
plt.axis("off")
plt.show()
As you can see in the following image, it looks like the number five, and we can
give that a label that tells us it’s five.

In the following figure, you can see more complex classification tasks from the
MNIST data set.
Also, you should create a test set and make it before your data is inspected.
The MNIST data set is divided into two sets, one for training and one for testing.
x_tr, x_tes, y_tr, y_te = x [:60000], x[60000:], y[:60000], y[60000:]
Let’s play with your training set as follows to make the cross-validation to be
similar (without any missing of any digit)
Import numpy as np
myData = np.radom.permutaion(50000)
x_tr, y_tr = x_tr[myData], y_tr[myData]

Now it’s time to make it simple enough, we'll try to just identify one digit, e.g.
the number 6. This “6-detector” will be an example of the binary classifier, to
distinguish between 6 and not 6, so we'll create the vectors for this task:
Y_tr_6 = (y_tr == 6) // this means it will be true for 6s, and false for any other
number
Y_tes_6 = (Y_tes == 6)
After that, we can choose a classifier and train it. Begin with the SGD
(Stochastic Gradient Descent) classifier.
The Scikit-Learn class has the advantage of handling very large data sets. In this
example, the SGD will deal with instances separately, as follows.
from sklearn.linear_model import SGDClassifier
mycl = SGDClassifier (random_state = 42)
mycl.fit(x_tr, y_tr_6)
to use it to detect the 6
>>>mycl.prdict([any_digit)]
Measures of Performance
If you want to evaluate a classifier, this will be more difficult than a regressor, so
let’s explain how to evaluate a classifier.
In this example, we'll use across-validation to evaluate our model.
from sklearn.model_selection import StratifiedKFold
form sklearn.base import clone
sf = StratifiedKFold(n=2, ran_state = 40)
for train_index, test_index in sf.split(x_tr, y_tr_6):
cl = clone(sgd_clf)
x_tr_fd = x_tr[train_index]
y_tr_fd = (y_tr_6[train_index])
x_tes_fd = x_tr[test_index]
y_tes_fd = (y_tr_6[test_index])
cl.fit(x_tr_fd, y_tr_fd)
y_p = cl.predict(x_tes_fd)
print(n_correct / len(y_p))
. We use the StratifiedFold class to perform stratified sampling that produces
folds that contain a ration for every class. Next, every iteration in the code will
create a clone of the classifier to make predictions on the test fold. And finally, it
will count the number of correct predictions and their ratio

. Now we'll use the cross_val_score function to evaluate the SGDClassifier by

K-fold cross validation. The k fold cross validation will divide the training set
into 3 folds, and then it will make prediction and evaluation on each fold.
from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score
cross_val_score(sgd_clf, x_tr, y_tr_6, cv = 3, scoring = “accuracy”)
You'll get the ratio of accuracy of “correct predictions” on all folds.
Let’s classify every classifier at every single image in the not-6
from sklearn.base import BaseEstimator
class never6Classifier(BaseEstimator):
def fit(self, X, y=None):
pass
def predict(self, x):
return np.zeros((len(X), 1), dtype=bool)
Let’s examine the accuracy of this model with the following code:
>>> never_6_cl = Never6Classifier()
>>> cross_val_score(never_6_cl, x_tr, y_tr_6, cv = 3, scoring = “accuracy”)
Output: array ([“num”, “num”, “num”])
For the output, you'll get no less than 90%: only 10% of the images are 6s, so we
can always imagine that an image is not a 6. We'll be right about 90% of the
time.
Bear in mind that accuracy is not the best performance measure for classifiers, if
you're working with skewed data sets.
Confusion Matrix
There is a better method to evaluate the performance of your classifier: the
confusion matrix.
It’s easy to measure performance with the confusion matrix, just by counting the
number of times instances of class X are classified as class Y, for example. To
get the number of times of image classifiers of 6s with 2s, you should look in the
6th row and 2nd column of the confusion matrix.

Let’s calculate the confusion matrix using the cross_val_predict () function.

from sklearn.model_selection import cross_Val_predict
y_tr_pre = cross_val_predict (sgd_cl, x_tr, y_tr_6, cv = 3)
This function, like the cross_val_score() function, performs the k fold cross-
validation, and it also returns predictions on each fold. It also returns a clean
prediction for every instance in your training set.

Now we're ready to get the matrix using the following code.
from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix
confusion_matrix (y_tr_6, y_tr_pred)
You'll get an array of 4 values ,“numbers”.
Every row represents a class in the matrix, and every column represents a
predicted class.
The first row is the negative one: that “contain non-6 images”. You can learn a
lot from the matrix.
But there is also a good one that's , interesting to work with if you'd like to get
the accuracy of the positive predictions, which is the precision of the classifier
using this equation.
Precision = (TP)/ (TP+FP)
TP: number of true positives
FP: number of false positives
Recall = (TP) /(TP+FN) “sensitivity”: it measure the ratio of positive instances.
Recall
>>> from sklearn.metrics import precision_score, recall_score
>>> precision_score(y_tr_6, y_pre)
>>>recall_score(y_tr_6, y_tr_pre)
It’s very common to combine precision and recall into just one metric, which is
the F1 score.
F1 is the mean of both precision and recall. We can calculate the F1 score with
the following equation:
F1 = 2 / ((1/precision) + (1)/recall)) = 2 * (precision * recall) / (precision +
recall) = (TP) / ((TP) + (FN+FP)/2)
To calculate the F1 score, simply use the following function:
>>> from sklearn.metrics import f1_score
>>>f1_score (y_tr_6, y_pre)
Recall Tradeoff
To get to this point, you should take a look at the SGDClassifier and how it
makes decisions regarding classifications. It calculates the score based on the
decision function, and then it compares the score with the threshold. If it’s
greater than this score, it will assign the instance to the “positive or negative”.
class
For example, if the decision threshold is at the center, you'll find 4 true + on the
right side of the threshold, and only one false. So the precision ratio will be only
80%.

In Scikit-Learn, you can't set a threshold directly. You'll need to access the
decision scores, which use predictions, and by y calling the decision function,
().
>>> y_sco = sgd_clf.decision_funciton([any digit])
>>> y_sco
>>> threshold = 0
>>>y_any_digit_pre = (y_sco > threshold)
In this code, the SGDClassifier contains a threshold, = 0, to return the same
result as the the predict () function.
>>> threshold = 20000
>>>y_any_digit_pre = (y_sco > threshold)
>>>y_any_digit_pre
This code will confirm that, when the threshold increases, the recall decreases.
y_sco = cross_val_predict (sgd_cl, x_tr, y_tr_6, cv =3, method=”decision
function)
It’s time to calculate all possible precision and recall for the threshold by calling
the precision_recall_curve()function
from sklearn.metrics import precision_recall_curve
precisions, recalls, threshold = precision_recall_curve (y_tr_6, y_sco)
and now let’s plot the precision and the recall using Matplotlib
def plot_pre_re(pre, re, thr):
plt.plot(thr, pre[:-1], “b—“, label = “precision”)
plt.plot(thr, re[:1], “g-“, label=”Recall”)
plt.xlabel(“Threshold”)
plt.legend(loc=”left”)
plt.ylim([0,1])
plot_pre_re(pre, re, thr)
plt.show
ROC
ROC stands for receiver operating characteristic and it's a tool that used with
binary classifiers.
This tool is similar to the recall curve, but it doesn’t plot the precision and recall:
it plots the positive rate
and false rate. You'll work also with FPR, which is the ratio of negative
samples. You can imagine if it's like (1 – negative rate. Another concept is the
TNR and it's the specificity. Recall = 1 – specificity.
Let’s play with the ROC Curve. First, we'll need to calculate the TPR and the
FPR, just by calling the roc-curve () function,
from sklearn.metrics import roc_curve
fp,tp, thers = roc_curve (y_tr_6, y_sco)
After that, you'll plot the FPR and TPR with Matplotlib according to the
following instructions.
def_roc_plot (fp, tp, label=none):
plt.plot(fp, tp, linewidth=2, label = label)
plt.plot([0,1)], [0,1], “k--”)
plt.axis([0,1,0,1])
plt.xlabel(‘This is the false rate’)
plt.ylabel(‘This is the true rate’)
roc_plot (fp, tp)
plt.show
Multi-class Classification
We use binary classifiers to distinguish between any two classes, but what if
you'd like to distinguish between more than two?
You can use something like random forest classifiers or Bayes classifiers, which
can compare between more than two. But, on the other hand, SVM (the Support
Vector Machine) and linear classifiers function like binary classifiers.
If you'd like to develop a system that classifies images of digit into 12 classes
(from 0 to 11) you'll need to train 12 binary classifiers, and make one for every
classifier (such as 4 – detector, 5-detector, 6-detector and so on ), and then you'll
need to get the DS, the “ decision score,” of every classifier for the image. Then,
you'll choose the highest score classifier. We call this the OvA strategy: “one-
versus-all.”
The other method is to train a binary classifier for each pair of digits; for
example, one for 5s and 6s and another one for 5s and 7s. — we call this method
OvO, “one-versus-one” — to count how many classifiers you'll need, based on
the number of classes that use the following equation: “N = number of classes”.
N * (N-1)/2. If you'd like to use this technique with the MNIST 10 * (10-1)/2,
the output will be 45 classifiers, “binary classifiers”.
In Scikit-Learn, you execute OvA automatically when you use a binary
classification algorithm.
>>> sgd_cl.fit(x_tr, y_tr)
>>>sgd_cl.Predict([any-digit])
Additionally, you can call the decision_function () to return the scores “10 scores
for one class”
>>>any_digit_scores = sgd_cl.decision_function([any_digit])
>>> any_digit_scores
Array([“num”, “num”, “num”, “num”, “num”, “num”, “num”, “num”, “num”
,”num”]])
Training a Random Forest Classifier
>>> forest.clf.fit(x_tr, y_tr)
>>> forest.clf.predict([any-digit])
array([num])
As you can see, training a random forest classifierwth only two lines of code is
very easy.
The Scikit-Learn didn’t execute any OvA or OvO functions because this kind of
algorithm — “random forest classifiers” — can automatically work multiple
classes. If you'd like to take a look at the list of classifier possibilities, you can
call the predict_oroba () function.
>>> forest_cl.predict_proba([any_digit])
array([[0.1, 0, 0, 0.1, 0, 0.8, 0, 0, 0]])
The classifier is very accurate with its prediction, as you can see in the output;
there is 0.8 at index number 5.
Let’s evaluate the classifier using the cross_val_score() function.
>>> cross_val_score(sgd_cl, x_tr, y_tr, cv=3, scoring = “accuracy”)
array([0.84463177, 0.859668, 0.8662669])
You'll get 84% more n the folds. When using a random classifier, you'll get, in
this case, 10% for the accuracy score. Keep in mind that the higher this value is,
the better.
Error Analysis
First of all, when developing a machine learning project:
1. Determine the problem;
2. Collect your data;
3. Work on your data and explore it;
4. Clean the data
5. Work with several models and choose the best one;
6. Combine your models into the solution;
7. Show your solution;
8. Execute and test your system.

First, you should work with the confusion matrix and make predictions by
the cross-val function. Next, you'll call the confusion matrix function:

>>> y_tr_pre = cross_val_prediciton(sgd_cl, x_tr_scaled, y_tr, cv=3)

>>> cn_mx = confusion_matrix(y_tr, y_tr_pre)
>>> cn_mx

array([[5625, 2, 25, 8, 11, 44, 52, 12, 34, 6],

[ 2, 2415, 41, 22, 8, 45, 10, 10, 9],
[ 52, 43, 7443, 104, 89, 26, 87, 60, 166, 13],
[ 47, 46, 141, 5342, 1, 231, 40, 50, 141, 92],
[ 19, 29, 41, 10, 5366, 9, 56, 37, 86, 189],
[ 73, 45, 36, 193, 64, 4582, 111, 30, 193, 94],
[ 29, 34, 44, 2, 42, 85, 5627, 10, 45, 0],
[ 25, 24, 74, 32, 54, 12, 6, 5787, 15, 236],
[ 52, 161, 73, 156, 10, 163, 61, 25, 5027, 123],
[ 50, 24, 32, 81, 170, 38, 5, 433, 80, 4250]])
Plt.matshow(cn_mx, cmap=plt.cm.gray)
Plt.show()

First, you should divide every value in the matrix by the number of images in the
class, and then you'll compare the error rates.
rw_sm = cn_mx.sum(axis=1, keepdims=True)
nm_cn_mx = cn_mx / rw_sum
The next step is to make all the zeros on the diagonal, and that will keep the
errors from occurring.
np.fill_diagonal (nm_cn_mx, 0)
plt.matshow(nm_cn_mx, cmap=plt.cm.gray)
plt.show()
The errors are easy to spot in the above schema. One thing to keep in mind is
that the rows represent classes and the columns represent the predicted values.
Other documents randomly have
different content
Or, prying with most curious eye
Into dark hollows, to descry
Some robber haunt or hidden grot,
Where haply it might be my lot,
Like Alla-Ad-Deen, to find a treasure
Of gems and jewels without measure.
But what a change is wrought since then!
I've mingled with the world and men,
Who scoff at boyhood's guiltless joys,
Yet scorn them but for greater toys.
Well—let them mar their health for fame,
And waste their days, to gain a name,
Built on the rabble's wretched praise,
Whose voice awhile may sink or raise,
But cannot rescue from the lot
Old Time, the despot, hath assigned
Impartially to all earth's kind.
Such record vain I envy not,
Nor burn with mightier men to mate—
The followers of a fiercer fate,
Who trample on all human good
To win awards least understood.
Such is renown reaped with the sword—
Such glory! Empty, fatal word,
That lures men on through fire and flood—
Through scenes of rapine, crime and blood,
To write in history's page, a tale,
O'er which their fellow man grows pale.
Could half the tears they cause to flow
Bedew that page—how few could read
The blotted record of each deed,
Which laid the brave by thousands low
And broke more living hearts with wo,
That ONE might be what good men hate,
And fools and knaves miscal "THE GREAT."
 ORIGINAL LITERARY NOTICES.

INAUGURAL ADDRESS, DELIVERED BY THE REV. STEPHEN OLIN, President of Randolph-

Macon College, on the occasion of his induction into office, 5th March, 1834.
Richmond: Nesbitt & Walker.

Randolph-Macon College is a new institution, in Mecklenburg county,

Virginia; and President Olin, we believe, is a late comer into the
state: at least we are so ignorant as not to have heard of him
before. If we are permitted to judge from the "inaugural address,"
we congratulate the commonwealth upon the acquisition of an
instructor of solid endowments, sound practical views, and elegant
taste. He treats the subject of education like one who had
thoroughly mastered the philosophy upon which it is founded—and
who evidently prefers to be guided by the safe lights of experience,
rather than by the specious but uncertain theories which acquire a
transient popularity—but which cannot bear the test of sound
investigation and analysis. President Olin, we think, combats with
effect a very popular error, to wit: that education ought to be so
directed as to subserve a particular profession or pursuit; in other
words, that the profession or pursuit of a young man ought to be
previously selected, and the course of instruction made to conform
accordingly. Now nothing, in our view, can be more preposterous;
and we concur entirely with the President in the opinion, that one of
the objects of education it to develop the intellectual aptitudes and
moral qualities, and that these when developed, should entirely
control the preference or choice of a profession. Not that if these
aptitudes and qualities when manifested, should point in an evil
direction, they should therefore be indulged. By no means. The
primary object of education should be—the highest development of
morals and intellect. In the pursuit of this great object however, if
the course of instruction is rightly ordered, the predominant
aptitudes and qualities will appear—and then is the time for the
judicious parent or guardian to co-operate with the wise indications
of nature.

In conformity to this view of the subject, the President urges the

choice of such studies in a collegiate course, as have a tendency to
enlarge, invigorate and discipline the mind. To the mathematics he
assigns a high rank. "They habituate the mind to protracted and
difficult efforts of attention, and to clear and lively perception of
truth, and at the same time furnish it with principles and facts of
inestimable value in many of the departments of useful industry and
philosophical research."

Nor does he attach less importance to the study of the Greek and
Roman languages. In the opinion of President Olin they "give useful
employment to the intellectual faculties at a period when they are
incompetent to more abstract and severe occupations. They call up
the attention to such short and easy, but repeated efforts, as are
best calculated to correct its wanderings and increase its energies.
The mind is accustomed to analysis and comparison, and its powers
of discrimination are improved by frequent exercises in declension,
inflexion and derivation, and by the constant necessity that is
imposed upon it, of deciding between the claims of rival definitions.
The memory is engaged in the performance of such tasks as are
precisely fitted for its development, and the judgment and other
reasoning faculties find ample and invigorating employment in the
application of grammatical rules, and the investigation of philological
principles." We wish we had space for the whole of Mr. Olin's
remarks upon classical learning. He considers the growing scepticism
in reference to its utility and importance as an evil omen.

Next to pure and mixed mathematics and the learned languages, the
President is inclined to give a place to intellectual philosophy. "It
familiarises the student with the laws and the phenomena of mind,
and with such efforts of subtle analysis and difficult combination as
are best fitted to enlarge and fill the grasp of the highest intellectual
capacities." He also recommends as subordinate, but highly
important studies—composition and eloquence—moral and natural
philosophy—chemistry—the French language—and geology and
mineralogy.

Mr. Olin opposes with much force the excessive multiplication of

studies without a correspondent prolongation of the collegiate term.
"The industry which was profitably directed to a few, may be divided
amongst a multitude of objects; but it will incur the inevitable
penalty of fitful and dissipated intellectual exertion—superficial
attainments and vicious intellectual habits." In what is denominated
the art of education, the President is not inclined to set as high a
value upon the lecture system as upon the mode of frequent
recitations from well digested text books. From the history of the
two universities, and of the literature of Scotland and England for
the last century, he is led to draw the conclusion that the "lecture
system is more favorable to the improvement of the professor, and
the reputation of the university—whilst the opposite method has
been more productive of thorough and accomplished scholars."

Upon the subject of moral restraint and college discipline, Mr. Olin is
forcible and interesting. With a mind well organized for the clear
perception of truth, we take the President to be fearless in
proclaiming his convictions, without stopping to calculate the
strength of opposing prejudices and opinions. He does not hesitate
to come up boldly to the mark, and to advocate the only rational
system by which our erring nature, and especially our youthful
nature, can be brought to a just sense of what is due to its own
interests, as well as to the requirements of society. Upon this
subject, however, we prefer that the President should speak for
himself.
"In proportion as virtue is more valuable than knowledge, pure
and enlightened morality will be regarded by every considerate
father the highest recommendation of a literary institution. The
youth is withdrawn from the salutary restraints of parental
influence and authority, and committed to other guardians, at a
time of life most decisive of his prospects and destinies. The
period devoted to education usually impresses its own character
upon all his future history. Vigilant supervision, employment,
and seclusion from all facilities and temptations to vice, are the
ordinary and essential securities which every institution of
learning is bound to provide for the sacred interests which are
committed to its charge. But safeguards and negative provisions
are not sufficient. The tendencies of our nature are retrograde,
and they call for the interposition of positive remedial
influences. The most perfect human society speedily
degenerates, if the active agencies which were employed in its
elevation are once withdrawn or suspended. What then can be
expected of inexperienced youth, sent forth from the pure
atmosphere of domestic piety, and left to the single support of
its own untested and unsettled principles, in the midst of
circumstances which often prove fatal to the most practised
virtue! I frankly confess that I see no safety but in the preaching
of the cross, and in a clear and unfaltering exhibition of the
doctrines and sanctions of christianity. The beauty and
excellence of virtue are excusable topics, though they must ever
be inefficient motives, with those who reject the authority of
revelation; but in a christian land, morality divorced from
religion, is the emptiest of all the empty names by which a
deceitful philosophy has blinded and corrupted the world. I
venture to affirm, that this generation has not given birth to
another absurdity so monstrous, as that which would exclude
from our seminaries of learning the open and vigorous
inculcation of the religious faith which is acknowledged by our
whole population, and which pervades every one of our free
institutions. Our governors and legislators, and all the
depositaries of honor and trust, are prohibited from exercising
 their humblest functions till they have pledged their fidelity to
the country upon the holy gospels. The most inconsiderable
pecuniary interest is regarded too sacred to be entrusted to the
most upright judge or juror, or to the most unsuspected
witness, till their integrity has been fortified by an appeal to the
high sanctions of christianity. Even the exercise of the elective
franchise is usually suspended upon the same condition. The
interesting moralities of the domestic relations—the laws of
marriage and divorce—the mutual obligations of parents and
children—are all borrowed from the christian scriptures. The
fears of the vicious and the hopes of the upright—the profane
ribaldry of the profligate, no less than the humble thanksgiving
of the morning and evening sacrifice, do homage to the gospel
as the religion of the American people. Our eloquence and our
poetry—our periodical and popular literature in all their varieties
—the novel, the tale, the ballad, the play, all make their appeal
to the deep sentiments of religion that pervade the popular
bosom. Christianity is our birthright. It is the richest inheritance
bequeathed us by our noble fathers. It is mingled in our hearts
with all the fountains of sentiment and of faith. And are the
guardians of public education alone 'halting between two
opinions?' Do they think that in fact, and for practical purposes,
the truth of christianity is still a debateable question? Is it still a
question whether the generations yet to rise up and occupy the
wide domains of this great empire—to be the representatives of
our name, our freedom and our glory, before the nations of the
earth, shall be a christian or an infidel people? Can wise and
practical men who are engaged in rearing up a temple of
learning to form the character and destinies of their posterity,
for a moment hesitate to make 'Jesus Christ the chief corner
stone?"

It is not to be supposed, however, that Mr. Olin is in favor of

subjecting our public seminaries to the control of any particular
religious denomination, or that the faith of the student is either to be
influenced or regulated by sectarian views. On the contrary, he
considers that such a course would be a manifest violation of the
principles of free government. His remarks upon the internal
discipline of a college are sound and excellent. He is decidedly
opposed to that "multitude of vexatious enactments," and those
frivolous and arbitrary regulations which too often disgrace our seats
of learning. In the administration of such wise and salutary laws,
however, as experience has proved to be necessary, President Olin
refers to the co-operation of parents and guardians as absolutely
essential. We wish that conviction on this subject was more general
than it is, and that all who are in any wise responsible for the
intellectual and moral training of youth, whether at colleges,
academies, or private schools, would consider the importance of
sustaining, by parental authority, the just and wholesome
government of the teacher. A weak or capricious parent, who from
false tenderness, countenances the wayward inclinations of a child in
opposition to school authority, is not only inflicting upon it
irreparable mischief, but is doing equal injury to others by the
encouragement of a bad example.

A DISCOURSE ON THE LIFE AND CHARACTER OF WM. WIRT, late Attorney General of the
United States; pronounced at the request of the Baltimore Bar before the Citizens of
Baltimore, on the 20th of May, 1834, by John P. Kennedy. Baltimore: Wm. & Joseph
Neal. 1834.

Mr. Kennedy is favorably known as an eloquent lawyer and literary

writer of distinction. The task therefore of delineating the character
and genius of Mr. Wirt, could not have been confided to abler hands.
We have read his oration with great pleasure; a pleasure it is true,
alloyed by the reflection that the country has sustained a
bereavement so afflicting and irreparable. There is a mournful
satisfaction in recalling the eminent virtues, and matchless
accomplishments of the deceased,—in dwelling upon his bright
example, and retracing the incomparable graces and excellencies
which adorned his public and private character. Mr. Kennedy has
touched with the hand of a master, the sad but brilliant theme, and
has poured forth in "thoughts that breathe and words that burn"—a
most eloquent tribute to the memory of one of the brightest and
purest spirits of the age. Mr. Wirt, though a native of Maryland, was
in truth a Virginian, by all the endearing ties of social and domestic
life. He spent the prime of his youth and manhood among us, and it
was here in the Metropolis of the Old Dominion, that he reared that
enduring fabric of illustrious talent and virtue which placed him first
among his equals—and which will long be embalmed in the
recollection of his contemporaries. Hundreds in this city, still
remember those surpassing triumphs of his genius as an orator and
advocate, achieved in the celebrated trial of Burr;—how he depicted
in colors glowing and beautiful the enchanting island of
Blennerhassett—the misery of his disconsolate wife—and the wiles of
that evil genius who entered the Paradise of the Ohio, and withered
forever its enjoyments. Hundreds here and elsewhere have hung
with ecstasy over the rich pages of the "British Spy" and "Old
Batchelor"—have listened to the magic of his voice both in public
and colloquial discourse—and have been constant eyewitnesses of
the "daily beauty" and sublime morality of his life. Proudly and
sacredly however as his native and adopted states ought to cherish
his memory—the fame of such a man as Wirt, must be regarded as
the property of the whole nation. His great and commanding genius
illustrated and adorned the age and country in which he lived, and
thousands and tens of thousands of American bosoms have exulted
at the thought that he was their countryman.

In one respect especially, Mr. Wirt was an uncommon man. Most

persons distinguished for their moral and intellectual qualities, have
at some time or other, been the objects of illiberal censure.
Greatness is almost invariably the mark of envy, and envy gives birth
to detraction. The deceased however, it is believed, lived and died
without an enemy. His manners were so bland and gentle—his
purposes so pure—and his life so blameless—that even malice had
no nourishment left whereon to feed. In the language of Mr.
Kennedy "he possessed, in a remarkable degree, that trait which has
been called simplicity of heart—it was single mindedness, straight
forward candor. His manners had the wayward playfulness of a boy,
that won upon, and infected with their own buoyancy every class of
his associates, from the youngest to the oldest—from the humblest
retainer about his person, or casual stranger, to the most eminent
and most intimate."

In analyzing the intellectual qualities of the deceased, Mr. Kennedy is

inclined to the opinion, that powerful as was his legal acumen, and
almost unsurpassed his eloquence, yet, that if circumstances had
permitted an exclusive devotion to literary pursuits, his fame might
have become still more brilliant. We cannot forbear to extract from
the oration, the whole passage which illustrates this idea.

"In taking this survey of the chief productions of Mr. Wirt's pen,
I am tempted to pause for a moment, to express my regret that
the pursuits of his life had not been more decidedly applied to
literary labors, than either circumstances or his own choice
seem to have permitted. He was remarkably qualified by the
character of his mind, and, I think I am warranted in saying, by
his inclination, to attain great distinction in these pursuits. A
career, in a larger degree, directed to this end would certainly
have been not less honorable to himself, nor less useful to his
country, and, I would fain persuade myself, not less profitable,—
although the consideration of gain be but an unworthy stimulant
to the glorious rewards which should interest the ambition of
genius. He had, however, a large family around him who
depended upon him for protection; and it may be that,
surveying the sad history of the gifted spirits who have lighted
the path of mankind with the lamps of their own minds and
made their race rich with the treasures of wisdom and science,
he has turned distrustfully from the yearnings of his ambition,
and followed the broader and more certain track that led to
professional fame and wealth. I can excuse him for the choice,
whilst I lament over the dispensation of human rule by which
the latter pursuits should have such an advantage.
"As a literary man he would have acquired a more permanent
renown than the nature of professional occupation or the
exercises of the forum are capable of conferring upon their
votaries. The pen of genius erects its own everlasting
monument; but the triumphs of the speaker's eloquence, vivid,
brilliant and splendid as they are, live but in the history of their
uncertain effects and in the intoxicating applause of the day:—
to incredulous posterity they are distrusted tradition, the
extravagant boasting of an elder age prone by its nature to
disparage the present by the narrated glories of the past. So
has it, even now, befallen the name of Patrick Henry, whom not
all his affectionate biographer's learned zeal has rescued from
the unbelieving smile of but a second generation. The glory of
Cicero lives more conspicuously in his written philosophy than
even in his speeches, which, although transmitted by his own
elaborate and polished hand, may rather be assigned to his
literary than to his forensic fame.

"Mr. Wirt had many inducements to the cultivation of letters. He

might have entered upon the field, in this country, almost
without a rival. Our nation, young in the career of liberal arts,
had but few names to reckon when asked, as she has
sometimes been in derision, where were the evidences of her
scholarship. Her pride would have pointed to a man like William
Wirt with a peculiar complacency. His comprehensive and
philosophical mind, acute and clear-sighted, was well adapted to
master the truths of science: it was fruitful and imaginative and
full of beautiful illustration. He had wit and humor of the highest
flavor, combined with a quick and accurate observation of
character: his taste, sensitive and refined, delighted in the
harmony and truth of nature: his full memory furnished him
abundant stores of learning: his style, rich and clear, like a
fountain of sparkling waters played along a channel of golden
sands and bright crystals and through meads begirt with
flowers. Above all, the tendency of his mind was to usefulness:
he indited no thought that did not serve to inculcate virtuous
 sentiments, noble pursuits, love of country, the value of
generous and laudable ambition, trust in Heaven, or earnest
attachment to duty. He has embellished and vivified the grave
experience of age with all the warm enthusiasm of youth, and
has taught his countrymen the most severe and self-denying
devotion to purposes of good, in lessons of so amiable a tone,
as to win many a young champion to virtue by the kindness of
his persuasion. His sketches of character are pleasantly graphic,
and leave us room to believe that, either, in the drama or in that
species of fictitious history which the great enchanter of this age
has made so popular a vehicle for profound philosophy, he
would have attained to an exalted fame. In short, there are but
few amongst us who, in scholarship, learning, observation or
facility and beauty of expression, may claim to be ranked with
William Wirt."

Our readers must not be denied the pleasure of another quotation in

which Mr. Wirt's powers of oratory are sketched with a graphic
pencil.

"He was a powerful orator, and had the art to sway courts and
juries with a master's spirit. The principal traits of his eloquence
were great clearness and force in laying the foundations of an
argument, and the steady pursuit of it through the track of
logical deduction. He was ingenious in choosing his position,
and, that once taken, his hearers were borne to his conclusion
upon a tide almost as irresistible as that which wafts the idle
skiff upon the Potomac, downward from the mountains to the
last cataract that meets the ebb and flood of the sea. In this
train of earnest argumentation the attention of his auditory was
kept alive by a vivid display of classic allusion, by flashes of wit
and merriment, and by the familiar imagery which was called in
aid to give point to his demonstrations, or light to what the
subject rendered obscure to the common apprehension. He
sometimes indulged in satire and invective, and, where the
subject called for it, in stern denunciation. Many have felt with
 what indignant power these weapons have been wielded in his
hand. His utterance, in early life, was said to have been
confused and ungraceful. Practice had conquered these defects,
and no man spoke with a more full, effortless and unobstructed
fluency. His diction was scrupulously neat, and might have often
deceived an audience into the opinion that his speeches were
prepared in the closet. His manner was remarkably impressive.
Endowed with a commanding figure, a singularly graceful
carriage and with a countenance of manly and thoughtful
beauty, that struck an instant sense of respect into all that
looked upon him, he was pre-eminent in that most significant
trait of an orator, action. We can all remember the rich and
flowing music of that voice which was wont to stir the inmost
souls of our tribunals and bring down the loud applause of
delighted bystanders; the dignity with which we have seen his
majestic person dilate itself before the judgment seat; the
ineffable grace that beamed upon the broad expanse of his
brow, and the kindled transport of his fine face, in those wrapt
moments when his mind was all in a blaze with the inspirations
of his own eloquence. These were the rare gifts that imparted a
charm to his oratory, which often wrought more powerfully for
the success of his cause than even the efficacy of 'right words
set in order.'"

We shall conclude with one more passage, in which the man who
filled so large a space in the public eye—whose eloquence placed
him on the highest pedestal of fame, and whose writings have
charmed by their richness and beauty so many thousand readers—is
exhibited in a light more attractive and enduring than the highest
human attainments are able to bestow. Mr. Wirt looked far beyond
the narrow bounds of earth for his reward. He saw that neither
wealth, nor power, nor fame, could satisfy the immortal cravings of
the mind—and he lifted up his thoughtful eye to another and more
permanent state of being.
 "Lastly, he was a zealous and faithful christian. In such a mind
as his, so inquiring, so masterly, so discriminating, religion was
the child of his judgment, not the creation of his passion. It was
an earnest, abiding sense of truth, and showed itself in daily
exercise and constant acknowledgment. With the sublime
system of revelation resting ever in his thoughts, the christian
law hung like a tablet upon his breast, and duty ever pointed
her finger to the sculptured commands that were graven there
to serve him as a manual of practice. He loved old forms and
old opinions, and, with something like a patriarch's reverence,
he headed his little family flock on their Sunday walks to church:
morning and evening he gathered them together, and on
bended knee, invoked his Father's blessing on his household;
and at the daily meal bowed his calm and prophet-like figure
over the family repast, to ask that grace of the Deity, on which
his heart rested with its liveliest hope, and to express that
thankfulness which filled and engrossed his soul. Such was this
man in the retirement of his domestic hearth, and thus did his
affections, in that little precinct, bloom with the daily increasing
virtues of love of family, of friends, of his country and of his
God."

We hope that Mr. Kennedy's discourse will be extensively circulated

and read. We confess that we rose from its perusal much wiser,
better, and happier than before. It not only gave play to the
imagination, but it distilled precious dews of thought and feeling, the
memory of which is still delightful.

A LETTER TO HIS COUNTRYMEN. By J. Fenimore Cooper.—New York: John Wiley. 1834.

Mr. Cooper's letter is partly private and controversial, and partly

political, and therefore any thing like an extended notice or review of
it does not fall within the range which has been prescribed for the
"Southern Literary Messenger." We cannot but express our regret,
however, that Mr. Cooper should have suffered himself to be seduced
into the arena of party politics. Upon that theatre he will meet with
many distinguished rivals—whereas he had none or few to contend
with on his favorite ground of romantic fiction. Is it possible that Mr.
Cooper will suffer himself to be driven from the field on which he has
earned so many enduring laurels, by the criticisms or even illnature
of a few newspaper editors? Why, if we had been fortunate enough
to write the "Red Rover," or even the "Bravo," we would have good
humoredly defied the whole fraternity from Maine to New Orleans.
Mr. Cooper forgets that there are thousands, who form their own
opinions of literary works, without ever once thinking to turn over
the pages of a daily or semiweekly instructor in order to learn its
opinion. What if some of his finest romances have been criticised? Is
there any human production which can be said to be perfect? Even
Walter Scott acknowledged that his "Monastery" and probably some
of his other works were total failures. We hope to spend many a
long winter night yet in reading some of Mr. Cooper's new novels.

DIARY OF AN ENNUYEE. Boston: Lilly, Wait, Colman & Holden. 1833.

We opened this book, we confess, with some reluctance. The

reading world has been so completely surfeited, especially in late
years, by works of the same description,—by the diaries and letters
of travellers and tourists,—and many of them have been so
obviously designed to encourage the art of book making, rather than
to impart solid instruction or intellectual pleasure, that we had
almost resolved to proscribe altogether that branch of literature.
France, Switzerland and Italy, have, moreover, been so often
described, that neither the theatre of Napoleon's glory, nor the
sublimities of Alpine scenery—nor the classical antiquities of the
"Eternal City"—could impart any longer, it was supposed, the grace
or freshness of novelty to the sketches of a new adventurer.
Fortunately for us, however, we did not carry our resolution into
effect, until we looked into the charming volume whose title is at the
head of this article. For rich and powerful thought,—for glowing and
beautiful description,—for chaste composition and elegance of taste,
we have seldom or never seen it surpassed. It is, too, the production
of a lady,—an Englishwoman of rank and fortune, who seems to
have visited the sunny clime of Italy in order to restore a constitution
wasted by disease, and if possible, alleviate some secret misery
which was "feeding on her damask cheek" and withering her heart.
—Notwithstanding her efforts to conceal her wretchedness, enough
is told to excite the reader's sympathy and impart a melancholy
interest to the narrative. She finally fell a victim to her sufferings,
and found at the age of twenty-six, a premature grave at Autun, in
France, on her return to her native England.

In the course of her pilgrimage she visited Paris, Geneva, Milan,

Venice, Florence, Rome, Naples, Genoa, and various other cities. All
the wonders of art and glories of nature in Italy's elysian land, seem
to have borrowed additional splendor and beauty from the touches
of her magic pencil—and in her reflections upon men and manners
there is a purity of sentiment which could neither be sullied by the
temptations of wealth and fashion, nor by the prevalence of
licentious customs in that voluptuous climate.

We cannot deny to our readers the pleasure of a few extracts, which

will fully justify the estimate we have placed upon this delightful
volume.

The frivolous extravagance which in many things characterises the

French people, and especially the Parisian circles, is thus described:

"La mode at Paris is a spell of wondrous power: it is most like

what we should call in England a rage, a mania, a torrent
sweeping down the bounds between good and evil, sense and
nonsense, upon whose surface straws and egg-shells float into
notoriety, while the gold and the marble are buried and hidden
till its force be spent. The rage for cashmeres and little dogs,
has lately given way to a rage for Le Solitaire, a Romance
written, I believe, by a certain vicomte d'Arlincourt. Le Solitaire
rules the imagination, the taste, the dress of half Paris: if you go
 to the theatre, it is to see the 'Solitaire,' either as tragedy,
opera, or melodrame: the men dress their hair and throw their
cloaks about them à la Solitaire; bonnets and caps, flounces and
ribbons are all à la Solitaire; the print shops are full of scenes
from Le Solitaire; it is on every toilette, on every work table;—
ladies carry it about in their reticules to show each other that
they are à la mode; and the men—what can they do but humble
their understandings and be extasiés, when beautiful eyes
sparkle in its defence, and glisten in its praise, and ruby lips
pronounce it divine, delicious, 'quelle sublimité dans les
descriptions, quelle force dans les caractères! quelle âme! quel
feu! quelle chaleur! quelle verve! quelle originalité! quelle
passion!' &c.

"'Vous n'avez pas lu le Solitaire?' said Madame M. yesterday; 'eh

mon dieu! est-il donc possible! vous? mais, ma chère, vous êtes
perdue de reputation, et pour jamais!'

"To retrieve my lost reputation, I sat down to read Le Solitaire,

and as I read, my amazement grew, and I did in 'gaping
wonderment abound,' to think that fashion, like the insane root
of old, had power to drive a whole city mad with nonsense; for
such a tissue of abominable absurdities, bombast, and
blasphemy, bad taste and bad language, was never surely
indited by any madman, in or out of Bedlam: not Maturin
himself, that king of fustian,

'—— ever wrote or borrowed,

Any horror half so horrid!'

and this is the book which has turned the brains of half Paris,
which has gone through fifteen editions in a few weeks, which
not to admire is 'pitoyable,' and not to have read 'quelque chose
d'inouie.'"

Again,
 "This is the place to live in for the merry poor man, or the
melancholy rich one; for those who have too much money, and
those who have too little; for those who only wish like the
Irishman, 'to live all the days of their life,'—prendre en légère
monnoie la somme des plaisirs—but to the thinking, the feeling,
the domestic man, who only exists, enjoys, suffers through his
affections—

'Who is retired as noontide dew,

Or fountain in a noonday grove—'

to such a one, Paris must be nothing better than a vast frippery

shop, an ever varying galanty show, an eternal vanity fair, a
vortex of folly, a pandemonium of vice."

At Milan the fair invalid was induced to visit the Scala, where she
saw the Didone Abandonnato, a ballet by Vigano. This piece was
founded upon the loves of Dido and Eneas, and the celebrated
cavern scene in the 4th book of Virgil was copied almost to the life.
A noble English family just arrived at Milan, was present at the
performance, and the effect upon one of its members is thus
described:

"In the front of the box sat a beautiful girl, apparently not
fifteen, with laughing lips and dimpled cheeks, the very
personification of blooming, innocent, English loveliness. I
watched her, (I could not help it, when my interest was once
awakened,) through the whole scene. I marked her increased
agitation: I saw her cheeks flush, her eyes glisten, her bosom
flutter, as if with sighs I could not overhear, till at length,
overpowered with emotion, she turned away her head, and
covered her eyes with her hand. Mothers!—English mothers!
who bring your daughters abroad to finish their education—do
ye well to expose them to scenes like these, and force the
young bud of early feeling in such a precious hotbed as this?—
Can a finer finger on the piano,—a finer taste in painting, or any
 possible improvement in foreign arts, and foreign graces,
compensate for one taint on that moral purity, which has ever
been, (and may it ever be!) the boast, the charm of
Englishwomen? But what have I to do with all this?—I came
here to be amused and to forget:—not to moralize, or to
criticise."

The picture of Venice, "throned on her hundred isles," is vivid and

beautiful.

"The morning we left Padua was bright, lovely and cloudless.

Our drive along the shores of the Brenta crowned with
innumerable villas and gay gardens was delightful; and the
moment of our arrival at Fusina, where we left our carriages to
embark in gondolas, was the most auspicious that could
possibly have been chosen. It was about four o'clock: the sun
was just declining towards the west; the whole surface of the
lagune smooth as a mirror, appeared as if paved with fire;—and
Venice with her towers and domes, indistinctly glittering in the
distance, rose before us like a gorgeous exhalation from the
bosom of the ocean. It is farther from the shore than I
expected. As we approached, the splendor faded: but the
interest and the wonder grew. I can conceive nothing more
beautiful, more singular, more astonishing, than the first
appearance of Venice, and sad indeed will be the hour when she
sinks, (as the poet prophecies) 'into the slime of her own
canals.'

"The moment we had disembarked our luggage at the inn, we

hired gondolas and rowed to the Piazza di San Marco. Had I
seen the church of St. Mark any where else, I should have
exclaimed against the bad taste which every where prevails in
it: but Venice is the proper region of the fantastic, and the
Church of St. Mark, with its four hundred pillars of every
different order, color, and material; its oriental cupolas, and
glittering vanes, and gilding and mosaics, assimilates with all
 around it: and the kind of pleasure it gives is suitable to the
place and people.

"After dinner I had a chair placed on the balcony of our inn, and
sat for some time contemplating a scene altogether new and
delightful. The arch of the Rialto, just gleamed through the
deepening twilight; long lines of palaces, at first partially
illuminated, faded away at length into gloomy and formless
masses of architecture; the gondolas glided to and fro, their
glancing lights reflected on the water. There was a stillness all
around me, solemn and strange in the heart of a great city. No
rattling carriages shook the streets, no trampling of horses
echoed along the pavement:—the silence was broken only by
the melancholy cry of the gondoliers, and the dash of their oars;
by the low murmur of human voices, by the chime of the vesper
bells, borne over the water, and the sounds of music raised at
intervals along the canals. The poetry, the romance of the scene
stole upon me unawares. I fell into a reverie, in which visionary
forms and recollections gave way to dearer and sadder realities,
and my mind seemed no longer in my own power. I called upon
the lost, the absent, to share the present with me—I called
upon past feelings to enhance that moment's delight. I did
wrong—and memory avenged herself as usual. I quitted my
seat on the balcony, with despair at my heart, and drawing to
the table took out my books and work. So passed our first
evening at Venice."

At Florence she met with the poet Rogers, who seems to have been
a familiar acquaintance:

"Samuel Rogers paid us a long visit this morning. He does not

look as if the suns of Italy had revivified him—but he is as
amiable and amusing as ever. He talked long, et avec beaucoup
d'onction, of ortolans and figs; till methought it was the very
poetry of epicurism; and put me in mind of his own suppers—
 'Where blushing fruits through scatter'd leaves invite,
Still clad in bloom and veil'd in azure light.
The wine as rich in years as Horace sings;'

and the rest of his description worthy of a poetical Apicius.

"Rogers may be seen every day about eleven or twelve, in the

Tribune, seated opposite to the Venus, which appears to be the
exclusive object of his adoration; and gazing, as if he hoped,
like another Pygmalion, to animate the statue: or rather,
perhaps, that the statue might animate him. A young
Englishman of fashion, with as much talent as espiéglerie,
placed an epistle in verse between the fingers of the statue,
addressed to Rogers; in which the Goddess entreats him not to
come there ogling her every day;—for though 'partial friends
might deem him still alive,' she knew by his looks he had come
from the other side of the Styx; and retained her antique
abhorrence of the spectral dead, &c. &c. She concluded by
beseeching him, if he could not desist from haunting her with
his ghostly presence, at least to spare her the added misfortune
of being be-rhymed by his Muse.

"Rogers with equal good nature and good sense, neither noticed
these lines, nor withdrew his friendship and intimacy from the
writer."

The fine arts which are cultivated with so much distinction in the
"Etrurian Athens," attracted the particular attention of our
accomplished traveller. Referring to the Dutch school and the Salle
des Portraits,—she says,

"The Dutch and Flemish painters (in spite of their exquisite pots
and pans, and cabbages and carrots, their birch brooms, in
which you can count every twig, and their carpets in which you
can reckon every thread) do not interest me; their landscapes
too, however natural, are mere Dutch nature (with some
 brilliant exceptions,) fat cattle, clipped trees, boors and wind-
mills. Of course I am not speaking of Vandyke, nor of Rubens,
he that 'in the colors of the rainbow lived,' nor of Rembrandt,
that king of clouds and shadows; but for mine own part, I would
give up all that Mieris, Netscher, Teniers and Gerard Duow ever
produced, for one of Claude's Eden-like creations, or one of
Guido's lovely heads—or merely for the pleasure of looking at
Titian's Flora once a day, I would give a whole gallery of
Dutchmen, if I had them."

The following coup-d'oeil of Florence is distinct and impressive:

"We then ascended the Campanile or Belfry Tower to see the

view from its summit. Florence lay at our feet, diminished to a
model of itself, with its walls and gates, its streets and bridges,
palaces and churches, all and each distinctly visible; and
beyond, the Val d'Arno with its amphitheatre of hills, villas, and
its vineyards—classical Fiesole, with its ruined castle, and Monte
Ulivetto, with its diadem of cypresses; luxuriant nature and
graceful art, blending into one glorious picture, which no smoky
vapors, no damp exhalations, blotted and discolored; but all was
serenely bright and fair, gay with moving life, and rich with
redundant fertility."

But it was in Rome, "the city of the soul," that the spirit of the
authoress revelled amidst the magnificent trophies of art, and was
refreshed in spite of pain and despondency, by the reviving beauties
of nature.

"The weather is cold here during the prevalence of the

tramontana: but I enjoy the brilliant skies, and the delicious
purity of the air, which leaves the eye free to wander over a vast
extent of space. Looking from the gallery of the Belvedere at
sun-set this evening, I clearly saw Tivoli, Albano, and Frascati,
although all Rome, and part of the Campagna lay between me
and those towns. The outlines of every building, ruin, hill and
 wood, were so distinctly marked, and stood out so brightly to
the eye! and the full round moon, magnified through the purple
vapor which floated over the Appenines, rose just over Tivoli,
adding to the beauty of the scene. O Italy! How I wish I could
transport hither all I love! how I wish I were well enough, happy
enough to enjoy all the lovely things I see! but pain is mingled
with all I behold, all I feel: a cloud seems for ever before my
eyes, a weight for ever presses down my heart. I know it is
wrong to repine; and that I ought rather to be thankful for the
pleasurable sensations yet spared to me, than lament that they
are so few. When I take up my pen to record the impressions of
the day, I sometimes turn within myself, and wonder how it is
possible, that amid the strife of feelings not all subdued, and
the desponding of the heart, the mind should still retain its
faculties unobscured, and the imagination all its vivacity, and its
susceptibility to pleasure,—like the beautiful sun-bow I saw at
the falls of Terni, bending so bright and so calm over the verge
of the abyss, which toiled and raged below."

Having visited and examined in detail, with the feelings of an

amateur, almost every thing worthy of note in the ancient city—the
sublime architecture of St. Peter's—the treasures of the Vatican and
the Capitol—the numberless galleries of painting and sculpture—and
having loitered with the spirit of an antiquary amidst the ruins of
tombs and temples, our fair tourist describes the rapid survey which
she made with a view to generalize the whole.

"For this purpose, making the Capitol a central point, I drove

first slowly through the Forum, and made the circuit of the
Palatine hill, then by the arch of Janus (which by a late decision
of the antiquarians has no more to do with Janus than with
Jupiter,) and the temple of Vesta, back again over the site of the
Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and the Aventine (the
scene of the Rape of the Sabines,) to the baths of Caracalla,
where I spent an hour, musing, sketching, and poetizing; thence
to the Church of San Stefano Rotundo, once a temple dedicated
to Claudius by Agrippina; over the Celian hill, covered with
masses of ruins, to the Church of St. John and St. Paul, a small
but beautiful edifice: then to the neighboring church of San
Gregorio, from the steps of which there is such a noble view.
Thence I returned by the arch of Constantine, and the
Coliseum, which frowned on me in black masses through the
soft and deepening twilight, through the street now called the
Suburra, but formerly the Via Scelerata, where Tullia trampled
over the dead body of her father, and so over the Quirinal,
home.

"My excursion was altogether delightful, and gave me the most

magnificent, and I had almost said, the most bewildering ideas
of the grandeur and extent of ancient Rome: every step was
classic ground; illustrious names, and splendid recollections
crowded upon the fancy—
 'And trailing clouds of glory did they come.'

On the Palatine Hill were the houses of Cicero and the Gracchi:
Horace, Virgil, and Ovid resided on the Aventine; and Mecænas
and Pliny on the Æsquiline. If one little fragment of a wall
remained, which could with any shadow of probability be
pointed out as belonging to the residence of Cicero, Horace, or
Virgil, how much dearer, how much more sanctified to memory
would it be than all the magnificent ruins of the fabrics of the
Cæsars! But no—all has passed away. I have heard the remains
of Rome coarsely ridiculed, because after the researches of
centuries, so little is comparatively known, because of the
endless disputes of antiquarians, and the night and ignorance in
which all is involved. But to the imagination there is something
singularly striking in this mysterious veil which hangs like a
cloud upon the objects around us. I trod to-day over shapeless
masses of building, extending in every direction as far as the
eye could reach. Who had inhabited the edifices I trampled
under my feet? What hearts had burned—what heads had
thought—what spirits had kindled there, where nothing was
seen but a wilderness and waste, and heaps of ruins, to which
antiquaries—even Nibby himself, dare not give a name? All
swept away—buried beneath an ocean of oblivion, above which
rise a few great and glorious names, like rocks, over which the
billows of time break in vain."

Her journey from Rome to Naples was short and delightful. The
following is one among innumerable descriptive passages in her
diary:

"In some of the scenes of to-day—at Terracina particularly,

there was a beauty beyond what I ever beheld or imagined: the
scenery of Switzerland is of a different character, and on a
different scale; it is beyond comparison grander, more gigantic,
more overpowering, but it is not so poetical. Switzerland is not
Italy—is not the enchanting south. This soft balmy air, these
 myrtles, orange groves, palm trees; these cloudless skies, this
bright blue sea, and sunny hills, all breathe of an enchanted
land; 'a land of Faery.'"

At Naples our traveller was fortunate enough to witness a brilliant

eruption of Mount Vesuvius—and overcoming the natural timidity of
her sex, she resolved to ascend the mountain at midnight attended
by chosen guides and companions. Her account of the terrible
spectacle is too graphic to withhold from our readers.

"Before eleven o'clock we reached the Hermitage, situated

between Vesuvius and the Somma, and the highest habitation
on the mountain. A great number of men were assembled
within, and guides, lazzaroni, servants, and soldiers were
lounging round. I alighted, for I was benumbed and tired, but
did not like to venture among those people, and it was
proposed that we should wait for the rest of our party a little
farther on. We accordingly left our donkeys and walked forward
upon a kind of high ridge, which serves to fortify the Hermitage
and its environs, against the lava. From this path as we slowly
ascended, we had a glorious view of the eruption, and the
whole scene around us, in its romantic interest and terrible
magnificence, mocked all power of description. There were, at
this time, five distinct torrents of lava rolling down like streams
of molten lead; one of which extended above two miles below
us, and was flowing towards Portici. The showers of red hot
stones flew up like thousands of sky rockets; many of them
being shot up perpendicularly, fell back into the crater, others
falling on the outside, bounded down the side of the mountain,
with a velocity which would have distanced a horse at full
speed: these stones were of every size, from two to ten or
twelve feet in diameter.

"My ears were by this time wearied and stunned by the

unceasing roaring and hissing of the flames, while my eyes were
dazzled by the glare of the red, fierce light: now and then I
 turned them for relief, to other features of the picture, to the
black shadowy masses of the landscape stretched beneath us,
and speckled with little shining lights, which showed how many
were up and watching that night; and often to the calm vaulted
sky above our heads, where thousands of stars (not twinkling,
as through our hazy or frosty atmosphere, but shining out of
'heaven's profoundest azure,' with that soft steady brilliance,
peculiar to a highly rarified medium) looked down upon this
frightful turmoil, in all their bright and placid loveliness. Nor
should I forget one other feature of a scene, on which I looked
with a painter's eye. Great numbers of the Austrian forces, now
occupying Naples, were on the mountain, assembled in groups,
some standing, some sitting, some stretched on the ground and
wrapped in their cloaks, in various attitudes of amazement and
admiration; and as the shadowy glare fell on their tall martial
figures and glittering accoutrements, I thought I had never
beheld any thing so wildly picturesque."

After spending the day with a select party of friends amidst the ruins
of Pompeii, she draws the following picture of the celebrated
environs of Naples.

"Of all the heavenly days we have had since we came to Naples,
this has been the most heavenly; and of all the lovely scenes I
have beheld in Italy, what I saw to-day has most enchanted my
senses and imagination. The view from the eminence on which
the old temple stood, and which was anciently the public
promenade, was splendidly beautiful: the whole landscape was
at one time overflowed with light and sunshine; and appeared
as if seen through an impalpable but dazzling veil. Towards
evening, the outlines became more distinct: the little white
towns perched upon the hills, the gentle sea, the fairy island of
Rivegliano with its old tower, the smoking crater of Vesuvius, the
bold forms of Mount Lactarius and Cape Minerva, stood out full
and clear under the cloudless sky; and as we returned, I saw
the sun sink behind Capri, which appeared by some optical
 illusion, like a glorious crimson transparency suspended above
the horizon: the sky, the earth, the sea, were flushed with the
richest rose color, which gradually softened and darkened into
purple: the short twilight faded away, and the full moon, rising
over Vesuvius, lighted up the scenery with a softer radiance."

We intended to have quoted other passages, in which our fair

authoress sketches with striking eloquence, the exhibitions of
Sestine, one of that extraordinary race called Improvvisatori—a race
which seems to be almost peculiar to Italy; and which, far from
being extinct, are still to be found in almost every town from
Florence to Naples. Her description too of a splendid illumination at
St. Peter's, and her just observations upon the works of the great
masters, particularly of the Divine Raffaelle, are worthy of particular
designation; but it would be an almost endless task to select
passages from a work, which from beginning to end, and through
almost every page, is a volume of thrilling interest. We shall content
ourselves with one or two beautiful extracts distinguished for their
deep moral tone, and somewhat connected, as we suppose, with
that all-engrossing and mysterious source of melancholy which
seems to have imbittered the peace and hastened the dissolution of
this interesting female.

"It is sorrow which makes our experience; it is sorrow which

teaches us to feel properly for ourselves and for others. We
must feel deeply before we can think rightly. It is not in the
tempest and storm of passions, we can reflect—but afterwards,
when the waters have gone over our soul; and like the precious
gems and the rich merchandise which the wild wave casts on
the shore out of the wreck it has made—such are the thoughts
left by retiring passions."

Again; what can be more affecting than her final adieu to Naples.

"When we turned into the Strada Chiaja, and I gave a last

glance at the magnificent bay and the shores all resplendent
 with golden light; I could almost have exclaimed like Eve, 'must
I then leave thee, Paradise!' and dropt a few natural tears—
tears of weakness, rather than of grief: for what do I leave
behind me worthy one emotion of regret? Even at Naples, even
in this all-lovely land, 'fit haunt for gods,' has it not been with
me as it has been elsewhere? as long as the excitement of
change and novelty lasts, my heart can turn from itself 'to
luxuriate with indifferent things:' but it cannot last long; and
when it is over, I suffer, I am ill: the past returns with tenfold
gloom; interposing like a dark shade between me and every
object: an evil power seems to reside in every thing I see, to
torment me with painful associations, to perplex my faculties, to
irritate and mock me with the perception of what is lost to me:
the very sunshine sickens me, and I am forced to confess
myself weak and miserable as ever. O time! how slowly you
move! how little you can do for me! and how bitter is that
sorrow which has no relief to hope but from time alone!"

We shall quote only one of the many interesting specimens of poetry

with which the volume is interspersed. It is an extempore translation
of a beautiful sonnet of Zappi, an Italian poet.

"Love, by my fair one's side is ever seen,

He hovers round her steps, where'er she strays,
Breathes in her voice, and in her silence speaks,
Around her lives and lends her all his arms.

"Love is in every glance—Love taught her song;

And if she weep, or scorn contract her brow,
Still Love departs not from her, but is seen
Even in her lovely anger and her tears.

"When, in the mazy dance she glides along,

Still Love is near to poise each graceful step:
So breathes the zephyr o'er the yielding flower.
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