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vi Contents
Organizational Legitimacy 87
Situational Crisis Communication Theory 91
Discourse of Renewal 96
Conclusion 100
Index 263
Notes on Authors
Introduction to Crisis
Communication Theory
Defining Crisis
As with many fields of study, scholars have debated the merits of various
definitions of crises. These debates are important in establishing the
parameters of a field and indicating the principal components of the
phenomenon. Definitions are also important components of any theory.
For example, within the area of crisis studies some debate exists about
the level of harm necessary for an event to qualify as a crisis. A bad
snowstorm may be disruptive to a community, but may only be charac-
terized as a crisis when it threatens public safety and property. High
winds may be disruptive, but only constitute a crisis when they create
property damage. In order to construct a theory of crisis, it is first neces-
sary to ensure that the event under examination actually meets the defi-
nition of a crisis.
The FEMA uses several criteria to determine when a situation quali-
fies as a disaster (see Table 1.1). A disaster declaration is required for
federal aid to be available to communities. These criteria allow the
FEMA to assess the relative magnitude of disruption and harm created
by an event. This is important to determine the amount and form of
assistance a community may need.
From other perspectives, the question of the magnitude of a crisis is
best understood as a matter of personal, community and even cultural
perception. Coombs (2010), for example, describes crisis as a function
of perceptions based on a violation of some strongly held expectation.
Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 5
Food, for example, should be safe to eat and free of harmful E. coli
contamination. It is generally expected that rivers will remain within
defined areas and not spread to inundate residential or downtown areas.
Seasonal influenza should be a relatively minor disorder and should not
create widespread illness, death and social disruption. It is the violation
of these expectations and some level of community and social consen-
sus about the relative level of risk and threat that creates the perception
of a crisis. When people believe there is a crisis, they are likely to behave
differently than they would in so-called normal times.
Similar debates about definitions have also focused on the notion
of the intentional creation of harm. For example, some scholars have
argued that international conflicts between countries represent crises,
while others have suggested that war itself should not be classified as
a crisis although the consequences, such as the dislocation of popula-
tions, disruption of food supplies, or disease outbreaks, do represent
crises. War most typically is the outcome of some extended conflict and
as such is not surprising in the same way as most crises. Terrorism
attacks are intentional, unanticipated and surprising, and are generally
classified as crisis events. Crises represent a range of different kinds of
events and this range is illustrated by various typologies of crisis. Three
typologies are presented in Table 1.2.
These various crises all generally evoke the notion of some dramatic,
unanticipated threat, with widespread and wholly negative impact.
6 Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory
Events such as the Japanese tsunami and the Fukushima nuclear acci-
dent, the Challenger Shuttle disaster, the British Petroleum (BP) Gulf
oil spill and the anthrax letter contamination episode represent crises.
These events share three general attributes: they are largely unantici-
pated or violate expectations, they threaten high priority goals, and they
require relatively rapid response to contain or mitigate the harm
(Hermann, 1963; Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer, 2003). Crises are almost
always unanticipated by key stakeholders, although there are usually
warnings signs and cues. Most often, they involve a radical departure
from the status quo and a violation of general assumptions and expecta-
tions, disrupting the “normal” and limiting the ability to anticipate and
predict. The severe violation of expectations is usually a source of
uncertainty, psychological discomfort and stress. Sometimes the occur-
rences are so confusing that people simply do not know what to do
and experience extreme psychological dislocation. Weick (1993) has
described this response as a cosmological episode: “when people sud-
denly and deeply feel that the universe is no longer a rational, orderly
system. What makes such an episode so shattering is that both the sense
of what is occurring and the means to rebuild that sense collapse
together” (p. 633).
Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 7
nuclear disaster. This definition also includes the idea that a crisis
should be contained or specific in its parameters. Larger issues such as
the ongoing health care crisis or the energy crisis would not meet this
definition.
Others have offered more straightforward crisis definitions. Heath
(1995), for example, suggests that a crisis is a risk manifested. From this
perspective, a risk occurs before a crisis and is the consequence of a
risk continuing to develop without appropriate efforts to manage it. This
notion of a risk incubating, developing unchecked, and perhaps interact-
ing with other factors is one of the most common views of a crisis
“cause.” Therefore, crisis is also closely related to the concept of risk.
Risk communication generally concerns “risk estimates, whether they
are appropriate, tolerable, and risk consequences” (Heath, 1995, p. 257).
Birkland (1968) described crises as focusing events, bringing attention
to issues and setting the larger public policy agenda. Thus, a crisis can
be a significant force in political and social change and may determine
the actions taken by a government.
Crisis comes from the Greek krisis and krinein. Krisis was a medical
term used by the Greek writer and physician Hippocrates to describe
the turning point in a disease. Krinein means to judge, separate or
decide. Crisis in its eastern etymology then refers to a decision point
requiring a decision of judgment. The Chinese symbol for crisis, wēijī,
sheds light on the way the term is understood in some eastern cultures.
Composed of two symbols, wēi roughly translates as “danger, danger-
ous, endanger, jeopardize, perilous, precipitous, precarious, high, fear,
afraid.” While there is some debate about jī, it may sometimes mean
“opportunity” and may also mean “a crucial point” (Mair, 2010). Accord-
ing to this translation, wēijī may refer to a dangerous situation and a
crucial point.
Closely associated with efforts to define crisis is the question of what
causes a crisis. A number of perspectives have been offered to explain
the cause of crisis (see Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer, 2003, pp. 12–15).
These include faulty decision-making, oversights, accidents, natural
changes and unanticipated events. These causes may be summarized in
three categories: (1) normal failure and interactive complexity; (2) fail-
ures in warnings, faulty risk perception and foresight, and (3) break-
downs in vigilance (Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer, 2003, p. 12).
Normal accident theory (NAT) describes the ways in which normal,
routine failure may lead to catastrophic crises. Developed by the soci-
ologist Charles Perrow (1984), NAT emphasizes the interactive com-
plexity that develops around larger-scale socio-technical systems. Large
Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 9
Defining Communication
As with the definition of crisis, scholars have also wrestled with defini-
tions of communication and have offered a variety of competing views
(Littlejohn and Foss, 2011). Traditional and classical notions of com-
munication have tended to be more static and to emphasize the role of
the sender in a process of distributing messages to receivers. Receivers
were largely seen as passive participants who are assumed simply to
accept and act upon the message. The best-known formulation of this
approach is Berlo’s (1960) sender–message–channel–receiver model.
This model creates a straightforward linear view of communication.
This perspective also dominated many early emergency communication
conceptualizations and tended to frame crisis communication as a
unidirectional process of issuing warnings or alerts through systems
such as the emergency broadcast system or community based weather
sirens.
Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 11
They are disruptive, confusing, shocking and intense events, and making
sense of them and reestablishing some new normal requires communi-
cation. Crisis communication processes are also made significantly
more complex by the diversity of audiences, cultures, backgrounds,
experiences, new technologies and forms of crises. In addition, effective
communication in these cases can literally be a life and death matter.
Understanding the role of communication in these events, therefore, is
critical.
Introduction to Crisis Communication Theory 15
Theory
Arguably, theory is the most important tool researchers have for build-
ing broader understanding of phenomena. Theory is also a widely
misunderstood concept, often interpreted as denoting an esoteric and
generalized abstraction that bears no relationship to reality. This is
reflected in the common statement: “Well, that’s all well and good in
theory, but it doesn’t work in reality.” Theory by definition must be
related to the reality it seeks to explain; in its most basic form, a theory
is simply an explanation created for something that needs further under-
standing. Theory is an abstraction of reality, a way of framing, modeling
and understanding what is observed to be happening (Littlejohn and
Foss, 2011). By explaining the reality of what is observed, theory can
be used to inform practice. On the one hand, formal theory can be quite
rigid in its efforts to describe a formal system or proposition framed in
a way that allows for developing specific predictions, testing and valida-
tion. On the other hand, a theory can be as simple as an individual’s
expectation based on experiences. These lay theories are formulated by
all of us and help us explain, organize and make sense of the world we
experience. Theories, formal or informal, are simply sensemaking
devices, sets of concepts, definitions or ideas that allow individuals to
organize observations in ways that account for the observations they
make about the world.
While there are many formal definitions, such as those presented in
Table 1.4, at some level the very straightforward “If A then B” proposi-
tion underlies most formal theories. For example, a basic crisis theory
might propose, “If a condition is perceived to be a crisis (A), then people
will experience high levels of uncertainty (B).” This theory does not
necessary propose that all people will feel uncertainty or that all crises
will produce high levels of uncertainty. A theory is never “proven” as a
universal law covering all cases, particularly when considering human
behavior, in which so many factors may interact. What this proposition
does suggest is that as a general principle, crises are characterized by
uncertainty. It is then possible to follow the initial proposition with a
second: “If people experiencing a crisis feel high levels of uncertainty
(A), then they will seek out information (B).” This is an example of how
theories can be systems of propositions.
This example illustrates some of the functions of theory (Table 1.5).
The first function of theory is to organize a set of observations. One
of the most striking behaviors people exhibit upon experiencing or
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Herjetkää siis, herra, noista mielettömistä teoista, arvottomista
suurelle niinellenne; ja kiittäkää vielä Colonnaa, että hän tuli teidän
ja hetken raivon väliin!"
Niin jalot, niin ylevät olivat Adrianin katsanto ja eleet hänen näin
puhuessaan, että raa'at palvelijatkin tunsivat hyväksymisen ja
katumuksen tunteen — niin ei ollut Martino di Porton laita. Hän oli
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hän oli tottunut pitkälliseen väkivaltaisuuteen ja saanut kauan olla
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mitä sitten, kun Colonna sekaantui hänen himoihinsa sekä soimasi
hänen paheitansa!
Hellästi hän antoi Irenen vartalon, joka jo alkoi käydä hänelle liian
painavaksi, sillä Irene oli kauhusta pyörtynyt, luistaa vasemmalta
käsivarreltaan, ja astuen yli hänen vartalonsa, selkäpuoli seinän
turvassa, jonka luo hän oli varoen päässyt, hän ryhtyi vain torjumaan
nopeita iskuja, yrittämättä vastata niihin. Harvat roomalaisista,
vaikka tottuneet tällaiseen alituiseen sodankäyntiin, olivat siihen
aikaan perinpohjin harjaantuneita aseita käyttämään; ja oppi, jonka
Adrian oli hankkinut sotaisen pohjolan kouluissa, auttoi häntä nyt
tällaista ylivoimaakin vastaan. Tosin ei Orsinin seuralaisia ollut
kiihottamassa heidän herransa kiukku; osaksi peloissaan
seurauksista, jos heidän kätensä vuodattaisi tuon korkeasukuisen
signorin verta, osaksi epäröiden aavistuksesta, että he yht'äkkiä
saisivat nähdä kimpussaan nuot surkeilemattomat, niin lähellä olevat
palkkalaiset, he jakelivat vain huonosti suunnattuja ja umpimähkäisiä
iskuja, katsellen alinomaa taaksensa ja sivullensa, pikemmin valmiina
pakoon kuin taisteluun. Colonna-huudon kajahtaessa Benedetta-
parka pakeni ensimäisen miekaniskun kilahduksesta. Hän juoksi
pitkin kolkkoa katua yhä kertoen tuota huutoa, ja riensi ohi Tapanin
palatsin porttikäytävänkin (jossa vielä kuhnaili muutamia pelottavia
haahmoja) pysäyttämättä askeleitansa, niin suuri oli hänen
hämmästyksensä ja kauhunsa.
"Ei, Rodolf", sanoi hän, "jos sinun on niin hyvä olla täällä tuon
harmaapäisen juonittelijan luona, taivas varjelkoon, että tahtoisin
sinua viekotella takasin iloiseen joukkoomme. Mutta sano minulle —
tämä Rienzi — luuletko hänellä olevan pysyväistä ja pelättävää
valtaa?"
"Kyllä, kyllä hän miellyttää; ja kun hän puhuu sille, niin koko
Rooman jyty vaikenee."
V Luku.
VI Luku.
"Onko tuo nimi, jota olet oppinut pelkäämään?" sanoi Adrian; "jos
niin, minä hylkään sen."
Jos Irene nyt punastui, niin sitä ei vaikuttanut tuo hurja riemu,
jonka vallassa hänen haaveksiva sydämensä oli saattanut ennustaa
hänen kuuntelevan Adrian di Castellon lemmen ensimmäisiä sanoja.
Mieletönnä hämmästyksestä — pelästyneenä oudosta paikasta,
vieläpä kauhistuen ajatusta, että hän oli kahdenkesken hänen
kanssansa, joka vuosikaudet oli ollut hänen haaveiluissansa läsnä —
pelästys ja suru olivat ne tunteet, jotka hän enimmin tunsi ja jotka
enimmin kuvaantuivat hänen kasvoillansa. Ja kun Adrian lähestyi
häntä, niin huolimatta hänen äänensä ystävällisyydestä ja hänen
katseensa kunnioituksesta, hänen pelkonsa, joka ei ollut vähempi
sentähden, että se oli epämääräinen, lisääntyi; hän vetäytyi huoneen
äärimmäiseen päähän, katseli hurjasti ympärilleen ja sitten, peittäen
kasvonsa käsillään, puhkesi katkeraan kyyneltulvaan.
VII Luku.
Lemmestä ja lempivistä.