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Digital Image Processing PIKS Inside 3rd Edition
William K. Pratt Digital Instant Download
Author(s): William K. Pratt
ISBN(s): 9780471221326, 0471374075
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 17.47 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside, Third Edition. William K. Pratt
Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBNs: 0-471-37407-5 (Hardback); 0-471-22132-5 (Electronic)

DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
PIKS Inside

Third Edition

WILLIAM K. PRATT
PixelSoft, Inc.
Los Altos, California

A Wiley-Interscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
New York • Chichester • Weinheim • Brisbane • Singapore • Toronto
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often
claimed as trademarks. In all instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc., is
aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or all capital
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Copyright  2001 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. All rights
reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail:
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This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative

information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the
understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional
services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the
services of a competent professional person should be sought.

ISBN 0-471-22132-5

This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-37407-5.

For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at
www.Wiley.com.
 To my wife, Shelly
whose image needs no enhancement
CONTENTS

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xvii

PART 1 CONTINUOUS IMAGE CHARACTERIZATION 1

1 Continuous Image Mathematical Characterization 3

1.1 Image Representation, 3
1.2 Two-Dimensional Systems, 5
1.3 Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform, 10
1.4 Image Stochastic Characterization, 15

2 Psychophysical Vision Properties 23

2.1 Light Perception, 23
2.2 Eye Physiology, 26
2.3 Visual Phenomena, 29
2.4 Monochrome Vision Model, 33
2.5 Color Vision Model, 39

3 Photometry and Colorimetry 45

3.1 Photometry, 45
3.2 Color Matching, 49

vii
viii CONTENTS

3.3 Colorimetry Concepts, 54

3.4 Tristimulus Value Transformation, 61
3.5 Color Spaces, 63

PART 2 DIGITAL IMAGE CHARACTERIZATION 89

4 Image Sampling and Reconstruction 91

4.1 Image Sampling and Reconstruction Concepts, 91
4.2 Image Sampling Systems, 99
4.3 Image Reconstruction Systems, 110

5 Discrete Image Mathematical Representation 121

5.1 Vector-Space Image Representation, 121
5.2 Generalized Two-Dimensional Linear Operator, 123
5.3 Image Statistical Characterization, 127
5.4 Image Probability Density Models, 132
5.5 Linear Operator Statistical Representation, 136

6 Image Quantization 141

6.1 Scalar Quantization, 141
6.2 Processing Quantized Variables, 147
6.3 Monochrome and Color Image Quantization, 150

PART 3 DISCRETE TWO-DIMENSIONAL LINEAR PROCESSING 159

7 Superposition and Convolution 161

7.1 Finite-Area Superposition and Convolution, 161
7.2 Sampled Image Superposition and Convolution, 170
7.3 Circulant Superposition and Convolution, 177
7.4 Superposition and Convolution Operator Relationships, 180

8 Unitary Transforms 185

8.1 General Unitary Transforms, 185
8.2 Fourier Transform, 189
8.3 Cosine, Sine, and Hartley Transforms, 195
8.4 Hadamard, Haar, and Daubechies Transforms, 200
8.5 Karhunen–Loeve Transform, 207

9 Linear Processing Techniques 213

9.1 Transform Domain Processing, 213
9.2 Transform Domain Superposition, 216
 CONTENTS ix

9.3 Fast Fourier Transform Convolution, 221

9.4 Fourier Transform Filtering, 229
9.5 Small Generating Kernel Convolution, 236

PART 4 IMAGE IMPROVEMENT 241

10 Image Enhancement 243

10.1 Contrast Manipulation, 243
10.2 Histogram Modification, 253
10.3 Noise Cleaning, 261
10.4 Edge Crispening, 278
10.5 Color Image Enhancement, 284
10.6 Multispectral Image Enhancement, 289

11 Image Restoration Models 297

11.1 General Image Restoration Models, 297
11.2 Optical Systems Models, 300
11.3 Photographic Process Models, 304
11.4 Discrete Image Restoration Models, 312

12 Point and Spatial Image Restoration Techniques 319

12.1 Sensor and Display Point Nonlinearity Correction, 319
12.2 Continuous Image Spatial Filtering Restoration, 325
12.3 Pseudoinverse Spatial Image Restoration, 335
12.4 SVD Pseudoinverse Spatial Image Restoration, 349
12.5 Statistical Estimation Spatial Image Restoration, 355
12.6 Constrained Image Restoration, 358
12.7 Blind Image Restoration, 363

13 Geometrical Image Modification 371

13.1 Translation, Minification, Magnification, and Rotation, 371
13.2 Spatial Warping, 382
13.3 Perspective Transformation, 386
13.4 Camera Imaging Model, 389
13.5 Geometrical Image Resampling, 393

PART 5 IMAGE ANALYSIS 399

14 Morphological Image Processing 401

14.1 Binary Image Connectivity, 401
14.2 Binary Image Hit or Miss Transformations, 404
14.3 Binary Image Shrinking, Thinning, Skeletonizing, and Thickening, 411
x CONTENTS

14.4 Binary Image Generalized Dilation and Erosion, 422

14.5 Binary Image Close and Open Operations, 433
14.6 Gray Scale Image Morphological Operations, 435

15 Edge Detection 443

15.1 Edge, Line, and Spot Models, 443
15.2 First-Order Derivative Edge Detection, 448
15.3 Second-Order Derivative Edge Detection, 469
15.4 Edge-Fitting Edge Detection, 482
15.5 Luminance Edge Detector Performance, 485
15.6 Color Edge Detection, 499
15.7 Line and Spot Detection, 499

16 Image Feature Extraction 509

16.1 Image Feature Evaluation, 509
16.2 Amplitude Features, 511
16.3 Transform Coefficient Features, 516
16.4 Texture Definition, 519
16.5 Visual Texture Discrimination, 521
16.6 Texture Features, 529

17 Image Segmentation 551

17.1 Amplitude Segmentation Methods, 552
17.2 Clustering Segmentation Methods, 560
17.3 Region Segmentation Methods, 562
17.4 Boundary Detection, 566
17.5 Texture Segmentation, 580
17.6 Segment Labeling, 581

18 Shape Analysis 589

18.1 Topological Attributes, 589
18.2 Distance, Perimeter, and Area Measurements, 591
18.3 Spatial Moments, 597
18.4 Shape Orientation Descriptors, 607
18.5 Fourier Descriptors, 609

19 Image Detection and Registration 613

19.1 Template Matching, 613
19.2 Matched Filtering of Continuous Images, 616
19.3 Matched Filtering of Discrete Images, 623
19.4 Image Registration, 625
 CONTENTS xi

PART 6 IMAGE PROCESSING SOFTWARE 641

20 PIKS Image Processing Software 643

20.1 PIKS Functional Overview, 643
20.2 PIKS Core Overview, 663

21 PIKS Image Processing Programming Exercises 673

21.1 Program Generation Exercises, 674
21.2 Image Manipulation Exercises, 675
21.3 Colour Space Exercises, 676
21.4 Region-of-Interest Exercises, 678
21.5 Image Measurement Exercises, 679
21.6 Quantization Exercises, 680
21.7 Convolution Exercises, 681
21.8 Unitary Transform Exercises, 682
21.9 Linear Processing Exercises, 682
21.10 Image Enhancement Exercises, 683
21.11 Image Restoration Models Exercises, 685
21.12 Image Restoration Exercises, 686
21.13 Geometrical Image Modification Exercises, 687
21.14 Morphological Image Processing Exercises, 687
21.15 Edge Detection Exercises, 689
21.16 Image Feature Extration Exercises, 690
21.17 Image Segmentation Exercises, 691
21.18 Shape Analysis Exercises, 691
21.19 Image Detection and Registration Exercises, 692

Appendix 1 Vector-Space Algebra Concepts 693

Appendix 2 Color Coordinate Conversion 709

Appendix 3 Image Error Measures 715

Bibliography 717

Index 723
PREFACE

In January 1978, I began the preface to the first edition of Digital Image Processing
with the following statement:
The field of image processing has grown considerably during the past decade
with the increased utilization of imagery in myriad applications coupled with
improvements in the size, speed, and cost effectiveness of digital computers and
related signal processing technologies. Image processing has found a significant role
in scientific, industrial, space, and government applications.
In January 1991, in the preface to the second edition, I stated:
Thirteen years later as I write this preface to the second edition, I find the quoted
statement still to be valid. The 1980s have been a decade of significant growth and
maturity in this field. At the beginning of that decade, many image processing tech-
niques were of academic interest only; their execution was too slow and too costly.
Today, thanks to algorithmic and implementation advances, image processing has
become a vital cost-effective technology in a host of applications.
Now, in this beginning of the twenty-first century, image processing has become
a mature engineering discipline. But advances in the theoretical basis of image pro-
cessing continue. Some of the reasons for this third edition of the book are to correct
defects in the second edition, delete content of marginal interest, and add discussion
of new, important topics. Another motivating factor is the inclusion of interactive,
computer display imaging examples to illustrate image processing concepts. Finally,
this third edition includes computer programming exercises to bolster its theoretical
content. These exercises can be implemented using the Programmer’s Imaging Ker-
nel System (PIKS) application program interface (API). PIKS is an International

xiii
xiv PREFACE

Standards Organization (ISO) standard library of image processing operators and

associated utilities. The PIKS Core version is included on a CD affixed to the back
cover of this book.
The book is intended to be an “industrial strength” introduction to digital image
processing to be used as a text for an electrical engineering or computer science
course in the subject. Also, it can be used as a reference manual for scientists who
are engaged in image processing research, developers of image processing hardware
and software systems, and practicing engineers and scientists who use image pro-
cessing as a tool in their applications. Mathematical derivations are provided for
most algorithms. The reader is assumed to have a basic background in linear system
theory, vector space algebra, and random processes. Proficiency in C language pro-
gramming is necessary for execution of the image processing programming exer-
cises using PIKS.
The book is divided into six parts. The first three parts cover the basic technolo-
gies that are needed to support image processing applications. Part 1 contains three
chapters concerned with the characterization of continuous images. Topics include
the mathematical representation of continuous images, the psychophysical proper-
ties of human vision, and photometry and colorimetry. In Part 2, image sampling
and quantization techniques are explored along with the mathematical representa-
tion of discrete images. Part 3 discusses two-dimensional signal processing tech-
niques, including general linear operators and unitary transforms such as the
Fourier, Hadamard, and Karhunen–Loeve transforms. The final chapter in Part 3
analyzes and compares linear processing techniques implemented by direct convolu-
tion and Fourier domain filtering.
The next two parts of the book cover the two principal application areas of image
processing. Part 4 presents a discussion of image enhancement and restoration tech-
niques, including restoration models, point and spatial restoration, and geometrical
image modification. Part 5, entitled “Image Analysis,” concentrates on the extrac-
tion of information from an image. Specific topics include morphological image
processing, edge detection, image feature extraction, image segmentation, object
shape analysis, and object detection.
Part 6 discusses the software implementation of image processing applications.
This part describes the PIKS API and explains its use as a means of implementing
image processing algorithms. Image processing programming exercises are included
in Part 6.
This third edition represents a major revision of the second edition. In addition to
Part 6, new topics include an expanded description of color spaces, the Hartley and
Daubechies transforms, wavelet filtering, watershed and snake image segmentation,
and Mellin transform matched filtering. Many of the photographic examples in the
book are supplemented by executable programs for which readers can adjust algo-
rithm parameters and even substitute their own source images.
Although readers should find this book reasonably comprehensive, many impor-
tant topics allied to the field of digital image processing have been omitted to limit
the size and cost of the book. Among the most prominent omissions are the topics of
pattern recognition, image reconstruction from projections, image understanding,
 PREFACE xv

image coding, scientific visualization, and computer graphics. References to some

of these topics are provided in the bibliography.

WILLIAM K. PRATT

Los Altos, California

August 2000
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The first edition of this book was written while I was a professor of electrical
engineering at the University of Southern California (USC). Image processing
research at USC began in 1962 on a very modest scale, but the program increased in
size and scope with the attendant international interest in the field. In 1971, Dr.
Zohrab Kaprielian, then dean of engineering and vice president of academic
research and administration, announced the establishment of the USC Image
Processing Institute. This environment contributed significantly to the preparation of
the first edition. I am deeply grateful to Professor Kaprielian for his role in
providing university support of image processing and for his personal interest in my
career.
Also, I wish to thank the following past and present members of the Institute’s
scientific staff who rendered invaluable assistance in the preparation of the first-
edition manuscript: Jean-François Abramatic, Harry C. Andrews, Lee D. Davisson,
Olivier Faugeras, Werner Frei, Ali Habibi, Anil K. Jain, Richard P. Kruger, Nasser
E. Nahi, Ramakant Nevatia, Keith Price, Guner S. Robinson, Alexander
A. Sawchuk, and Lloyd R. Welsh.
In addition, I sincerely acknowledge the technical help of my graduate students at
USC during preparation of the first edition: Ikram Abdou, Behnam Ashjari,
Wen-Hsiung Chen, Faramarz Davarian, Michael N. Huhns, Kenneth I. Laws, Sang
Uk Lee, Clanton Mancill, Nelson Mascarenhas, Clifford Reader, John Roese, and
Robert H. Wallis.
The first edition was the outgrowth of notes developed for the USC course
“Image Processing.” I wish to thank the many students who suffered through the

xvii
xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

early versions of the notes for their valuable comments. Also, I appreciate the
reviews of the notes provided by Harry C. Andrews, Werner Frei, Ali Habibi, and
Ernest L. Hall, who taught the course.
With regard to the first edition, I wish to offer words of appreciation to the
Information Processing Techniques Office of the Advanced Research Projects
Agency, directed by Larry G. Roberts, which provided partial financial support of
my research at USC.
During the academic year 1977–1978, I performed sabbatical research at the
Institut de Recherche d’Informatique et Automatique in LeChesney, France and at
the Université de Paris. My research was partially supported by these institutions,
USC, and a Guggenheim Foundation fellowship. For this support, I am indebted.
I left USC in 1979 with the intention of forming a company that would put some
of my research ideas into practice. Toward that end, I joined a startup company,
Compression Labs, Inc., of San Jose, California. There I worked on the development
of facsimile and video coding products with Dr., Wen-Hsiung Chen and Dr. Robert
H. Wallis. Concurrently, I directed a design team that developed a digital image
processor called VICOM. The early contributors to its hardware and software design
were William Bryant, Howard Halverson, Stephen K. Howell, Jeffrey Shaw, and
William Zech. In 1981, I formed Vicom Systems, Inc., of San Jose, California, to
manufacture and market the VICOM image processor. Many of the photographic
examples in this book were processed on a VICOM.
Work on the second edition began in 1986. In 1988, I joined Sun Microsystems,
of Mountain View, California. At Sun, I collaborated with Stephen A. Howell and
Ihtisham Kabir on the development of image processing software. During my time
at Sun, I participated in the specification of the Programmers Imaging Kernel
application program interface which was made an International Standards
Organization standard in 1994. Much of the PIKS content is present in this book.
Some of the principal contributors to PIKS include Timothy Butler, Adrian Clark,
Patrick Krolak, and Gerard A. Paquette.
In 1993, I formed PixelSoft, Inc., of Los Altos, California, to commercialize the
PIKS standard. The PIKS Core version of the PixelSoft implementation is affixed to
the back cover of this edition. Contributors to its development include Timothy
Butler, Larry R. Hubble, and Gerard A. Paquette.
In 1996, I joined Photon Dynamics, Inc., of San Jose, California, a manufacturer
of machine vision equipment for the inspection of electronics displays and printed
circuit boards. There, I collaborated with Larry R. Hubble, Sunil S. Sawkar, and
Gerard A. Paquette on the development of several hardware and software products
based on PIKS.
I wish to thank all those previously cited, and many others too numerous to
mention, for their assistance in this industrial phase of my career. Having
participated in the design of hardware and software products has been an arduous
but intellectually rewarding task. This industrial experience, I believe, has
significantly enriched this third edition.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

I offer my appreciation to Ray Schmidt, who was responsible for many photo-
graphic reproductions in the book, and to Kris Pendelton, who created much of the
line art. Also, thanks are given to readers of the first two editions who reported
errors both typographical and mental.
Most of all, I wish to thank my wife, Shelly, for her support in the writing of the
third edition.

W. K. P.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
dynamo. It is important to note that in the middle compartment the
mercury becomes the anode.

Chlorine is liberated at the carbon electrodes, and when no more

can dissolve in the liquid it escapes and is conveyed away by the
pipe P. Sodium atoms are formed at the surface of the mercury
cathodes in the outside compartments and dissolve instantly in the
mercury, forming sodium amalgam.

While the current is passing, a slight rocking motion is given to the

tank by the cam E. This is sufficient to cause the mercury containing
the dissolved sodium to flow alternately into the middle
compartment, and there the sodium amalgam comes into contact
with water; the sodium is dissolved out of the mercury and caustic
soda is formed. Water in a regulated stream is constantly admitted
to the middle compartment, and a solution of caustic soda of about
20 per cent. strength overflows.

The production of caustic soda by an electrical method still remains

to be fully developed. A process which gives only a 20 per cent.
solution cannot be looked upon as final. In the meantime, other
methods have been tried, in some of which fused salt is used in
place of brine in order to give caustic soda in a more concentrated
form. For a description of these methods, the reader must consult
some of the larger works mentioned in the preface. Here we can
only say that very great difficulties have been encountered,
particularly in the construction of a satisfactory porous 107
diaphragm or, alternately, in devising methods in which this
can be dispensed with.

Another interesting application of electrolysis is furnished by the use

of copper sulphate in industry. When this salt is dissolved in water, it
breaks up into copper ions (positive) and an equal number of
negative ions, composed of 1 atom of sulphur and 4 atoms of
oxygen (SO″4). Under the influence of the current copper ions travel
to the cathode, and there by the gain of two electrons become
copper atoms. Now, since copper is not soluble in copper sulphate
solution, and is not volatile except at very high temperatures, it is
deposited on the cathode in a perfectly even and continuous film
when the strength of the current is suitably adjusted. This film
continues to grow in thickness as long as the conditions for its
deposition are maintained. If the current employed is not suitable,
the metallic film is not coherent, and the copper may appear as a
red powder at the bottom of the cell. Any other metal or impurity
which might be present in the unrefined copper falls to the bottom
of the tank.

Other metals are deposited electrolytically in exactly the same way.

The metal to be deposited is joined to the positive pole and the
article to be plated to the negative pole of the battery. Both are
suspended in a solution of salt, generally the sulphate, of the metal
which is to be deposited. Thus, for nickel plating, a piece of sheet
nickel would be used in conjunction with a solution of sulphate of
nickel or, better, a solution of nickel ammonium sulphate, made by
crystallizing ammonium and nickel sulphates together. The current
required is small; indeed, if it is too strong, the deposit adheres
loosely to the article, and the result is, therefore, not satisfactory.

Electrotype blocks are also made by a similar process. An 108

impression of the article to be reproduced is made in wax, or
some suitable plastic material, and polished with very fine graphite
or black lead, in order to give a conducting surface. It is then
suspended in a solution of copper sulphate and joined to the
negative pole of the battery; a plate of copper connected with the
positive pole is suspended in the same solution. When a weak
current is passed, copper is deposited on the black-leaded surface
and grows gradually in thickness, until at length it can be stripped
off, giving a positive replica of the object.

109
 INDEX
A
Acetic acid (glacial), 73
Acids, early notions of, 1
——, fatty, 78
——, mineral, 68
——, vegetable, 68
Agate, 61
Air-saltpetre, 42
Alkali Acts, 44
——, caustic, 96
——, metals, 95
——, mild, 80
—— waste, 87
Alkalis, properties, 3
Aluminium acetate, 73
Alums, the, 26
Amethyst, 61
Ammonal, 36
Ammonia, 97
——, synthetic, 99
Ammonite, 99
Ammonium carbonate, 99
—— chloride, 98
—— nitrate, 99
—— sulphate, 99
Anhydride, an, 21
Anode, 103
Argol, 76
Asbestos, 63
——, platinized, 19
Ash, black, 84
——, pearl, 93
——, soda, 10, 92
Atolls, 51
Atomized water, 18

B
Bacon, Roger, 32
Basic slag, 58
Basil Valentine, 12
Beryl, 63
Black liquor, 74
Blasting gelatine, 35
Bleaching powder, 46
Blue-john, 47
Boiler scale, 54
Bonbonnes, 31
Bone, 56
—— ash, 57
—— black, 56
—— meal, 56
Borax, 59
Bordeaux mixture, 7
Boric acid, 58
Boyle, Robert, 2
Burgundy mixture, 6

C
Calcium acetate, 5
—— bicarbonate, 54
—— carbonate, 50
—— fluoride, 47
—— nitrate, 29
—— phosphate, 56
—— sulphate, 27
Calc spar, 50
Caliche, 29
Calico printing, 26
Carbon, 49
Carbonic acid, 49
—— —— gas, 49
Castner process, 105
Catalytic action, 20
Cathode, 103
Cat’s-eye, 61
Cavendish, H., 40
Cellulose, 46
Chalcedony, 61
Chalk, 50
Chert, 66
Chili-saltpetre, 29, 39
China clay, 62
Citric acid, 77
Chlorides, 47
Chlorine, 46
Chrome yellow, 28
—— red, 28
Compound, 7 110
Compounds, binary, 8
Contact action, 20
—— process, 18
Copper refining, 107
—— sulphate, 5, 27
Coral reefs, 51
Cordite, 34
Cream of tartar, 76
Crops, rotation of, 37
Crystallization, water of, 9
Crystals, 9

D
Davy, Sir Humphry, 95
Derbyshire spar, 47
Devitrification, 65
Dynamite, 35

E
Efflorescence, 82
Electrode, 103
Electrolysis, 102
Electrons, 103
Electrotype blocks, 107
Element, definition of, 7
Elements, list of, 8
Explosives, 32

F
Felspars, 62
Ferrous acetate, 74
—— sulphate, 25
Flint, 61
Fluorspar, 48
Formic acid, 78
Fur in kettles, 54

G
Garnet, 63
Gas, laughing, 99
—— lime, 12
—— liquor, 98
Gay Lussac tower, 16
Glass, 64
——, annealing of, 65
——, Bohemian, 63
——, etching on, 47
——, flint, 63
——, lead, 63
——, soda, 63
——, water, 66
Glauber’s salt, 10 111
Glover tower, 17
Glue, 56
Graphite, 108
Greek fire, 32
Guncotton, 34
Gunpowder, 32
Gypsum, 27

H
Haber process, 100
Halogen, 43
Hardness, permanent, 53
——, temporary, 53
Hartshorn, salt of, 99
——, spirits of, 97
Hornblende, 63
Hydriodic acid, 48
Hydrobromic acid, 48
Hydrochloric acid, 43
Hydrofluoric acid, 47

I
Iceland spar, 50
Ions, 103
Iron pyrites, 11

J
Jade, 63
Jasper, 61

K
Key industries, 10
 L
Lake, 26
Lead acetate, 75
—— chambers, 17
—— chamber process, 14
——, sugar of, 75
—— sulphate, 27
——, white, 75
Leblanc soda process, 82
Leguminosae, 37
Lemon, salts of, 77
Lime burning, 51
——, caustic, 97
—— kiln, 51
Limestone, 50
Litmus, 2
Lupin root, 37

112

M
Marble, 50
Marking ink, 28
Meerschaum, 63
Mica, 63
Mordants, 26
Mycoderma aceti, 68

N
Neutralization, example of, 4
——, explanation of, 3
Niagara, 101
Nitre, 29
—— pots, 14
Nitric acid, 30
—— ——, from air, 40
—— ——, importance of, 28
—— —— manufacture of, 30
—— ——, properties, 31
—— ——, red fuming, 31
—— oxide, 16
Nitrogen cycle, 37
——, fixation of, 100
—— peroxide, 16
Nitroglycerine, 34

O
Olein, 78
Onyx, 61
Opal, 61
Orthoclase, 62
Oxalic acid, 77

P
Palmitin, 78
Pearls, 51
Peregrine Phillips, 21
Philosopher’s stone, 2
Phosphoric acid, 57
Plaster of Paris, 27
Potash, caustic, 97
——, mild, 93
Potassium, 95
—— bicarbonate, 94
—— nitrate, 29
Propellants, 33
Prussian blue, 25
Pyrites burners, 14
Pyroligneous acid, 73

113
 Q
Quartz, 61
—— fibres, 62
——, smoky, 61
Quicklime, 5, 51

R
Red liquor, 73
Rock crystal, 61
Rupert’s drops, 65

S
Sal ammoniac, 99
—— prunella, 29
Salt cake, 84
——, common, 47
——, formation of a, 4
Saltpetre, 29
Salts, from carbonates, 5
——, from oxides, 5
——, from metals, 4
——, insoluble, 6
Sandstone, artificial, 66
Saponification, 79
Schweinfurt green, 27
Shells, egg, 51
——, oyster, 51
Silica, 61
—— ware, 62
Silicic acid, 62
Silver bromide, 48
—— chloride, 48
—— iodide, 48
—— nitrate, 28
—— sand, 61
Soap, hard, 79
——, soft, 79
Soda, baking, 88
——, bicarbonate of, 6, 88
——, bread, 88
——, caustic, 96
——, mild, 80
——, natural, 82
——, washing, 3, 5, 81
—— water, 49
Sodium, 95
—— nitrate, 29
—— sulphate, 27
Soil bacteria, 38
Solvay process, 90
Sorrel, salts of, 77
Spent oxide, 11 114
Stalactite, 53
Stalagmite, 53
Stearin, 78
—— candles, 79
Stone ammonia, 99
Suffioni, 60
Sulphur, 11
—— dioxide, 11
—— trioxide, prep. of, 19
Sulphuric acid, properties, 20, 24
—— anhydride, 21
Sulphurous acid, 11
Superphosphate, 57

T
Tallow, 79
Tartaric acid, 76
Tinkal, 61
Trinitrotoluene, 35
 V
Verdigris, 74
Vert de Montpellier, 74
Vinegar, 68
——, malt, 70
——, wine, 70
Vitriol, blue, 5
——, nitrated, 16
——, oil of, 12

W
Ward, Dr., 12
Water, hard, 53
——, soft, 53
——, softening of, 54
Wood ashes, source of potash, 3
—— ——, used as soap, 2

Z
Zinc chloride, 5

THE END
 Footnotes
[1]
An anhydride is a substance which unites with water to form an
acid.

[2]
See Frontispiece.

[3]
Now £13 a ton.

[4]
Basic lead carbonate.

[5]
An electron is probably an “atom” of negative electricity detached
from matter.

Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. Bath, England

(v—1468c)
 Transcriber’s Notes
Silently corrected several palpable typographical errors.
Retained publication information from the original source.
In the text versions, included italicized text in _underscores_.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ACIDS, ALKALIS
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