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Firefighter Exam 4th Edition Edition Learningexpress
Editors Digital Instant Download
Author(s): LearningExpress Editors
ISBN(s): 9781576856710, 1576856712
Edition: 4th Edition
File Details: PDF, 5.94 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
FIREFIGHTER
EXAM
Firefighter
Exam

4th Edition

NEW YORK
Copyright © 2009 LearningExpress, LLC.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.

Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Firefighter exam. —4th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-57685-671-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-57685-671-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Fire extinction—Examinations—Study guides. 2. Fire extinction—United States—Examinations,
questions, etc. 3. Fire extinction—Vocational guidance. I. LearningExpress (Organization)
TH9157.F525 2009
628.9'25076--dc22
2008041286

Printed in the United States of America

987654321

Fourth Edition

ISBN-10 1-57685-671-2
ISBN-13 978-1-57685-671-0

Regarding the Information in This Book

We attempt to verify the information presented in our books prior to publication. It is always a good idea,
however, to double-check such important information as minimum requirements, application and testing
procedures, and deadlines with your local fire department, as such information can change from
time to time.

For more information or to place an order, contact LearningExpress at:

2 Rector Street
26th Floor
New York, NY 10006

Or visit us at:
www.learnatest.com
 Contents

List of Contributors vii

How to Use This Book ix

CHAPTER 1 What Firefighters Really Do 1

CHAPTER 2 How Firefighters Are Selected 13

CHAPTER 3 The LearningExpress Test Preparation System 29

CHAPTER 4 Firefighter Practice Exam 1 51

CHAPTER 5 Firefighter Practice Exam 2 95

CHAPTER 6 Reading Text, Tables, Charts, and Graphs 125

CHAPTER 7 Memory and Observation 141

CHAPTER 8 Math 149

CHAPTER 9 Judgment and Reasoning 181

CHAPTER 10 Mechanical Aptitude 193

CHAPTER 11 Spatial Relations and Map Reading 209

CHAPTER 12 Verbal Expression 219

CHAPTER 13 Firefighter Practice Exam 3 235

CHAPTER 14 Firefighter Practice Exam 4 287

CHAPTER 15 The Candidate Physical Ability Test 319

CHAPTER 16 The Oral Interview 329

v
 List of
Contributors

Thomas Anthony, PE, is the captain of the Adamsburg Volunteer Fire Department and is a Structures Specialist
with Pennsylvania Task Force 1. He is a Project Manager for HDR Engineering, has a Master of Science Degree
in Civil Engineering from the University of Pittsburgh, and is a licensed Professional Engineer in PA, OH, and
WV. He has served for 26 years in fire and emergency medical services and is a licensed Emergency Medical Tech-
nician–Paramedic in Pennsylvania.

Michael Dortenzo, BA/MEd, is the fire chief at the Guyasuta Fire Department of O’Hara Township, a Pennsyl-
vania Suppression Fire Service Instructor, Pennsylvania Department of Health Rescue/EMS instructor, and cer-
tified police officer. He has 21 years in fire service, and is currently a high school teacher for a vocationally based
public safety program in New Stanton, PA.

Tim Hautamaki, MS/HRM, is the assistant fire chief at the City of Lauderhill Fire Rescue, a Fire Service Instruc-
tor, and a member of the American Heart Association Regional Faculty. He has 22 years in fire service, and his
current responsibilities focus on human resources issues, recruitment, testing, screening, hiring, and promotions.

Darryl Jones, MS/Public Management, is the Chief of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire and former chief of the
Aliquippa Fire Department. He is a graduate of the Executive Fire Officer Program at the National Fire Academy
and an Adjunct Instructor for the Pennsylvania State Fire Academy. He has 22 years in the fire service.

George Munkenbeck is a fourth-generation member of New York’s volunteer fire service. He presently teaches
at American Public University in the Fire Science program. As a member of the Coast Guard and Coast Guard
Reserve, George has served in the operations and port security branches of the Coast Guard and held three com-
mands. He now trains and educates emergency responders in the areas of emergency planning and response.

vii
 How to
Use This Book

F irefighting is more than a job or career; it is a calling. Perhaps you remember the first time that you
saw a fire truck pass by, rushing to some emergency, or watched as firefighters worked to save a life
in peril. That day, you began to dream of a career as a firefighter.
The fire service of today is a far cry from the organization it was only a few years ago. Firefighters, while
still relied upon by the community for routine emergency response, are now also on the front lines of homeland
defense. The fire service of today is more likely to render medical aid or carry out difficult rescues than fight fires.
New tasks such as conducting building inspections, giving safety education classes, responding to hazardous mate-
rials incidents, and performing difficult technical rescues mean that the firefighter of today must be better edu-
cated and trained than ever before.
For you to earn the rank of firefighter, you must first prepare for the highly competitive examinations that
mark the beginning of an increasingly difficult selection process. Today, this selection process also includes phys-
ical ability tests, medical qualification, and personal interviews before you can be placed on the list. The length
of the process can vary from a few months to a few years before you can take the oath. For that reason, you must

ix
 – HOW TO USE THIS BOOK–

make sure that you are committed to the career—and that not all of the exams test the same skills. Because fire
never lose sight of the dream that inspired you as you departments around the country use different types of
move through the process. exams, four different exams are included in this book.
This book will guide you through each stage of To use your study time most efficiently, you
the selection process and will help you strengthen your should find out what skills the department you want
test-taking skills to improve your chances of success. to apply to will be testing. (Chapter 3 shows you how.)
The following chapters are filled with useful informa- Then you can concentrate on the practice exams in
tion, advice, and practice exercises that will help you this book that correspond to those skills. At the begin-
understand both how the hiring process works and ning of each exam, you will find a description of the
how you can best meet the requirements. skills tested.
You will want to begin your preparation by read- Once you have taken one or two exams and know
ing Chapter 1, “What Firefighters Really Do.” This which areas need the most work, you can begin study-
chapter gives a summary of the duties and responsibil- ing the different subjects covered in Chapters 6–12.
ities of a firefighter. You will have the opportunity to After substantial review of your problem subjects,
evaluate your own interests and abilities as you learn move on to another practice exam to see if your score
about getting hired, trained, paid, and promoted. It’s improves. From there, you can determine how much
important to read this chapter carefully so that you more preparation you need and whether you want to
understand how to prepare yourself to become a part of seek help from a friend, a book on the subject, or a
this vital and challenging career. tutor.
Next, in Chapter 2, “How Firefighters Are Finally, don’t forget to read Chapters 15 and 16,
Selected,” you will read a summary of the selection which cover the ins and outs of the Physical Ability Test
process, from the initial application to the training and the oral interview.
academy. By learning the exact steps you will need to This book is here to help. It covers all the basics of
take in order to become a firefighter, you will have an what fire departments across the country are looking for
edge over those applicants coming in cold. in a candidate, and it gives you examples of what typi-
Chapter 3, “The LearningExpress Test Prepara- cal firefighter exams are like. You’ve given yourself a big
tion System,” will give you invaluable advice on how to advantage by choosing to use this book. One essential
organize your time before and during the written exam. ingredient that this book doesn’t provide, however, is
If you have had trouble with written exams in the past specific requirements for the fire department in your
(anxiety, bad study habits, running out of time), you city of interest. It’s important for you to get all the infor-
definitely don’t want to skip this chapter—it even gives mation your fire department provides and make a few
you great tips on how to choose the right multiple- phone calls to clarify exactly what steps you need to take.
choice answer when you are unsure. Even if written Your success in becoming a firefighter depends largely
exams aren’t that hard for you, be sure to take advan- on your desire to become one, and the amount of work
tage of the sample study plans in this chapter. The best you are willing to do to achieve this goal.
way to succeed on your exam is to be well prepared, and Good luck!
these study schedules will help you organize your time.
After devising a study plan for yourself, you will
want to jump right in and take a practice exam. Note

x
 C H A P T E R

What

1 Firefighters
Really Do
CHAPTER SUMMARY
If you are looking for a vital and challenging career, you are on the right
track. Firefighters are true champions of the public good—with hefty
doses of bravery and skill mixed in. This chapter describes the duties
and demands of the job. You will learn about getting hired, trained, paid,
and promoted. You will also find information on how this profession is
changing—and how you can prepare yourself to become a part of it.

Y ou see flames. You smell smoke. An alarm goes off. Someone yells “fire.” For most people, this would
be the time to evacuate the premises. But if you happen to be a firefighter, it’s time to go to work.
Describing firefighters without using the word “hero” would be tough. After all, their ultimate
goal is to prevent or relieve human suffering and loss. They regularly put their own lives on the line to save other
lives and protect property. Much of their work is physically exhausting, mentally demanding, and highly dan-
gerous. When a fire or other emergency strikes, they are on the scene battling flames, smoke, collapsing walls,
chemical explosions, and numerous other threats. Unlike civilians, they can’t evacuate the premises. They are
working hard until the crisis has passed.
Behind every heroic moment, of course, are countless hours of preparation. Career firefighters are highly
trained professionals. Their services are essential to every community and every stretch of land across this coun-
try. If you make this your career choice, rest assured that the need for firefighters is constant and the job prospects
are promising. But this is a competitive field. Wherever you apply, you will need to show that you have what it
takes to meet the demands of the job—and succeed in every stage of the hiring process.

1
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

Where the Jobs Are about 71% of them are volunteers. Volunteers protect
There were approximately 361,000 individuals the majority of the nation’s territory, but career fire-
employed in the fire service in the United States in fighters protect the majority of the nation’s population.
2006. About 293,000 were line firefighters, whereas the Volunteer service is a good way to get training and
rest were supervisors or other support staff. The major- experience for a career in the fire service. Many sub-
ity of these individuals, about nine out of ten accord- urban communities have a cadre of career firefighters
ing to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), are who are supplemented by volunteers at an alarm.
employed by municipal or county fire departments These departments, called combination departments,
serving communities of 25,000 people or more. Large are becoming more common and frequently give pref-
cities are the largest employers, but many intermediate- erence in hiring to those who have served in their vol-
sized municipalities also employ career firefighters. unteer ranks.

On the Job
Just the Facts
There are four building blocks—fuel, heat, air, and chemical The foremost duty of a firefighter is exactly what the
reaction—that must be present for a fire to occur. This can be job title says—to fight fires. Whether a fire breaks out
pictured as a four-sided figure (referred to as a tetrahedron) at a two-story home, a 700-room hotel, or a 10,000-
—if one side is removed, the figure collapses. This is used to
acre farm, the next sound you will hear is the familiar
illustrate the point that if any one of these building blocks is
removed, the fire is extinguished, which is the basis of fire wail of those massive red trucks barreling their way to
attack. the scene, loaded with firefighters in protective equip-
ment, helmets, and self-contained breathing apparatus.
But firefighters today do a lot more than put out
Full-time firefighters are also hired by federal and fires. Natural disasters, bombing incidents, gas pipe
state government agencies to protect government- explosions, and hazardous waste spills are just a few of
owned property and special facilities. For example, the the situations in which firefighters are called on to pro-
U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and vide emergency services. Sometimes, these circum-
Park Service offer both year-round and seasonal fire stances pose the threat of fire. Other times, a rescue
service jobs to protect the country’s national parks, operation may be the main order of business. What-
forests, and other lands. ever the crisis at hand, firefighters are also trained to
In the private sector, many large industrial com- administer and coordinate basic medical care to any
panies have their own firefighting forces, especially injured persons.
companies in the oil, chemical, aircraft, and aerospace Increasingly, fire departments are finding them-
industries. Other employers include airports, ship- selves called on as the lead responders to and planners
yards, and military bases. A growing number of com- for natural and manmade disasters. In the post-9/11
panies are in the business of providing fire protection world, the fire service frequently finds itself on the
services—including on-call or on-site firefighting front line in homeland defense. What this means is that
teams—to other businesses and institutions. each firefighter has to be trained and cross-trained to
In addition to career firefighters, there are thou- work with agencies in adjacent communities and with
sands of volunteer firefighters nationwide. In fact, of federal and state agencies to fulfill these new tasks.
the almost 1.1 million firefighters in the United States,

2
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

Fire departments are also playing an increased To reduce those risks, it is critical that firefight-
role in providing emergency medical services in many ers stay in top physical condition and master the use of
areas. Budget constraints have led to many municipal- various equipment and tools. But it is equally critical
ities combining or supplementing their emergency that they have a knowledge bank filled with scientific
medical services with their fire departments. Fire and technical information about combustible materi-
departments provide a wide range of medical response, als, building construction, ventilation systems, sprin-
from immediate first response that provides basic first kler systems, electrical circuitry, chemical reactions,
aid or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), to and a host of other subjects. Firefighters are educated,
full advanced life support response with para- trained, and drilled again and again in each of these
medics who will accompany the ambulance crew to the critical areas.
hospital. Fire departments are often able to arrive at Computers and other forms of advanced tech-
medical calls more quickly than the ambulance, and nology are becoming more common in firefighting.
can make the difference between life and death in many Computers are typically used for documenting call
emergencies. reports, staff activities, and other administrative func-
Fire departments also provide many non- tions. Most fire training is conducted using presenta-
emergency services. One highly important task is to tion software such as PowerPoint. There is a wide
inspect buildings and facilities for compliance with fire variety of training available over the Internet, includ-
codes and safety regulations. Another is to educate the ing courses on incident command and many other
public about fire prevention and safety procedures. subjects. There are database programs available for
This could include giving presentations to local schools hazardous materials responses that provide informa-
and community groups or sponsoring campaigns tion on how to deal with fires or leaks of harmful sub-
aimed at making people more aware of fire hazards— stances. Many chief ’s vehicles, and an increasing
sort of a local version of Smokey the Bear’s “Only you number of other fire trucks, now carry laptop com-
can prevent forest fires” campaign! Firefighters often puters. Other forms of advanced technology such as
participate in public education efforts, but building thermal imaging devices are common in the modern
inspection more often is handled by higher-ranked fire fire service. To be successful as a firefighter, you will
service personnel who have had special training. need a good, basic understanding of computers and
What the average person may not be aware of is technology.
simply how much knowledge and training goes into Much of this preparation and learning goes on
firefighting. We see them driving the red truck, attach- back at the station house. In departments with full-
ing a hose to a hydrant, dousing flames, breaking time personnel, on-duty firefighters usually eat, sleep,
through windows with a pickax, and climbing tall lad- and make a home away from home at the station.
ders. These activities alone require a high level of tech- Although most rotate between day and night shifts, the
nical skill and a great deal of physical stamina and length of their tour of duty and their shifts varies from
strength. Firefighters also face serious physical risks department to department. For example, they may
from being exposed to flames, smoke, fumes, and work four days on, then four days off, putting in any-
explosive or toxic materials, as well as from walls and where from 10- to 16-hour shifts. Or they may work a
buildings caving in or collapsing. 24-hour shift, followed by 48 hours off, then the cycle

3
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

repeats. Whatever the work schedule, it’s not the cor- The Payback: Salary and Benefits
porate nine-to-five routine. As with nearly every job, firefighters earn different
Clearly it’s not every day that a firefighter rescues salaries depending on where they work and who they
a child from a burning building, and nobody hopes for work for. The size and location of the department or
disaster to strike. But since there is no predicting when agency makes a difference, and so does a firefighter’s
it might, a firefighting force must be on alert 24 hours level of experience and time on the job. Salary data for
a day, 365 days a year. Between sirens, their on-duty several municipal departments in your state are pro-
time is devoted to practice drills, training and educa- vided in later chapters. The statistics that follow will
tion programs, equipment maintenance, and other give you a sense of the “big picture” nationwide.
routine activities. The U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of
Because of the many demands on a firefighter’s Labor Statistic (BLS), in its 2006 edition of Occupa-
abilities, many departments now emphasize some sec- tional Employment and Wages, cites the median
ondary education beyond the simple basics requried annual wage for firefighters as $41,190, with the mid-
for the job. For example, many departments require dle 50% earning between $29,550 and $54,120. These
training in such areas as driver/engineer courses, Fire are average figures based on national and regional
Officer 1 and Fire Officer 2, and even Fire Science reports and are calculated on a 40-hour week. These
degrees for promotion through the ranks. Most figures do not consider that most firefighters work a
advanced positions in the fire service require a college longer week, nor do they account for significant ben-
education, up to and including advanced degrees such efits such as health insurance, sick days, vacations, and
as a Master’s of Art or Science degree. Degrees in pub- retirement benefits.
lic policy, business management, or other areas are The current trend is to offer certain incentives,
often required. There are also Bachelor of Science thus increasing the pay range for firefighters who
degrees available in Fire Science and Fire Protection choose to expand their professional horizons. This
Engineering, which deals with the design of fire safety includes incentives for paramedic pay, advanced edu-
systems in buildings. cation, and increases for technical certifications such as
CPR Instructor or Fire Service Instructor.
Just the Facts If you work in a small city, you can expect a smaller
In the days of steamers and horses, dogs were a welcome annual salary than is paid in large cities. Geographically
occupant of the fire house. They not only kept the horses speaking, salaries tend to be lowest in the southern
company, but also rid the fire house of rats and mice that
region of the United States and highest out west.
were attracted by the horse feed. Dalmatians were long
Typical working hours for full-time firefighters
associated with horse-drawn coaches. They were trained to
run alongside or ahead of the team and drive off animals range from 40 to 56 hours a week. They are entitled by
that would otherwise scare the horses. They came to be law to overtime pay, which kicks in at an average of 53
used by the fire service for the same purpose and thus or more hours a week during a work period. Many
entered firefighting lore.
departments also offer longevity pay to career fire-
fighters, usually around $1,000 a year. This extra pay is
generally separate from any salary increase that comes
with a promotion.

4
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

Scheduling varies from one department to come about simply to replace firefighters who retire or
another. Many departments operate on variations of leave the job for other reasons.
24-hour schedules, either 24 hours on and 48 off or For the most part, firefighting certainly can be
24 on and 72 off. Some departments operate on called “a steady job.” Although budget cuts have
more traditional 40-hour work weeks with shifts reduced some departments, community pressure has
from 7:00 a.m. until 3:00 p.m., and so on. These been supportive of better fire and rescue services. Even
scheduling differences can also affect how overtime when local governments call for budget cuts, commu-
is paid. nities generally rally to keep or increase the number of
Employee benefit packages for firefighters also firefighters their tax dollars support. For the most part,
vary from department to department, but they tend too, the job market is not subject to seasonal fluctua-
to be substantial. Common benefits include medical, tions. One exception is forestry firefighting, which
disability, and life insurance; sick leave, vacation, offers mostly seasonal employment and is available
and holiday pay; educational incentives; and a gen- almost exclusively through state and federal agencies.
erous pension plan. Departments also supply the Along with job security, you have the other
uniforms and personal equipment that firefighters advantages described earlier: relatively high wages,
use on the job. good benefits, a generous pension, and the chance to
Unions play a large role in negotiating and pro- do challenging, exciting, and important work. All these
tecting the salaries and benefits that firefighters earn. benefits add up to steep competition for these jobs.
The BLS notes that most firefighters in medium to Most fire departments—especially large urban depart-
large departments are members of the International ments—have many more applicants than they do job
Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF), which maintains a openings.
national office and local chapters. The IAFF and other
professional organizations also work to resolve labor Just the Facts
disputes and sponsor governmental legislation on Firefighters used to slide down a brass pole to respond to
behalf of their members. alarms. The first of these fire poles was installed on April 21,
1878, by Captain David B. Kenyon in New York’s Engine 21.
Fire poles are one of the dying traditions in the fire service,
Hiring Trends
because while they allowed a rapid response, they caused
Employment of firefighters is expected to increase injuries. Some are kept in place or even installed in new con-
about 12% between 2006 and 2016. Some new jobs will struction for tradition’s sake, but for the most part, they are

be created in suburban communities where popula- no longer used.

tions are on the rise. New positions will open up with

suburban departments as they add career positions to
their volunteer departments to form combination Applying for the Job
departments. These new positions will provide more Because municipal and county fire departments oper-
rapid response to emergencies and supplement the vol- ate independently, no one set of qualifications and hir-
unteer response. Employment in large urban depart- ing procedures is used by each and every department
ments will be stable—not producing many new jobs, nationwide. However, though the particulars may vary,
but holding steady on the large numbers they already certain standards are likely wherever you plan to apply.
employ. Overall, the majority of job openings will For example, most departments:

5
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

■ have a minimum age requirement between 18 Although service in any area of the military would be
and 21 a benefit to the applicant, training as a military fire-
■ require a high school education or a General fighter may be even better. All of the major services
Equivalency Diploma (GED); some departments have firefighting opportunities. The U.S. Navy typically
have a higher education requirement provides some amount of firefighting training to all of
■ run a background check on your employment its personnel because firefighting is a critical function
and education and a criminal record check for damage control aboard ship. Military service is an
■ require that you pass a series of tests, including a excellent way to serve your country in addition to
written examination, a physical ability test, a preparing you for a career in the fire service.
medical exam (often with drug screening), an The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
oral interview, and possibly psychological testing. has established standards that have been adopted by
many jurisdictions, and the two certifying agencies, the
Departments often have residency requirements National Board on Fire Service Professional Qualifica-
stating that you must live in the city or county in which tions and the International Fire Service Accreditation
you apply. Experience as a volunteer firefighter or an Congress, use these as a basis for their national certifi-
Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) or paramedic is cations. Many jurisdictions have based their hiring,
always a plus and is sometimes a requirement for physical, and training requirements on the standards
employment, either at the time you apply and test for developed by the NFPA. Also, some states require
the job or to be satisfied before you begin active duty. applicants to pass state certification tests, in addition
Affirmative Action or other hiring requirements may to meeting requirements and passing tests at the local
also factor into the selection process. (city or county) level. Normally this certification test-
Many types of previous work experience look ing is also available to volunteer firefighters, so if you
good on the application form. Jobs in construction, are a volunteer or are considering becoming a volun-
mechanics, landscaping, masonry, and plumbing are teer to gain experience for your career, you should
some that demonstrate the physical strength and dex- investigate becoming certified. A word of caution,
terity needed to be a firefighter. But the basic idea is to however: Some states have training requirements that
show that you have held a responsible job, have fol- do not necessarily follow NFPA or other national
lowed a boss’s orders, and are a team player. Also, guidelines. Certification from one state may not trans-
whether it is required or not, departments tend to look fer to another. You should carefully investigate this if
favorably on applicants who have attended college. you plan to relocate to another state.
Even better is having taken courses in fire science. Keep As for federal and state firefighter jobs, you can
in mind how much competition you are apt to have for expect similar requirements and testing procedures.
a firefighting job. Any advantage you have or can give Application procedures for these jobs are handled by the
yourself—which includes preparing yourself for the individual hiring agencies, state civil service commis-
written exam—can really make the difference in get- sions, local branches of the Office of Personnel Man-
ting hired. agement (OPM), or other government organizations. In
Military service is also beneficial to an applicant. the private sector, you will find more variation in the
The fire service is basically a paramilitary organization, employment procedures. Basically, it’s like looking for a
with ranks and a structure similar to the military. job in any private business: Companies make their

6
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

choices based on an applicant’s education, experience, ten exam for most promotions—to become a driver
and ability to handle the responsibilities and physical operator, lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant
demands of the job. chief, deputy chief, or chief. You will probably have to
pass a physical performance test in which you demon-
strate techniques or use equipment relative to the posi-
Just the Facts
Benjamin Franklin founded this country’s first volunteer fire
tion you want. You might have to become certified in
department in 1736 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He also specialized areas, usually through a combination of
became its first volunteer fire chief. skills training and knowledge-based education pro-
grams, followed by a written certification exam.
Higher education is another requirement you
Starting Out and Moving Up may face for promotion. If you haven’t done so already,
Once you are hired as a firefighter, your department you may need to take certain college classes or earn a
will make sure you get all the training you need to do college degree. For example, many departments
the job. Many large urban departments run their own require an associate’s degree to become a lieutenant or
on-site formal training programs or fire academy. captain. The BLS reports that generally a master’s
Smaller departments may send new recruits to a fire degree in public administration, business administra-
academy in their region. Some stick mostly to on-the- tion, or a related field is required for any rank at or
job training supervised by experienced fire service above battalion chief. Advanced education and train-
personnel. ing programs are available through a variety of
Academy training generally lasts several weeks, sources, including community colleges and universi-
with part of the time spent on classroom instruction ties, professional organizations, and state-sponsored
and part on practical training. You will cover areas such fire academies.
as firefighting and prevention techniques, hazardous
and combustible materials, local building codes, and Just the Facts
emergency medical procedures. You will also learn One of the legends told of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871
how to use various kinds of firefighting and rescue is that it was started by Mrs. Catherine O’Leary’s cow when
it kicked over a kerosene lantern in her barn. Most histori-
equipment.
ans now discount that story as urban legend. The facts
As you continue on the job, you will regularly
show that the hot, dry weather combined with an over-
receive training to learn new skills and keep you up to worked and understaffed fire department made conditions
date on the latest equipment and firefighting tech- perfect for a conflagration. This fire and the larger deadly fire

niques. This ongoing training is aimed at improving in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, on the same day in October, pro-
vided a date for what would become Fire Prevention Week.
your overall performance as a firefighter. If, down the
The first Fire Prevention Week was proclaimed by President
road, you want to move up the ranks, you will have to Calvin Coolidge in 1925.
meet a different set of training, education, and testing
requirements.
For any rank promotion, factors such as your on-
the-job performance, a recommendation from your The Future
supervisor, and how long you’ve been on the job are The days of fighting fires by bucket brigade are long
taken into account. You will also need to pass a writ- gone. Professional firefighters are here to stay, a

7
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

permanent fixture in every community. Meanwhile, for you to show, right from the start, your willingness
their job is becoming more sophisticated all the time. and ability to constantly develop new skills and
You can see this happening even with the tools of knowledge.
the job. It’s true that there may be no substitutes for
basic firefighting equipment like hoses, pumps, and Just the Facts
ladders. Yet even the most basic equipment continues St. Florian, born in 256 A.D., is considered to be the patron
to be improved—made more lightweight or built to saint of the fire service in countries around the world. Leg-
end has it that a person can be saved from fire by invoking
operate electronically instead of manually. The same
his name.
thing applies to developing better materials for uni-
forms, ones that are more lightweight, heat-resistant,
and flame-retardant.
When it comes to the job itself, experts in the field Making the Commitment
are constantly at work developing new methods to pre- What would we do without firefighters? Somebody has
vent and control fires. They are coming up with chem- to snuff out major fires. Somebody has to make a ded-
ical solutions to quench fires and computerized models icated effort to prevent them in the first place. Some-
that simulate and solve fire-related problems. They are body has to be there to lend an expert hand during all
also perfecting devices such as smoke detectors and types of emergencies. These “somebodies” are the fire
indoor sprinkler systems, which are widely used and service professionals who have the knowledge, train-
can help to avoid full-scale destruction by fire. ing, and courage to do the job.
Not all changes in society work to the firefighter’s If that is the kind of somebody you want to be,
advantage, however. For example, the size, design, con- there’s no time like the present to begin preparing for
struction, and high-tech elements of buildings today the application and selection process. Along with all
can make the firefighter’s job a whole lot tougher. We the tips and practical guidance you will find in this
also have chemical spills, bombings, and large aircraft book, here are five steps to help you get headed in that
crashes—firefighters play a big role in handling these direction.
and many other kinds of crises.After the Oklahoma City
bombing in 1995, for instance, firefighters were a signif- 1. Get fit. Make a physical fitness program part of
icant force in the search-and-rescue operation. Fire- your daily routine. You will need to be in top shape
fighters also played a major role in saving thousands of to pass the physical performance test in the hiring
lives after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. process and to do the job once you are part of the
As a firefighter, it is important to stay aware of force. High-energy activities, like recreational
changes and advancements in society that affect your sports, weightlifting, and jogging will help you
profession. Any number of hot items in the news— build endurance. You might also want to try the
from antigovernment groups and toxic waste dumping martial arts. Karate, judo, and the like are great for
to the latest pesticide or home security system—may improving your endurance and strength, but also
pose new job-related challenges for you. To keep up for developing a mind/body connection that can
with these challenges, you can expect to see fire depart- help you stay in control and focused under stress-
ments boosting their standards for hiring, training, and ful circumstances. (For some specific training tips,
educating firefighters. That is why it is so important see Chapter 15 on the Physical Ability Test.)

8
 – WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

2. Do some networking. The best resources for taking the practice exams in this book as far in
learning about a career as a firefighter are people advance of the exam as you can.
now working in the field. Start with your family
and friends and then move on from there —you 5. Prepare for the oral interview. Naturally you
are bound to find someone who knows or who want to feel confident and comfortable when you
can lead you to fire service professionals. Ask are interviewed for this job. To help your cause,
them questions. Get some pointers. Find out put in some practice time. Think about why you
what it’s really like to be a firefighter from people want to become a firefighter. Think about the
who have first-hand knowledge. abilities, knowledge, and experience you can
bring to the force. Think about your long-term
3. Do some research. Spend some time at local and goals. Then have a friend or family member run
college libraries or on the Web reading about the you through a practice interview. The point isn’t
fire service profession. Contact professional to memorize what you plan to say. It’s to get a
organizations for any newsletters, articles, and good sense of your talents and goals and to help
papers they publish. Subscribe to magazines in you feel comfortable talking about yourself. (You
the field. Don’t forget to scan the daily newspa- will find out more about what’s involved in the
per for articles about firefighting and on topics oral interview, and how to prepare for it in
that affect the profession. Chapter 16, The Oral Interview, which covers
this part of the selection process.)
4. Prepare for the written exam. Your test score on
the written exam really counts. It’s not just a If you really want to be a firefighter, it’s up to you
matter of passing the exam. Your goal is to wind to make the commitment. So take these next steps. Get
up with a score that gives you an advantage over yourself ready. Take charge of your future. A career in
the competition. So give yourself plenty of time firefighting promises many challenges and rewards. All
to get ready—in other words, start studying and of them could be yours.

9
– WHAT FIREFIGHTERS REALLY DO–

The Firefighter’s Prayer

When I’m called to duty, God,

wherever flames may rage,
give me strength to save a life,
whatever be its age.
Help me to embrace a little child
before it is too late
or save an older person from
the horror of that fate.
Enable me to be alert
to hear the weakest shout
and quickly and efficiently
to put the fire out.
I want to fill my calling and
to give the best in me;
to guard my neighbors and
protect their property.
And if, according to your will,
While on duty I must answer
death’s call,
Bless with your protecting hand
My family, one and all.
—Anonymous

10
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
really belong to the genus Unio; some geologists refer them to
Cardinia, a group of sea-shells found especially in the Lias.
[372] See American Journal of Science, vol. xlvii. p. 402,
"Unionidæ."
[373] "A solid stratum of ironstone, which extends from Tupton
Moor to Staveley." Martin's Petrificata Derbiensia, pl. xxvii.

The earliest undoubted shells of this genus from the British strata,
are, I believe, those first discovered by me in the strata of Tilgate
Forest, (Foss. South D. p. 45, and Foss. Tilg. For. p. 57), and
subsequently found in numerous localities of the Wealden.[374]
[374] They are figured in Geol. S. E. p. 250; and in Dr. Fitton's
Memoir, Geol. Trans, vol. iv. pl. 21.

In 1844 I discovered a large

species in the Wealden at Brook Point.
I have named it Unio Valdensis.[375] I
have collected and obtained nearly fifty
specimens; they present two varieties,
the one contracted and narrow, the
other broader and deeper; this
difference is probably sexual; the wide
and deep shells may be the females;
for in the living American Uniones the
same characters are observed. Some
examples are remarkably well
preserved; the ligament remaining in a
carbonized state, and the body of the
mollusk in the condition of molluskite;
even a tint of the original tawny
reddish colour of the shell is present. Lign. 131. Unio Valdensis. (1/3 nat.)
The same species has been found in Wealden; Isle of Wight.
the Wealden strata, near Tunbridge
Wells, by Mr. Barlow, C. E.
 [375] Unio Valdensis resembles in form the Mexican species, U.
Panacöensis (River Panaco), but is probably more nearly allied to an
unnamed Australian species of which Mr. G, Sowerby has numerous
examples.

I shall reserve my remarks upon the important aid these fossils

afforded in the determination of the fluviatile origin of the Wealden, for
our Excursion to Tilgate Forest.
Cyclas. Wond. p. 404. Ly. p. 28.
—Another genus of fresh-water
bivalves is termed Cyclas, of which
there are ten species in the
Wealden formation: and, with the
exception of four or five recent
forms, which occur in the tertiary
fresh-water strata, none others
have been found in England.[376]
The shells of the genus Cyclas are
oval, transverse, equivalved Lign. 132. Cyclas and Melanopsis.
bivalves, with the hinge-teeth very Wealden; Sussex.
small: the substance of the shell is
thin and fragile; the figures in
Wond. and Ly. accurately represent the appearance of the fossil
Cyclades of the Wealden, and tertiary strata. Entire layers of two or
three species of these shells occur in the argillaceous deposits of the
Wealden, generally in a friable state, but from among the masses of
crushed shells, perfect specimens may be obtained, and sometimes
with the remains of the epidermis and ligament. The hard stone,
termed calciferous grit, in the neighbourhood of Hastings, Tilgate
Forest, Horsham, and other places in the Weald of Sussex, abounds in
casts of the same species, associated with the Uniones, previously
described. In the cliffs on the southern shores of the Isle of Wight
where the Wealden beds emerge, and also in the Isle of Purbeck,
these shells are equally abundant. Together with the Uniones, they
occasionally appear in the limestone, called Sussex Marble; and in the
Isle of Purbeck there are beds of limestone wholly composed of
bivalves belonging to these two genera, and presenting, in polished
slabs, markings formed by sections of the enclosed shells.
[376] Cyrena, is a genus so nearly related to Cyclas, that it is
difficult to distinguish them, and it will be convenient to retain only
the former name.

FOSSIL PTEROPODA.
In the Ludlow strata there are found small PTEROPODA. GASTEROPOD
fragile elongated conical shells without chambers, which are supposed
by Professor E. Forbes to be identical with a recent genus of
pteropodous mollusca, common in the Mediterranean, called Creseis.
They seldom exceed two inches in length.
Of another genus, named Conularia, six Species have been
discovered in the Silurian formation.[377]
[377] See Geol. Trans, second series, vol. vi, p. 325.

Lign. 133. Fossil Shells of Gasteropoda.

Fig. 1.
Paludina fluviorum. Wealden.
—
2. Limnæa longiscata. Tertiary. Isle
— of Wight.
 3. Cerithium lapidorum. Tertiary,
— Grignon.
4.
Fusus contrarius. Crag. Essex.
—

FOSSIL SHELLS OF GASTEROPODA.

The univalve shells, as we have previously explained, are the
calcareous cases, or coverings, of a more highly organized class of
molluscous animals, than the inhabitants of the bivalves (see p. 366.),
for they possess a head and mouth with jaws, eyes, and feelers; and
while the Acephala, with but few exceptions, are incapable of
locomotion, the Encephala are almost all of them furnished with
organs of progression, and can creep, climb, and swim, or float on the
surface of the water. Their shells are for the most part formed of one
valve, hence the name of univalve; but in some species it is composed
of several pieces. The most simple form of shell is that of the hollow
cone, of which the Patella, or limpet, affords an example; and in the
more complicated modifications, the cone is twisted, or convoluted
spirally, either in the same plane as in the Planorbis of our rivers, or
obliquely, as in by far the greater number of species. The direction of
the spire is generally from left to right, the aperture being dextral to
the observer when the shell is placed with its apex uppermost, as in
Lign. 133, figs. 1, 2, 3; but in a few species the spire turns in the
opposite manner, and the mouth or aperture is to the left, or sinistral,
as in Lign. 133, fig. 4. In consequence of the form of the aperture of
the shell, the entire or notched condition of its margin, and the
presence or absence of a canal or siphon always having relation to the
soft parts of the animal, these characters afford data by which the
genera and species of the shells may be determined, and information
obtained as to the structure and economy of the originals.
The Gasteropoda generally creep by means of a fleshy disk, or foot,
which is situated under the belly. Some kinds are terrestrial, others
inhabit trees, many live in rivers and streams, others in stagnant and
brackish waters; but the greater number are denizens of the sea.
FOSSIL GASTEROPOD
 The Common Snail, River Snail, and Periwinkle, are instances of
terrestrial, fluviatile, and marine forms. The organs of respiration are
situated in the last whorl of the shell; and in some genera the border
of the mantle, or integument surrounding the body, is prolonged into a
siphon, by which the water is freely admitted, without the head or foot
being protruded: in these mollusks the shell has a corresponding
channel to receive the siphon, as in the Whelk, or Buccinum, and in
the fossil shell Lign. 133, fig. 4. The Gasteropoda are generally
provided with an operculum, or movable valve, by which the aperture
is closed and defended when the animal retreats within its shell. In
some species the operculum is a mere horny pellicle; in others it is a
solid calcareous plate of considerable relative thickness. These
mollusca, as is but too well known of the terrestrial species, consume
large quantities of food. Some are herbivorous, and others
carnivorous; many prey on living, and others on decaying animal and
vegetable substances.[378] As in a fossil state the shells alone remain
to afford any clue as to the structure and economy of the originals,
characters have been sought for, by which the fluviatile or marine
nature, and the carnivorous or herbivorous habits of the living
mollusca may be determined. As a general rule, it will be found, that
the shells of terrestrial and fresh-water Gasteropoda have the aperture
entire, as in the Garden Snail, and in the fossil shell, Lign. 133, fig. 1;
and that a large proportion of the marine species have the opening
notched or channelled, as in the Whelk, and Lign. 133, figs. 3, 4; and
most of the species with entire apertures are herbivorous. But these
inferences must be regarded in a very general sense, and it will require
corroborative evidence to establish the marine or fresh-water nature of
those fossil shells which do not bear a close analogy to known living
species.[379]
[378] "All Gasteropoda commence life under the same form,
both of shell and animal, namely, a very simple helicoid shell, and
an animal furnished with two ciliated wings or lobes, by which it can
swim freely through the fluid in which it is contained. At this stage
of existence the animal corresponds to the permanent state of the
Pteropod, and the form is alike, whether it be afterwards a shelled
or a shell-less species."—Prof. E. Forbes, Edin. Philos. Journal, vol.
xxxvi. p. 326.
 The well known Tiger Cowry (Cyprcea tigris) in its earliest stage
has a minute helicoid (snail-like) shell.
[379] See Ly. p. 30.

The various conditions in which the remains of univalve shells occur

in the mineral kingdom have already been so fully explained, that but a
few additional remarks on that subject are required (see p. 382.).
The Gasteropoda are found to progressively diminish in number
with the antiquity of the deposits, and it was once supposed that this
type of molluscous organization was not contemporaneous with the
ancient Cephalopoda. My discovery of several genera associated with
Ammonites in the chalk (see Foss. South D. pl. xviii, xix) first tended to
invalidate this hypothesis; and the subsequent researches of Dr. Fitton,
Professor Phillips, and other geologists have shown that the presence
or absence of Gasteropoda in a stratum may generally be ascribed to
the circumstance of the deposit having been formed in shallow, or in
deep water. Thus when simple univalves largely predominate under
circumstances that indicate they were imbedded in their native
habitats, it may be safely concluded that the rock is of littoral
formation; or, in other words, was deposited in shallow water, near the
sea-shore; and, on the contrary, when Nautili, Ammonites, and the
shells of other mollusca known to live in deep waters abound in a
formation, it may be presumed that the strata were formed in the
tranquil depths of the ocean. The number of described species from
the British strata is nearly eight hundred; and these are distributed
throughout the sedimentary formations, from the Silurian to the
newest Tertiary; the latter containing by far the greater proportion.
Fresh-water Univalves.—The fossil shells of FOSSIL FRESH-WATER UNIVALVE
Gasteropoda that are undoubtedly fluviatile, comprise but few genera
and species, and are confined to those deposits, which, from the
corroborative proofs afforded by other organic remains, are
unquestionably of fresh-water origin. Such are the intercalated beds of
clay and limestone in the London and Paris basins, the Wealden
formation, and certain strata in the Carboniferous system. The most
numerous specimens are principally referable to the common fluviatile
genera, Paludina, Limnæa, Planorbis, and Melanopsis (see Ly. p. 29).
 Paludina. Lign. 133, fig. 1. (Wond. p. 401, Ly. p. 29.)—This common
river shell is of a conoidal form, and the whorls of the spire, and the
aperture, are rounded. Eleven British species are known. In the tertiary
fresh-water beds of Headon Hill, at Alum Bay, Paludinæ with the shells
perfect, and of a dull white colour, are abundant; and also in the
limestone at Shalcombe, in the Isle of Wight, in the state of casts. In
both these localities the Paludinæ are associated with other fresh-
water shells. But the grand deposit of shells of this genus is the
Wealden formation; throughout which there are extensive beds of
marble, coarse limestone, and clays, almost wholly composed of
Paludinæ, and minute fresh-water Crustaceans, of the genus Cypris,
which will be described in a subsequent chapter. The compact
paludina-limestone of Sussex, called Petworth or Sussex marble, is
principally made up of one species, the P. fluviorum, Lign. 133, fig. 1,
and is an aggregation of Paludinæ, held together by crystallized
carbonate of lime; the cavities of the shells, and their interstices, being
often filled with white calcareous spar. A polished slab, displaying
sections of the enclosed shells, is figured in Wond. p. 402. Upon
examining slices of this marble with the microscope, the cavities of the
shells are found to contain myriads of the cases of Cyprides.[380] The
Wealden limestone of the Isle of Purbeck, Lign. 134, known as Purbeck
marble, is, in like manner, composed of Paludinæ, but of a much
smaller species. Both these marbles were in great repute with the
architects of the middle ages, and there are but few of our cathedrals
and ancient churches which do not still contain examples, either in
their columns, monuments, or pavements, of one or both varieties.
The polished marble columns of Chichester Cathedral, and those of the
Temple Church, in London, are of Purbeck marble; in other words, they
are composed of the petrified shells of snails, that lived and died in a
river, flowing through a country inhabited by the Iguanodon and other
colossal reptiles, all of which have long since become extinct. With the
exception of the mussel-band limestone of the Carboniferous system,
previously described, these are the only British fresh-water
marbles[381] There are four species of Paludina in the Wealden, and
four in the Tertiary strata of Hants.
 [380] For a particular account of this marble, see Geol. S. E. pp.
182-187.
[381] The collector may obtain specimens, and polished slabs of
these limestones, of Mr. Martin, mason, Lewes, Sussex.

Limnæa. Lign. 133, fig. 2.—Several

species of these fresh-water mollusks
inhabit our lakes and ponds, and may
be known by their pointed spire,
elongated oval body, and delicate thin
shell: on the inner lip of the aperture
there is an oblique fold. Fossil shells of
Lign. 134. this genus are found with Paludinæ in
Polished Slab of Purbeck Marble. the fresh-water tertiary deposits.
Headon Hill and other localities in the
Isle of Wight abound in these shells;
and in the limestone of Calbourn beautiful casts are very numerous.
The Paris basin yields several species; and there are six species in the
Isle of Wight Tertiary; I have not observed any decided examples in
the Wealden. In the sands and clays the shells are well preserved; in
the limestones the casts only remain. Shells of another genus of fresh-
water spiral univalves, termed Bulimus (Ly. p. 30), are found
associated with the above. A large species (B. ellipticus, Min. Conch.
tab. 337), occurs in the limestone at Binstead, near Ryde, and at
Calbourn; I have collected specimens two inches long from the former
locality; they are generally in the state of casts, with a white friable
coating of the shell.[382]
[382] A very large species of Limnæa from Bavaria (labelled L.
maxima) is in the British Museum. It is a cast six and a half inches
long, and is placed with the recent shells. Prof. E. Forbes has
discovered a Limneïd (Physa) in the Purbeck strata.

Planorbis. Ly. p. 29. Wond. p. 400.—The shells of this genus are also
numerous in our rivers and lakes, and may be distinguished by their
discoidal form, the shell being coiled up in a nearly vertical plane.
There are about twenty living species; and sixteen are enumerated as
fossil in the British tertiary; five occur in the Isle of Wight basin, in the
localities of the fresh-water genera already mentioned; Headon Hill, in
particular, yields shells of this genus in great abundance and
perfection.
Melanopsis. Ly. p. 29.—These are spiral univalves, the appearance of
which will be better understood by the figures, than by any
description. I allude to this genus because a small species is very
numerous, with the other fresh-water shells, at Headon Hill; and two
or more species are found in the argillaceous strata of the Wealden
(see Geol. S. E. p. 249, and Lign. 132).
Marine Univalves.—Of the fossil marine FOSSIL MARINE UNIVALVE
Gasteropoda there are no less than eighty genera in the strata of the
British Islands, and the species amount to several hundreds. To
distinguish the species and genera, reference must, of course, be
made to works expressly devoted to fossil conchology, as Sowerby's
Mineral Conchology, and Genera of Fossil Shells; or to the works of
French authors, particularly those of Lamarck, edited by M. Deshayes,
and of M. Blainville. The Penny Cyclopedia contains admirable notices
of fossil shells, under the respective heads of the classes, orders, and
genera, of the recent Mollusca.
Buccinum, of which the common Whelk is an example.—Fusus, Lign.
133, fig. 4. Wond. p. 244.—Pleurotoma, Ly. p. 31. Wond. p. 244.—
Cerithium, Lign. 133, fig. 3. Wond. p. 244.—Ancilla, Wond. p. 244. Ly. p.
31.—Voluta, Ly. p. 202, fig. 180.—Murex, Ly. p. 164.—Rostellaria, Ly. p.
201.—To the eight genera here enumerated a very large number of the
marine simple univalve shells belong; and they are principally found in
Tertiary strata.
The animals of these shells are characterized by their respiratory
organs, which are formed of one or two pectiniform gills, with a tube
or siphon more or less elongated, for the free admission of sea-water
to the branchial apparatus. This organization is indicated in the shell,
either by a notch, or by a prolonged tubular canal. All the species are,
with scarcely any exceptions, inhabitants of the sea, and carnivorous.
 I have selected for illustration of the genus Fusus, a celebrated
shell of the Crag, known among collectors as the "Esssex reversed
Whelk," Lign. 133, fig. 4; the spire is twisted in the opposite direction
to the usual mode, and the mouth is consequently to the left of the
observer; the same species occurs with the spire in the common
direction. The shells of the genus Pleurotoma are distinguished by an
incision, or notch, in the side of the right or outer lip; and those of
Cerithium, by the form of the mouth, see Lign. 133, fig. 3. The latter is
a very numerous genus, and more than two hundred fossil species are
enumerated; it contains many elegant forms. The Tertiary strata at
Grignon are particularly rich in these fossils; the shells are of a pearly
whiteness, and as perfect as when recent. Some Cerithia are of
considerable size; the C. giganteum is from ten to fourteen inches in
length. The genus Potamides comprehends shells closely resembling the
Cerithia in form, but which are inhabitants of fresh-water.[383] This is
an instance of the difficulty which sometimes exists of arriving at
certain conclusions as to the habits of the mollusks, from their
testaceous coverings alone.
[383] Mr. Woodward informs me that they can only be
distinguished when fossil, by the absence of varices, or "periodic
mouths." The recent species are known to be inhabitants of fresh-
water, by their dark epidermis, corroded points, and horny multi-
spiral opercula.

The Plastic Clay beds at Castle Hill, Newhaven, and in the vicinity of
Woolwich, abound in two species of shells, which were originally
described by Mr. Sowerby, as Cerithia (viz. C. funatum and C.
melanoides),[384] but are now referred to the fresh-water genus,
Melania; by some conchologists to Potamides. At Castle Hill they are
accompanied by fresh-water bivalves, and leaves of dicotyledonous
plants.
[384] Foss. South Downs, tab. xvii. figs. 3, 4.

Of the genus Rostellaria, there is a remarkable species in the

London Clay, called R. macroptera, from the large wing-like expansion
of its outer lip, in adult specimens; see Ly. p. 201. An elegant
Rostellaria is found in the Galt, at Folkstone,[385] (Foss. South D. tab.
xix. figs. 12, 14,) and other localities; and also in the Chalk Marl.
[385] "This shell belongs to the recent genus, Aporrhaïs, and is
related to Cerithium, not to Strombus."—Mr. Woodward.

Casts of a large ventricose, globular univalve, called Dolium,[386]

have been found in the Chalk Marl, at Clayton, near Hurstpierpoint, in
Sussex. This species is distinguished by its transverse tuberculated
bands; it is a very rare production of the lower chalk of Sussex (Min.
Conch. tab. 326). Turbinated shells related to Trochus, and belonging
to several genera, occur in the Cretaceous deposits. As is the case
generally with the univalves of this formation, but slight traces of the
shells remain; the thin internal nacreous lining is sometimes found
adhering to the cast.
[386] This Chalk fossil is not a Dolium: it is probably related to
Ringinella incrassata (Geol. Suss. t. xix. fig. 3), one of the
Tornatellidæ, a family largely developed in the chalk.

In the Chalk of Touraine, species of the genera Conus (Lign. 135,

fig. 1) and Solarium (Lign. 135, fig. 2) are found with the shells
preserved. The specimens figured, Lign. 135, are selected to
familiarize the student with the difference so commonly observable,
between the outer surface of the casts, and that of the shells: in both
these fossils the shells are marked externally with lines and tubercles;
but the casts present only the smooth surface of the interior of the
shell in which they were moulded.
 Lign. 135. Univalves, from the Chalk of Touraine.—nat.
Fig. 1.— Conus tuberculatus, with part of the shell remaining
attached to the cast.
2.— Solarium ornatum, with the shell.
2 a.
Specimen of the same species, deprived of the shell.
—

In the most ancient fossiliferous formations, the Carboniferous;

Devonian, and Silurian, many species and genera of Gasteropoda have
been discovered. Professor Phillips enumerates more than ninety in the
mountain limestone of Yorkshire (Phil. York.), belonging to the genera
Turbo, Pleurotomaria, Natica, Euomphalus, Loxonema, Macrocheilus,
Platyceras, and Metoptoma. Thirty-four species from the Silurian rocks
are figured and described in Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 706.
The Natica, Lign. 136, fig. 3, sometimes attains thrice the size
represented, and has been found in many localities in England and
Ireland.
Pleurotomaria. Lign. 136, fig. 4.—This is an extinct genus,
distinguished from Trochus by a fissure on the right lip, the position of
which is indicated by the band along the back of the whorl in Lign.
136; several species occur in the Mountain Limestone; the markings of
the original shell are sometimes preserved, as in the example
delineated This genus is common in the Oolite; a splendid species,
with the shell entire, is found in the Kimmeridge Clay, at Hartwell;
limestone casts of the same species are abundant in the Portland
stone at Swindon, in Wiltshire.

Lign. 136. Univalves from the Mountain Limestone.

Fig. 1.— Euomphalus pentangulatus; Upper surface.
2.— Polished section of the same species.
3.— Natica plicistria. Yorkshire. Mt. L.
4.— Pleurotomaria flammigera. (Phil. York.) Mt. L.

There are two species of this genus (formerly named Cirrus by Mr.
Sowerby) which are of frequent occurrence in the White Chalk of
England, in the state of casts, and are figured in my Foss. South D.
tab. xviii., under the names of Cirrus perspectivus, and Trochus
linearis. The Chalk Marl of Sussex yields in some localities (Hamsey,
Middleham, Clayton) fine casts of Pleurotomaria, which appear to be
distinct from those of the upper cretaceous strata.

Euomphalus.[387] Lign. 136, figs. 1, 2.—The shells of this EUOMPHALU

extinct genus are deeply umbilicated, discoidal, spiral univalves, having
the innermost whorls of the shell divided by imperforated partitions.
The internal structure of these shells will serve to prepare the student
for those more complicated forms of the testaceous apparatus
presented by the Cephalopoda, which will form the subject of the next
chapter. There are several recent univalves the animals of which
retreat in the progress of growth from the apex of the spire, and the
vacated portion is shut off by a shelly plate. In some genera a series of
concave septa are thus formed; but in others (as Magilus) the deserted
cavity is filled by a compact accretion of calcareous matter, and a solid
elongated shell is produced. The Euomphalus, of which there are many
species in the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata, belongs to
the former group. As the animal increased in size, it deserted the
smaller and innermost portion of the spire, and a nacreous partition
was secreted by the posterior part of the mantle, the interspace
remaining hollow; as this process was repeated at different periods,
several cells were successively formed. This chambered structure is
shown in the specimen Lign. 136, fig. 2, in which the cells are filled
with spar, but the outer cavity is occupied by limestone like that in
which the shell was imbedded; a proof that no communication existed
between the chamber occupied by the body of the animal, and the
space from which it had withdrawn. The calcareous spar, as in the
vegetable remains previously described (p. 71.), has percolated the
substance of the fossil, and crystallized in the innermost cells. We shall
again have occasion to refer to this interesting fact, when investigating
the chambered cells of the Cephalopoda. It may be necessary to
remark, that it does not appear that the vacant interspaces in the
Euomphalus served the special purpose of the air-chambers of the
Nautilus and Ammonite.
[387] So named by Mr. Sowerby, in allusion to the deeply
umbilicated character of the disk.

Murchisonia. Lign. 137. An elongated spiral shell,

having the outer lip deeply notched, as in the
Pleurotomaria (a, Lign. 137). There are upwards of 50
species of this genus, which are characteristic of the
palæozoic rocks. They occur in the Permian, Devonian,
and Lower Silurian deposits; the specimen figured is
from the Devonian, or Old Red of the Eifel.
Chiton. Valves of Chitons have been found in the
Magnesian limestone, near Sunderland, by Prof. King,
 Lign. 137. (Permian Fossils, Pal. Soc. p. 202, pl. xvi.), and in the
Murchisonia Silurian rocks of Ireland, by Mr. Salter, Geol. Journal, vol.
angulata.
Devonian;
iii. p. 48.
Eifel.
Sphærulites.[388] Lign. 138.—No vestiges of SPHÆRULITE
a shell of this genus had been noticed in the English
strata, until my discovery of some fragments in the Lewes Chalk in
1820; from the lamellated structure of these fossils, I mistook them for
corals, until specimens were obtained sufficiently perfect to show the
form of the originals; these were described in the Geol. S. E. (p. 130),
under the name of Hippurites. But these fossils are more nearly related
to the Sphærulites, which differ from the shells of the former genus in
having only one internal longitudinal ridge, and in the external surface
being roughened by irregularly raised plates, as in Lign. 138, fig. 1,
which is a specimen from the Pyrenees, collected by M. Alex.
Brongniart; the operculum is seen at a.
[388] This genus has been referred by some conchologists to
the Bivalves, and by others to the Univalves.

Lign. 138. Sphærulites from the Chalk of France and

England.
Fig. 1.— Sphærulite, with its operculum, a.
2.— Sphærulites Mortoni (G. A. M.), from Lewes:
1
/2 nat.
2a. Cellular structure of fig. 2, in a transverse
— section: ×
 2 b.
Structure, as seen in a vertical section: ×
—

The species found in the Sussex Chalk, Lign. 138, fig. 2, is

characterized by the longitudinal striæ on the outer surface. In some
examples there is an external longitudinal furrow, and a corresponding
internal ridge.[389]
[389] The specific name is in honour of Dr. George Morton, of
Philadelphia, author of the "Synopsis of the Cretaceous Group of the
United States."

The Sphærulites sometimes occur in groups in the Sussex chalk; I

had a large water-worn mass, consisting of five or six individuals,
anchylosed together. Some beautiful specimens collected by the late
Mr. Dixon from the Chalk, near Worthing, are now in the British
Museum.[390] The structure of the Sphærulite is accurately delineated
in Lign. 138, figs. 2a 2b. The cavities of these shells are occasionally
filled with flint, but in general with chalk, which may be entirely
cleared away, as in fig. 2. The Hippurites of the limestone of the
Pyrenees are frequently occupied by calcareous spar, and the
substance of the shells is occasionally transmuted into the same
mineral.
[390] Petrifactions, p. 468.

Molluskite; or the carbonized remains of the soft parts of MOLLUSKIT

mollusca.—Before proceeding to the consideration of that numerous
and important division of the mollusca the Cephalopoda, I will offer a
few remarks on a carbonaceous substance resulting from the
gelatinous matter of which the soft bodies of these animals are
composed, and for which I have proposed the name of molluskite, to
indicate its nature and origin.
 Lign. 139. Coprolites and Molluskite. Chalk and
Greensand.
Fig. 1. Coprolite of a fish (Macropoma). Chalk,
— Lewes.
2. Coprolite of a fish (Squalus). Chalk marl.
— Ramsey.
3. Molluskite of a Rostellaria. (Mr. Bensted.)
— Kentish Rag, Maidstone.

This substance is of a dark brown or black colour, and occurs either

in shapeless masses, which are irregularly distributed among the shells
and other organic remains, in sandstone, limestone, &c., or as casts of
shells, or occupying their cavities, as in the specimen Lign. 139, fig. 3,
which is a vertical section of a spiral univalve (Rostellaria), filled with
the soft parts of the animal, converted into molluskite. Upon analysis
this substance is found to contain a large proportion of animal carbon.
[391] The rocks of firestone at Southbourne, on the Sussex coast, are
mottled with brown molluskite and hard amorphous concretions,
consisting of carbon and phosphate of lime, mixed with sand and other
extraneous matter. Casts of shells, of the genera Venus, Arca, &c.,
entirely composed of the same kind of materials, are also abundant in
those rocks. The lowermost bed of Galt, at its line of junction with the
Greensand beneath, at Folkstone, and in many other localities, is
largely composed of similar matter, resembling in appearance the
fossils called Coprolites, hereafter described. The outer chamber of the
Ammonites and other shells, so abundant in the Galt, are often filled
with this substance. But the most interesting deposit of molluskite is in
the Kentish Rag of Mr. Bensted's quarry, near Maidstone. This
phenomenon had not escaped the notice of that intelligent and
accurate observer, who liberally placed at my disposal numerous shells,
particularly of Trigoniæ and Terebratulæ, which were filled with
molluskite, and large slabs of the sandstone, full of concretionary and
amorphous masses of the same. The latter, Mr. Bensted suggested,
may have been derived from the soft bodies of the dead Mollusks,
which, having become disengaged from their shells and aggregated
together, had floated in the sea, until they became enveloped in the
sand and mud, which have gradually consolidated into the arenaceous
stone termed Kentish Rag, In illustration of this opinion, Mr. Bensted
directed my attention to the following remarkable fact, related in the
American Journal of Science:—In the year 1836, a fatal epidemic
prevailed among the shell-fish of the Muskingum River, in the state of
Ohio. It commenced in April, and continued until June, destroying
millions of the mollusca that inhabited the beds of the tributary
streams, and the river. As the animals died, the valves of the shells
opened, and, decomposition commencing, the muscular adhesions
gave way, and the fleshy portions rose to the surface of the water,
leaving the shells in the bed of the river. As masses of the dead bodies
floated down the current, the headlands of islands, piles of drifted
wood, and the shores of the river, in many places, were covered with
them; and the air in the vicinity was tainted with the putrid effluvium
exhaling from these accumulations of decomposing animal matter. The
cause of the epidemic was unknown.
[391] Some of this molluskite has, at my request, been analyzed
by Mr. Rigg, who obliged me with the following remarks:—"After
removing the lime by means of hydrochloric acid from ten grains of
this substance, there remained 1.2 grain of dark powder, which
gave, by analysis with oxide of copper, .16 of a cubic inch of
carbonic acid, and a small portion of nitrogen. On subjecting to the
same kind of analysis two grains of the darker body, without
previously acting upon it by any acid, .054 of a cubic inch of
carbonic acid was obtained; so that from these results there is no
doubt but the darker portion of the molluskite contains about .35
per cent, of its weight of carbon in an organized state."
 "Now nearly the whole of the shells in the beds of Kentish Rag," Mr.
Bensted remarks, "have their shells open, as if they were dead before
their envelopment in the deposit. And, from the large quantity of
water-worn fragments of wood perforated by Pholades imbedded with
them, it seems probable that this stratum had originally been a sand-
bank covered with drifted wood and shells, thus presenting a very
analogous condition to the phenomenon above described." The
gelatinous bodies of the Trigoniæ, Ostreæ, Rostellariæ, Terebratulæ,
&c., detached from their shells, may have been intermingled with the
drifted wood in a sand-bank; while, in some instances, the animal
matter would remain in the shells, be converted into molluskite, and
retain the form of the original, as in the spiral univalve, represented in
section, Lign. 139, fig. 3.

A microscopical examination of the Maidstone molluskite detects,

with a low power, innumerable portions of the nacreous laminæ of
shells, intermingled with the carbonaceous matter, many siliceous
spicula of Sponges, minute spines of Echinoderms, and fragments of
Corals; these extraneous bodies probably became entangled among
the floating animal matter. A large proportion of the shelly laminæ,
examined with a high power, displays the peculiar structure of the
Terebratulæ (see Lign. 126, fig. 2a), of which several species are
abundant in the Kentish Rag.
The dark masses and veins so common in the Sussex and Purbeck
marbles are produced by molluskite. If at the period of their
envelopment the shells were empty, they became filled either with
grey marl and limestone, or with white calcareous spar; but if they
enclosed the bodies of the Mollusks, the soft mass was changed into
carbonaceous matter; and in polished sections of the marble, the
molluskite appears either in black or dark brown spots, or fills up the
cavities of the shells. The dark blotches and veins observable in the
fine pillars of Purbeck marble in the Temple Church, London, are
produced by molluskite; and the most beautiful slabs of Sussex marble
owe their appearance to the contrast produced by this black substance
in contact with white calcareous spar.[392]
 [392] See a "Memoir on the Carbonized Remains of Mollusca,"
by the author. Read before the Geological Society of London,
February, 1843; and published in the American Journal of Science.

Carbon, resulting from animal remains, is of frequent occurrence in

many strata; and the fetid emanations from certain limestones, upon
being broken or rubbed, are attributable to the evolution of
sulphuretted hydrogen, from the animal matter which they contain.

Geological Distribution of the Bivalve and GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SHELL

Univalve Mollusca.—If the more rare and splendid organic remains may
be regarded as the "Medals of Creation," the fossil testaceous
mollusca, from their durability, numbers and variety, may be
considered as the current coin of Geology. Occurring in the most
ancient fossiliferous strata in small numbers, and of peculiar types,—
becoming more abundant and varied in the secondary formations,—
and increasing prodigiously, both numerically and specifically, in the
tertiary, these relics are of inestimable value in the identification of a
stratum in distant regions, and in the determination of the relative age
of a series of deposits. To the solution of the former problem the
sagacity of the late Dr. William Smith first suggested their applicability;
[393] while the idea, so happily conceived, and so philosophically
candied out, by Sir C. Lyell, of arranging that heretofore chaotic mass
of deposits, termed the Tertiary, into groups, by the relative number of
recent and extinct species of shells, demonstrated the important aid to
be derived from this class of organic remains, in the determination of
some of the most difficult questions in geological science.
[393] See an interesting memoir of Dr, Smith, from the pen of
his distinguished nephew, Professor Phillips.

Many useful tables have been constructed by Professor Phillips,[394]

Sir C. Lyell, M. Deshayes, M. D'Orbigny, Prof. E. Forbes, and other
eminent observers, to illustrate the geological distribution, in the
several formations, of the genera and species of fossil shells hitherto
described. To the English student, Mr. Morris's "Catalogue of British
Fossils," of which an enlarged edition is in the press, will be the most
valuable for reference. In the works which we have especially
recommended for reference (ante, p. 10.), figures are given of some of
the characteristic shells from each formation, as follow; commencing
with the most ancient deposits.
[394] A Treatise on Geology; and Art. Geology, Encyclopæd.
Metropolitana.

Silurian System. Ly. p. 350.

Orthis orbicularis; Ly. fig. 409.
——— grandis;—fig. 427.
Terebratula navicula;—fig. 410.
————– Wilsoni;—fig. 413.
Pentamerus Knightii;—fig, 411.
————— lævis;—fig. 426.
Atrypa reticularis; fig. 414. Wond. p. 786.
Lingula Lewisii; Ly. fig. 412.
Strophomena depressa;—fig. 421.
Devonian System. Ly. p. 342.
Calceola sandalina; Ly. fig. 403.
Stringocephalus Burtini;—fig. 404.
Megalodon cucullatus;—fig. 405.
"The Silurian System," by Sir R. I. Murchison, a splendid work on the
rocks and fossils of the above formations, contains numerous figures
of the shells peculiar to each group of strata; and many other species
are delineated in the Memoir on the Devonian deposits of Devonshire
and Cornwall, by Sedgwick and Murchison, Geol. Trans. New Series,
vol. v. plates lii-lvii. A Memoir on the Palæozoic Rocks of Germany and
Belgium, by the same distinguished geologists, is also accompanied by
many figures of fossil shells belonging to the same geological epochs.
Geol. Trans. New Series, vol. vi.
See also Prof. M'Coy's "Silurian Fossils of Ireland," and his
Description of the British Palæozoic Fossils in the Woodwardian
Museum at Cambridge, in Prof. Sedgwick's "Synopsis of the Classification
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