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The Python Book
The Python Book

Rob Mastrodomenico
Global Sports Statistics
Swindon, United Kingdom
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley and Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
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at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Rob Mastrodomenico to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in
accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Mastrodomenico, Rob, author.
Title: The Python book / Rob Mastrodomenico.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021040056 (print) | LCCN 2021040057 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119573319 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119573395 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119573289 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Python (Computer program language)
Classification: LCC QA76.73.P98 M379 2022 (print) | LCC QA76.73.P98
(ebook) | DDC 005.13/3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021040056
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021040057
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © shuoshu/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Getting Started 3

3 Packages and Builtin Functions 7

4 Data Types 11

5 Operators 19

6 Dates 25

7 Lists 29

8 Tuples 39

9 Dictionaries 41

10 Sets 47

11 Loops, if, Else, and While 57

12 Strings 67

13 Regular Expressions 73

14 Dealing with Files 79

14.1 Excel 83
14.2 JSON 84
14.3 XML 86

15 Functions and Classes 91

vi Contents

16 Pandas 103
16.1 Numpy Arrays 103
16.2 Series 106
16.3 DataFrames 111
16.4 Merge, Join, and Concatenation 121
16.5 DataFrame Methods 136
16.6 Missing Data 141
16.7 Grouping 146
16.8 Reading in Files with Pandas 154

17 Plotting 159
17.1 Pandas 159
17.2 Matplotlib 169
17.3 Seaborn 179

18 APIs in Python 215

19 Web Scraping in Python 229

19.1 An Introduction to HTML 229
19.2 Web Scraping 233

20 Conclusion 255

Index 257
 1

Introduction

Welcome to The Python Book, over the following pages you will be given an insight into
the Python language. The genesis of this book has come from my experience of using and
more importantly teaching Python over the last 10 years. With my background as a Data
Scientist, I have used a number of different programming languages over the course of my
career and Python being the one that has stuck with me. Why Python? For me I enjoy
Python because its fast to develop with and covers many different application allowing me to
use Python for pretty much everything. However for you the reader, Python is a great choice
of language to learn as its easy to pick up and fast to get going with which means that for the
novice programmers they can feel like they are making progress. This book is not just for
complete novices, if you have some experience with Python, then this book is a great refer-
ence. The fact that you can pick up Python quickly means that many users skip the basics.
This book looks to cover all the basics giving you the building blocks to do great things with
the language. What this book is not intended to do is over complicating anything. Python
is beautiful in its simplicity and this book looks to stick to that approach. Concepts will be
explained in simple terms and examples will be used to show how to practically use the
introduced concepts.
Now having discussed what this book is intended to do, what is Python? Simply put
Python is a programming language, its general purpose meaning that it can do lots of things.
In this book, we will specialise in applying Python to data-driven applications, however
Python can be used for many other applications including AI, machine learning, web
development, to name just a few. The language itself is of high level and also interpreted
meaning that code need not be compiled before running. One of the big attractions to the
language is the simplicity of its syntax, which makes it great to learn and even better to
write code. Aside from the clear, easy to understand syntax, the language makes use of
indentation as an important tool to distinguish different elements of the code. Python is
an object-orientated language and we will demonstrate this in more detail throughout
this book. However, you can write Python code how you prefer be it object orientated,
functional or interactively. The best way to demonstrate Python is by doing, so let’s get
started but to do so we need to get Python installed.

The Python Book, First Edition. Rob Mastrodomenico.

© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
 3

Getting Started

For the purposes of this book, we want you to install the Anaconda distribution of Python
that is available at https://www.anaconda.com. Here, you have distributions for Windows,
Mac, and Linux, which can be easily installed on your computer. Once you have the
Anaconda installed, you will have access to the Anaconda navigator as shown in
Figure 2.1.
Here, you get the following included by default:
● JupyterLab
● Notebook
● Qt Console
● Spyder
To follow the examples within this book you can use the Notebook or Qt Console.
The Notebook is an interactive web based editor as shown in Figure 2.2.
Here, you can type your code, run the command, and then see the result, which is a nice
way to work and is very popular. Here, we will show how we can define a variable x and
then just type x and run the command with the run button to show the result (Figure 2.3).
However for the purposes of the book we will use a console-based view that you can easily
obtain through the Qt Console. An example is shown in Figure 2.4.
Like with the notebook, we show the same example using Qt Console in Figure 2.5.
Within this book we will denote anything that is an input with >>> and with any output
having no arrows preceding it (Figure 2.6).
Another concept that the reader will need to be familiar with is the ability to navigate
using the terminal (linux systems including mac) or command prompt (windows). These
can be obtained through various approaches but simply using the search procedures with
the word terminal or command prompt will bring up the relevant screen. To navigate
through the file system you can use the command cd to change directory. This essentially
is like us clicking on a folder to see what is in it. Unlike using a file viewing interface
you cannot see what is in a given directory by default so to do so you need to use the
command ls. This command lists the files and directories within the current locations. Let’s
demonstrate with an example of navigating to a directory and then running a python file.
Aside from the Anaconda navigator we have over 250 open-source data science and
machine learning packages are automatically installed. You can also make use of the
conda installer to install over 7500 packages easily into Python. A full list of packages

The Python Book, First Edition. Rob Mastrodomenico.

© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Figure 2.1 Anaconda navigator.
 2 Getting Started 5

Figure 2.2 Jupyter Notebook.

Figure 2.3 Jupyter Notebook example.

Figure 2.4 Qt Console.

6 2 Getting Started

Figure 2.5 Qt Console example.

Figure 2.6 Command line example.

that come with Anaconda is available for the relevant operating system from https://repo
.anaconda.com/pkgs/. Details on the using the conda installer is available from https://
docs.anaconda.com/anaconda/user-guide/tasks/install-packages/ however this is outside
the scope of this book. The last concept we will raise but not cover in detail is that of virtual
environments. This concept is where the user develops in an isolated Python environment
and adds packages as needed. It is a very popular approach to development however as
this book is aimed at beginners we use all packages included in the Anaconda installation.
 7

Packages and Builtin Functions

We have discussed packages without really describing what they are so let’s look at packages
and how it sits within the general setup of Python. As mentioned previously, Python is
object orientated which means that everything is an object, you’ll get to understand this in
practice, however there are a few important builtin functions which aren’t objects and they
are worth mentioning here as they will be used within the book. These builtin types will be
used throughout the book so keep an eye out for them. Below we show some useful ones,
for a full list refer to https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html.
● dir(): This function takes in an object and returns the _dir_() of that object giving us the
attributes of the object.
>>> name = 'Rob'
>>> dir(name)
['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__',
'__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__',
'__getnewargs__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__',
'__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mod__', '__mul__', '__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__rmod__',
'__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__',
'capitalize', 'casefold', 'center', 'count', 'encode', 'endswith',
'expandtabs', 'find', 'format', 'format_map', 'index', 'isalnum', 'isalpha',
'isascii', 'isdecimal', 'isdigit', 'isidentifier', 'islower', 'isnumeric',
'isprintable', 'isspace', 'istitle', 'isupper', 'join', 'ljust', 'lower',
'lstrip', 'maketrans', 'partition', 'replace', 'rfind', 'rindex', 'rjust',
'rpartition', 'rsplit', 'rstrip', 'split', 'splitlines', 'startswith',
'strip', 'swapcase', 'title', 'translate', 'upper', 'zfill']

● float(): Returns a floating point number from an integer of string

>>> x = '1'
>>> float(1)
1.0
● int(): Returns an integer from a float of string
>>> x = '1'
>>> int(1)
1

The Python Book, First Edition. Rob Mastrodomenico.

© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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capitulated after a siege of six months, when Zabita Khan, with his
garrison and effects, was permitted to retire to Rania, since which
this place has remained an appanage of Bikaner.
Attack on Jodhpur.—The coalition against Jodhpur was ruinous
to Surat, who supported the cause of the pretender, on which the
usurper expended twenty-four lakhs of rupees, nearly five years’
revenue of this desert region. On this occasion, he led all his troops
in person against Jodhpur, and united in the siege, which they were
however compelled to abandon with dishonour, and retrograde to
their several abodes. In consequence of this, the usurper fell sick,
and was at the last extremity; nay, the ceremonies for the dead
were actually commenced; but he recovered, to the grief and misery
of his subjects. To supply an exhausted treasury, his extortions know
no bounds; and having cherished the idea that he might compound
his past sins by rites and gifts to the priests, he is surrounded by a
group of avaricious Brahmans, who are maintained in luxury at the
expense of his subjects. His cruelty keeps pace with his avarice and
his fears. The chief of Bhukarka he put to death, notwithstanding his
numerous services. Nahar Singh of Sidmukh, Gyan Singh and Guman
Singh of Gandeli, amongst the chief [194] feudatories of the State,
shared the same fate. Churu was invested a third time, and with its
chief, fell into the tyrant’s hands.
With this system of terror, his increasing superstition, and
diminished attention to public duties, the country is annually
deteriorating in population and wealth; and as if they had not misery
enough within, they have not had a single good season for years.[41]
Owing to the disobedience of the northern chiefs, and the continual
incursions of the Rahats, or ‘Bhatti robbers,’ who sweep the land of
cattle, and often cut and carry off entire crops, the peasant Jat, the
ancient lord of the soil, is often left to the alternative of starvation or
emigration. Many have consequently sought shelter in the British
frontier territories, in Hansi and Hariana, where they are kindly
received. Since the English have occupied Sirsa and the lands
belonging to the Bhatti Bahadur Khan, the misfortunes of the
cultivators of the northern parts of Bikaner have been doubled by
the inroads of a band left without resource. In some parts, the Jats
combine to protect themselves against these inroads: every hamlet
has its post of defence, a tower of earth, on which is perched a
watchman and kettledrum, to beat the alarm, which is taken up from
village to village, and when an enemy is discovered, all are in arms
to defend their property. The unfortunate Jat is obliged to plough his
fields under the load of shield and sang, or heavy iron lance; so that,
at no distant period, the whole of this region must become as
desolate as the tracts once possessed by the Johyas.[42]
Such, at the end of three hundred and twenty-three years, is the
change which a Rajput usurper has effected in the once
comparatively populous communities of the Jats. From the founder,
Bika, to the present tyrannical governor, there have been only eleven
descents though thirteen reigns, giving an average of thirty years for
the one, and twenty-five for the other: a fact which speaks forcibly
for the general morality of the descendants of Bika.
Bīdāvati.—Before we enter on the physical aspect of the country,
we must make mention of Bidavati, the lands of ‘the sons of Bida,’
now an integral portion of Bikaner.[43] It will be borne in mind that
Bida, the brother of Bika, led the first Rajput colony from Mandor, in
search of a fresh establishment. His first attempt was in the province
of Godwar, then belonging to the Rana: but his reception there was
so warm, that [195] he moved northward, and was glad to take
service with the chief of the Mohils. This ancient tribe is by some
termed a branch of the Yadus, but is by others considered a
separate race, and one of the ‘Thirty-six Royal Races’: all are agreed
as to its antiquity. The residence of the Mohil chief was Chhapar,[44]
where, with the title of Thakur, he ruled over one hundred and forty
townships. Bida deemed circumvention better than open force to
effect his purposes; and as, according to the Rajput maxim, in all
attempts ‘to obtain land,’ success hallows the means, he put in train
a scheme which, as it affords the least cause for suspicion, has often
been used for this object. Bida became the medium of a matrimonial
arrangement between the Mohil chief and the prince of Marwar; and
as the relation and natural guardian of the bride, he conveyed the
nuptial train unsuspected into the castle of the Mohils, whose chiefs
were assembled to honour the festivities. But instead of the Rathor
fair and her band of maidens, the valorous sons of Jodha rushed
sword in hand from the litters and covered vehicles, and
treacherously cut off the best men of Mohila. They kept possession
of the inner fortress until tidings of their success brought
reinforcements from Jodhpur. For this aid, Bida assigned to his father
Ladnun and its twelve villages, now incorporated with Jodhpur. The
son of Bida, Tej Singh, laid the foundation of a new capital, which he
called after his father, Bidesar.[45] The community of the Bidawats is
the most powerful in Bikaner, whose prince is obliged to be satisfied
with almost nominal marks of supremacy, and to restrict his
demands, which are elsewhere unlimited. The little region of the
Mohilas, around the ancient capital Chhapar, is an extensive flat,
flooded in the periodical rains from the surrounding tibas or
‘sandhills,’ the soil of which is excellent, even wheat being
abundantly produced. This Oasis, as it is entitled to be termed, may
be twenty-five miles (twelve cos) in extreme length, by about six in
breadth. We cannot affirm that the entire Bidawat district of one
hundred and forty villages, and to which is assigned a population of
forty thousand to fifty thousand souls, one-third being Rathors, ‘the
sons of Bida,’ is within this flat. It is subdivided into twelve fiefs, of
which five are pre-eminent. Of the ancient possessors, the
indigenous Mohils, there are not more than twenty families
throughout the land of Mohila; the rest are chiefly Jat agriculturists
and the mercantile castes.
We do the sons of Bida no injustice when we style them a
community of plunderers. Like the sons of Esau, “their hand is
against every man”: and they are too powerful to fear retaliation. In
former times they used to unite with the Larkhanis [196], another
horde of robbers, and carry their raids into the most populous parts
of Jaipur. In these habits, however, they only partake of the
character common to all who inhabit desert regions. What nature
has denied them, they wrest from those to whom she has been
more bountiful. But it is to the absence of good government more
than to natural sterility that we must attribute the moral obliquity of
the Rajaputras, ‘the offspring of regality,’ spread over these
extensive regions, who little discriminate between meum and tuum,
in all that refers to their neighbours.

1. [At present greatest length about 320 miles, greatest breadth

170 miles.]

2. [In 1911 the population was 2,057,553.]

3. [In 1911 respectively 125 and 279 per mille.]

4. The district of Sanchor is almost entirely Brahman, forming a

distinct tribe, called the Sanchora Brahmans.

5. [At present the horses of Mallāni are most esteemed. By the

“Jungle,” the Lākhi Jangal is meant.]

6. [Gawār, the horse bean, Dolichus biflorus.]

7. [In Nāgor district, N.W. of Jodhpur city.]

8. [This variety is grown without irrigation (Erskine iii. A. 103).]

9. [The varieties of soil now recognized are: matiyāli, clayey loam;

bhūri, brown-coloured, and with less clay than matiyāli; retla, fine
sand without clay; magra or tharra, on the slopes of hills, hard and
containing pebbles (ibid. iii. A. 99).]

10. [Makrāna is 12 miles W. of Sāmbhar Lake. For its marbles see

Sleeman, Rambles, 318; Hervey, Some Records of Crime, i. 100. The
best marbles in Rājputāna are found at Makrāna, Tonkra in
Kishangarh, Kharwar in Ajmer, and Raiālu in Jaipur; see Watt,
Comm. Prod. 715.]

11. There is nothing which so much employs the assessors of

justice, in those tribunals of arbitration, the Panchayats, as the
adjudication of questions of property. The highest compliment ever
paid to the Author was by the litigants of property amounting to half
a million sterling, which had been going the rounds of various
Panchayats and appeals to native princes, alike unsatisfactory in
their results. They agreed to admit as final the decision of a court of
his nomination. It was not without hesitation I accepted the
mediation propounded through the British superintendent of Ajmer
(Mr. Wilder); but knowing two men, whose integrity as well as
powers of investigation were above all encomium, I could not refuse.
One of these had given a striking instance of independence in
support of the award his penetration had led him to pronounce, and
which award being set aside on appeal, through favouritism, he
abjured every future call as an arbitrator. He was not a wealthy man,
but such was the homage paid to his integrity and talents, that the
greatest despot in India found it politic to reassemble the court,
have the case reconsidered, and permit justice to take its course. In
like manner, his demand was, that, before he agreed to devote his
time to unravelling all the intricacies of the case, both litigants
should sign a muchalka, or ‘bond,’ to abide by the award. I have no
recollection how it terminated.

12. [Cumin, Cuminum cyminum (Watt, Comm. Prod. 442).]

13. [Suigām in Pālanpur State, near the Ran of Cutch (BG, v.

348).]

14. [See p. 815.]

15. The Author learns that important modifications of this system

have been made by the legislative authorities at home: of their
extent he is ignorant, except that remuneration to chiefs for the loss
of transit duties has not been omitted. This is as it should be! [The
opium question is still in a state of transition. Exports to China were
closed in 1913, and, owing to the loss of revenue, compensation has
been awarded to the Native States by the Government of India. For
the trade up to 1911 see IGI, iv. 242 ff.; Watt, Comm. Prod. (1908),
845 ff.]

16. [For these fairs see Erskine iii. A. 206, 208.]

17. [The State jails have been reorganized, and humane treatment
of prisoners is enforced (Erskine iii. A. 163 ff.).]

18. The Rajputs and Hindus in general hold precisely the same
idea, of the cause of eclipses, as the Getae of Scandinavia. [This is a
form of sympathetic magic: as prisoners are released, so will the sun
and moon be freed from the demon.]

19. Chandrama. The moon is represented by silver, which is called

after her (or him) chandi.

20. [According to the more common story, she walked through a

pile of burning wood.]

21. [Since the reorganization of the Courts of Justice and the

introduction of criminal codes, trial by ordeal has been prohibited
(Erskine iii. A. 132 ff.). In 1854 Sir H. Lawrence made a treaty with
Mewār which provided that “no person be seized on the plea of
sorcery, witchcraft, or incantations” (Lee Warner, Native States of
India, ed. 1910, p. 305).]

22. [The most solemn oath among the Scythians was by the royal
hearth (Herodotus iv. 68).]

23. [The normal revenue of the State at the present time is about
56, and the expenditure 42 lakhs of rupees (Erskine iii. A. 140 ff.).]

24. [The State now maintains two regiments of Imperial Service

Lancers, 1210 men, the whole force, including local troops, being
about 2700 (ibid. iii. A. 158 ff.).]

25. The maund is about seventy-five lbs. weight.

 26. Kan, ‘corn.’

27. The average selling price at Jodhpur is two rupees the maund;
four at Sambhar and Didwana, and five at Pachbhadra, Phalodi, and
Nawa. Why the price at the capital is 50 per cent lower than
elsewhere, I know not, even if this statement is correct. [On the
Rājputāna salt trade see Watt, Comm. Prod. 968 f. The present State
income is now about 15 lakhs of rupees per annum (Erskine iii. A.
150 f.).]

28. [Saccharum sara.]

29. [On the production of barilla (sajji khar) see Watt, op. cit. 112
ff.]
We may recapitulate what the old archives state of the aggregate
fiscal revenues in past times, amounting to nearly thirty lakhs of
rupees. It would be hazardous to say to what extent the amount
was overrated:
1. Khalisa, or fiscal land, from 1484 towns Rs.
and villages 1,500,000
2. Sair or imposts 430,000
3. Salt lakes 715,000
4. Hasil, or miscellaneous taxes; fluctuating 300,000
and uncertain; not less than
Total 2,945,000
Feudal and ministerial estates 5,000,000
Grand Total 7,945,000
Thus the united fiscal and feudal revenues of Marwar are said to
have amounted almost to eighty lakhs of rupees (£800,000). If they
ever did reach this sum [175], which may be doubted, we do not err
in affirming that they would not be overrated at half that amount.
Large fortunes are said to centre in the families of the ex-ministers,
especially the Singhi family, reported to be immensely rich. Their
wealth is deposited in foreign capitals. But much bullion is lost to the
currency of these countries by the
 30. [At the present time the estates and septs of the Rāthor clan
to which the twelve nobles belong are: Pokaran, Awa—Champāwat;
Rian, Alniawās—Mertia; Rāēpur, Rās, Nīmāj, Agewa—Udāwat;
Kharwa, Bhadrājan—Jodha. At a Darbār the Champāwats and
Kūmpāwats sit to the right and the Jodhas, Mertias, and Udāwats to
the left of the Mahārāja (Erskine iii. B. 40).]

1. [According to Erskine (iii. B. 85) Bika was born in 1439; left

Jodhpur, 1465; founded Bikaner city, 1488.]

2. [The Sānkhlas are said to be a Panwār clan, but this is not

certain (Census Report, Rājputāna, 1911, i. 256). Jānglu is about 20
miles S. of Bīkaner city.]

3. [About 120 miles N. of Bīkaner city: the ruler at present is one

of the leading nobles of the State.]

4. Vol. I. p. 127, History of the Rajput Tribes—Article, Jats or

Getae.

5. Ranjit has long been in possession of Peshawar, and entertained

views on Kabul, the disorganized condition of which kingdom affords
him a favourable opportunity of realizing them.

6. See Inscription, p. 914.

7. [The land beyond the Oxus.]

8. “On Friday the 14th (Dec. 29, A.D. 1525), of the first Rabi, we
arrived at Sialkot. Every time that I have entered Hindustan, the Jats
and Gujars have regularly poured down in prodigious numbers from
their hills and wilds, in order to carry off oxen and buffaloes” [Elliot-
Dowson iv. 24]. The learned commentator draws a distinction
between the Jat inhabitants of the Panjab and of India, which is not
maintainable.
 9. “It is worthy of remark,” says Colonel Pitman (who accompanied
Mr. Elphinstone to Kabul), “that in the two first Doabehs (return of
the embassy) we saw very few Sikhs, the Jat cultivators of the soil
being in general Moosulmauns, and in complete subjugation to the
Sikhs.”

10. [Shaikh Farīd, known as Shakkarganj, ‘sugar-store,’ on account

of his supposed miraculous power of transmuting dust or salt into
sugar, was disciple of the famous Saint, Kutbu-d-dīn Bakhtyār Kāki.
His life is supposed to have extended from A.D. 1173 to 1265. His
tomb at Ajūdhan in the Montgomery District is a scene of
pilgrimage.]

11. [He perhaps refers to the Asioi of Strabo (xi. 8. 2), who cannot
be identified (Smith, EHI, 226). They have no connexion, except
resemblance of name, with the Asaich.]

12. The Jats of the Agra province consider themselves illegitimate

descendants of the Yadus of Bayana, and have a tradition that their
watan [home] is Kandahar.

13. [Mahārāja Sūrat Singh reigned A.D. 1788-1828.]

14. This town is named after the Islamite saint, Shaikh Farid of
Pakpattan, who has a dargah here. He was greatly esteemed by the
Jats, before the Bona Dea assumed the shape of a Jatni, to whom,
under the title of Kirani Mata, ‘a ray of the mother,’ all bend the
head. [Her shrine is at Deshnok, about 25 miles S. of Bīkaner city,
and is a sanctuary (Hervey, Some Records of Crime, i. 139).]

15. [This is a folk etymology. The name is derived from Hindi ner,
Skt. nagara, ‘city’—the ‘city of Bīka.’]

16. Vide pp. 661, 695 for an account of these festivals.

17. [Elliot-Dowson iv. 232; the connexion of the mountains of Jūd,

to which the Author constantly refers, with the Yādavas is incorrect.]
 18. I presented a work on this race, entitled The Book of the
Johyas (sent me by the prime minister of Jaisalmer) to the Royal
Asiatic Society. Having obtained it just before leaving Rajputana, I
never had leisure to examine it, or to pronounce on its value as an
historical document; but any work having reference to so singular a
community can scarcely fail to furnish matter of interest. [The Joiya
or Johya tribe represent the ancient Yaudheya or ‘warlike’ peoples. It
is incorrect to say that the name is extinct, because they are found
on the banks of the Sutlej down to its confluence with the Indus; in
Bīkaner in the old bed of the Ghaggar River below Bhatner, their
ancient seat; in Lahore, Fīrozpur, the Derajāt, Multān, and the Salt
Range (Cunningham, Ancient Geography, i. 65; Rose, Glossary, ii.
410 ff.).]

19. [One hundred and ten miles N.N.E. of Bīkaner city.]

20. To the few who will peruse these annals of the desert tribes it
will be interesting to observe the development of families, and the
maintenance, by such distinctive patronymics, of their origin. In the
annals of this remote State I shall not enter at any length into the
history of their wars, which are, with a change of names and scene,
all pretty much alike; but confine myself, after a succinct and
connected genealogical relation, to the manners of the people, the
aspect, productions, and government of the country. [Abu-l Fazl
(Akbarnāma, i. 375) calls him Rāē Lonkaran. According to Erskine
(iii. A. 316) the second chief of Bīkaner was Naro or Naruji, son of
Bīka, who succeeded A.D. 1504, and died childless after a reign of
four months.]

21. [For Rāē Singh see Rogers-Beveridge, Memoirs of Jahāngīr,

130 f. According to the Akbarnāma (ii. 518) Akbar’s wife was the
daughter of Kahān, brother of Kalyānmall, Rāē of Jaisalmer. The
Tuzuk (Āīn, i. 477) says that her father was Rāwal Bhīm, elder
brother of Kalyān. Ferishta (ii. 234) says that Kalyānmall was her
father, and this statement is accepted by Erskine (iii. A. 316) see
Elliot-Dowson v. 336.]
 22. [Now known as Hanumāngarh, 144 miles N.E. of Bīkaner city
(IGI, xiii. 38).]

23. In the Annals of Jaisalmer the number of offsets from the

Yadu-Bhatti tribe, which assumed the name of Jat, will be seen; an
additional ground for asserting that the Scythic Yadu is in fact the
Yuti.

24. My informant of this tradition was an old inhabitant of

Dandusar, and although seventy years of age, had never left the
little district of his nativity until he was brought to me, as one of the
most intelligent living records of the past. [General Hervey (Some
Records of Crime, i. 209) says that a trace of Greek art may be
found in the Grecian ram’s head on the hilt of weapons in Bīkaner.
For traditions of descent from Alexander based on the Graeco-
Bactrian kingdom see Sykes, Hist. of Persia, i. 256.]

25. The natives of these regions cannot pronounce the sibilant; so

that, as I have already stated, the s is converted into h. I gave as an
example the name Jahilmer, which becomes ‘the hill of fools’ instead
of ‘the hill of Jaisal.’ Sankra, in like manner, becomes Hankra. [Uchh
in the Bahāwalpur State (IGI, xxiv. 82). For the Hakra depression see
Malik Muhammad Din (Bahāwalpur State Gazetteer, i. 3 ff.). The
Ghaggar, once an affluent of the Indus, is lost in the sands near
Hanumāngarh or Bhatner (IGI, xii. 212 f.).]

26. [His services are described in Āīn, i. 357 ff. Ferishta (ii. 243)
says that Rāē Singh killed Muhammad Husain after he was captured.
According to another account, Akbar spoke kindly to his captive, and
gave him into Rāē Singh’s custody (Elliot-Dowson v. 367).]

27. [According to Erskine (iii. A. 319, iii. B. 83) Dalpat Singh and
Sūr Singh were Rāos between Rāē Singh and Karan Singh. For these
Chiefs see Āīn, i. 359. Karan Singh, according to Musalmān
authorities, died in 1666-7 (Manucci ii. 22). In 1660 Aurangzeb sent
a force under Amīr Khān to bring him to reason for his insolence in
refusing to attend the Emperor’s Court (Jadunath Sarkar, Life of
Aurangzib, iii. 29 f.).]

28. [J. Scott, Ferishta’s History of the Dekkan, ii. 30.] The young
desert chieftain, like all his tribe, would find matter for quarrel in the
wind blowing in his face. Having received what he deemed an insult
from the brother-in-law of the Shahzada, in a dispute regarding a
fawn, he appealed to his sword, and a duel ensued even in the
presence-chamber, in which young Mohan fell. The fracas was
reported to his brother Padma, at no distance from the scene. With
the few retainers at hand, he rushed to the spot, and found his
brother bathed in his blood. His antagonist, still hanging over his
victim, when he saw the infuriated Rathor enter, with sword and
shield, prepared for dreadful vengeance, retreated behind one of the
columns of the Āmm Khass (Divan). But Padma’s sword reached
him, and avenged his brother’s death; as the record says, “he felled
him to the earth, cleaving at the same place the pillar in twain.”
Taking up the dead body of his brother, and surrounded by his
vassals, he repaired to his quarters, where he assembled all the
Rajput princes serving with their contingents, as Jaipur, Jodhpur,
Haraoti, and harangued them on the insult to their race in the
murder of his brother. They all agreed to abandon the king’s army,
and retire to their own homes. A noble was sent to expostulate by
Prince Muazzam; but in vain. He urged that the prince not only
forgave, but approved the summary vengeance taken by the Rathor;
they refused to listen, and in a body had retired more than twenty
miles, when the prince in person joined them, and concessions and
expostulations overcoming them, they returned to the camp. It was
subsequent to this that the two elder brothers were slain. It is
recorded of the surviving brother, that he slew an enormous lion in
single combat. For this exploit, which thoroughly entitled him to the
name he bore (Kesari), ‘the Lion,’ he received an estate of twenty-
five villages from the king. He also obtained great renown for slaying
a Habshi or Abyssinian chief, who commanded for one of the
southern princes.
 29. [Adoni in the Bellary District, Madras (IGI, v. 24 ff.).]

30. [He died at Adoni in 1698 (Erskine iii. A. 322).]

31. [According to Erskine (iii. B. 86) he died of smallpox in the

Deccan.]

32. ‘The children of David,’ the designation of the tract and

inhabitants subject to the State of Bahawalpur, from its founder,
Daud Khan, a native of Seistan. [For the Dāūdputra clan see Rose,
Glossary, ii. 224 f. Their history is fully given by Malik Muhammad
Din, Bahāwalpur State Gazetteer, i. 47 ff.]

33. She was the sister of the Jhalai chief, heir presumptive to the
gaddi of Jaipur, on failure of lineal issue.

34. [In the Patiāla State, Panjāb.]

35. [Nohar and Bhukārka are about 120 miles N.E. of Bīkaner city.]

36. The story of Nala and Damayanti (or Nal Daman, as it is

familiarly called in these regions) is well known in oriental literature.
From Nal the famed castle of Narwar is named, of which this suitor
for the hand of the Bīkaner princess was deprived by Sindhia. [The
famous tale of Nala and Damayanti from the Mahābhārata is perhaps
best known from Dean Milman’s version. Narwar is now in Gwalior
State.]

37. [Churu, about 100 miles N.E.E. of Bīkaner city.]

38. [Possibly Mojarh, about 40 miles S.E. of Bahāwalpur city.]

39. Its former name was Balar, one of the most ancient cities of
the desert, as is Phulra, a Johya possession.

40. [Not the Khairpur in Sind; 38 miles N.E. of Bahāwalpur city.]

41. This account was drawn up in 1814.

 42. While putting this to the press, rumour says that the chiefs of
Bikaner are in open rebellion against the Raja, who has applied, but
without success, to the British Government for support. This, if true,
is as it should be. [This rebellion occurred in 1815, and the Mahārāja
invoked British aid. A treaty was signed on March 9, 1818, by which
Sūrat Singh and his successors became subordinate to the British
Government. A force under Brigadier-General Arnold restored order
(Erskine iii. A. 326).]

43. [Bīdāvati, now Sūjangarh, bounded on S. by Jodhpur, and E.

by Shaikhāwati (ibid. iii. A. 390 f.).]

44. [On S. frontier of the State.]

45. [Bidesar or Bidāsar is 64 miles S.S.W. of Bīkaner city.]

CHAPTER 2
Geography of Bīkaner.—This region is but little known to
Europeans, by whom it has hitherto been supposed to be a perfect
desert, unworthy of examination. Its present condition bears little
comparison with what tradition reports it to have been in ancient
times; and its deterioration, within three centuries since the Rajputs
supplanted the Jats, almost warrants our belief of the assertion, that
these deserts were once fertile and populous; nay, that they are still
capable (notwithstanding the reported continual increase of the
sand) to maintain an abundant population, there is little room to
doubt. The princes of Bikaner used to take the field at the head of
ten thousand of their kindred retainers; and although they held
extraordinary grants from the empire for the maintenance of these
contingents, their ability to do so from their proper resources was
undoubted. To other causes than positive sterility must be attributed
the wretched condition of this State. Exposed to the continual
attacks of organized bands of robbers from without, subjected
internally to the never-ending demands of a rapacious government,
for which they have not a shadow of advantage in return, it would
be strange if aught but progressive decay and wretchedness were
the consequence. In three centuries [197], more than one-half of
the villages, which either voluntarily or by force submitted to the rule
of the founder, Bika, are now without memorial of their existence,
and the rest are gradually approximating to the same condition.
Commercial caravans, which passed through this State and enriched
its treasury with the transit duties, have almost ceased to frequent it
from the increasing insecurity of its territory. Besides the personal
loss to the prince the country suffers from the deterioration of the
commercial towns of Churu, Rajgarh, and Rani, which, as entrepôts,
supplied the country with the productions of Sind and the provinces
to the westward, or those of Gangetic India. Nor is this confined to
Bikaner; the same cause affects Jaisalmer, and the more eastern
principalities, whose misgovernment, equally with Bikaner, fosters
the spirit of rapine: the Maldots of Jaisalmer and the Larkhanis of
Jaipur are as notorious as the Bidawats of Bikaner; and to these may
be added the Sahariyas, Khosas, and Rajars, in the more western
desert, who, in their habits and principles, are as demoralized as the
Bedouins of Arabia.
Extent, Population, Soil, Tibas or Sandhills.—The line of
greatest breadth of this State extends from Pugal to Rajgarh, and
measures about one hundred and eighty miles; while the length
from north to south, between Bhatner and Mahajan, is about one
hundred and sixty miles: the area may not exceed twenty-two
thousand miles.[1] Formerly they reckoned two thousand seven
hundred towns, villages, and hamlets scattered over this space, one-
half of which are no longer in existence.
Population.—An estimate of the population of this arid region,
without presenting some data, would be very unsatisfactory. The
tract to the north-west of Jethpur is now perfectly desolate, and
nearly so from that point to Bhatner: to the north-east the
population is but scanty, which observation also applies to the parts
from the meridian of Bikaner to the Jaisalmer frontier; while
internally, from these points, it is more uniform, and equals the
northern parts of Marwar. From a census of the twelve principal
towns, with an estimate, furnished by well-informed inhabitants, of
the remainder, we may obtain a tolerably accurate approximation on
this point:
Chief Towns. Number of
Houses.
Bikaner 12,000
Nohar 2,500
Bahaduran 2,500
Reni 1,500
Rajgarh 3,000
Churu 3,000 [198]
Mahajan 800
Jethpur 1,000
Bidesar 500
Ratangarh 1,000
Desmukh 1,000
Senthal 50
28,850
100 villages, each having 20,000
200 houses
100 ” ” 150 ” 15,000
200 ” ” 100 ” 20,000
800 hamlets ” 30 24,000
each
Total number of houses 107,850
 Allowing five souls to each house, we have a total of 539,250
souls, giving an average of twenty-five to the square mile, which I
cannot think exaggerated, and making the desert regions depending
on Bikaner equal, in the density of population, the highlands of
Scotland.[2]
Of this population, full three-fourths are the aboriginal Jats; the
rest are their conquerors, descendants of Bika, including the
Saraswat Brahmans,[3] Charans, Bards, and a few of the debased
classes, whose numbers, conjointly, are not one-tenth of the
Rajputs.
Jats.—The Jats are the most wealthy as well as the most
numerous portion of the community. Many of the old Bhumia
landlords, representatives of their ancient communal heads, are men
of substance; but their riches are of no use to them, and to avoid
the rapacity of their government, they cover themselves with the
cloak of poverty, which is thrown aside only on nuptial festivities. On
these occasions they disinter their hoards, which are lavished with
unbounded extravagance. They even block up the highways to
collect visitors, whose numbers form the measure of the liberality
and munificence of the donor of the fête.
Sarsūt, Saraswat Brāhman.—Sarsut (properly Sarasvati)
Brahmans are found in considerable numbers throughout this tract.
They aver that they were masters of the country prior to the Jat
colonists. They are a peaceable, industrious race, and without a
single prejudice of ‘the order’; they eat meat, smoke tobacco,
cultivate the soil, and trade even in the sacred kine, notwithstanding
their descent from Sringi Rishi, son of Brahma.
Charans.—The Charans are the sacred order of these regions;
the warlike tribes esteem [199] the heroic lays of the bard more
than the homily of the Brahman. The Charans are throughout
reverenced by the Rathors, and hold lands, literally, on the tenure of
‘an old song.’ More will be said of them in the Annals of Jaisalmer.
Mālis, Nāis.—Malis, Nais, gardeners and barbers, are important
members of every Rajput family, and to be found in all the villages,
of which they are invariably the cooks.
Chuhras, Thoris.—Chuhras, Thoris, are actually castes of
robbers:[4] the former, from the Lakhi Jungle; the latter, from Mewar.
Most of the chieftains have a few in their pay, entertained for the
most desperate services. The Bahaduran chief has expelled all his
Rajputs, and retains only Chuhras and Thoris. The Chuhras are
highly esteemed for fidelity, and the barriers and portals throughout
this tract are in their custody. They enjoy a very singular perquisite,
which would go far to prove their being the aborigines of the
country; namely, a fee of four copper coins on every dead subject,
when the funeral ceremonies are over.
Rājputs.—The Rathors of Bikaner are unchanged in their martial
qualifications, bearing as high a reputation as any other class in
India; and whilst their brethren of Marwar, Amber, and Mewar have
been for years groaning under the rapacious visitations of Mahrattas
and Pathans, their distance and the difficulties of the country have
saved them from such afflictions; though, in truth, they have had
enough to endure at home, in the tyranny of their own lord. The
Rathors of the desert have fewer prejudices than their more eastern
brethren; they will eat food, without enquiring by whom it was
dressed, and will drink either wine or water, without asking to whom
the cup belonged. They would make the best soldiers in the world if
they would submit to discipline, as they are brave, hardy, easily
satisfied, and very patient; though, on the other hand, they have
imbibed some qualities, since their migration to these regions, which
could only be eradicated in the rising generation: especially the
inordinate use of opium, and smoking intoxicating herbs, in both
which accomplishments ‘the sons of Bika’ are said to bear the palm
from the rest of the Chhattis rajkula, the Thirty-six Royal Tribes of
India. The piyala, or ‘cup,’ is a favourite with every Rajput who can
afford it, and is, as well as opium, a panacea for ennui, arising from
the absence of all mental stimulants, in which they are more
deficient, from the nature of the country, than most of their warlike
countrymen.
Face of the Country.—The whole of this principality, with the
exception of a few isolated spots, or oases, scattered here and
there, consists more or less of sand. From the eastern to the
western boundary, in the line of greatest breadth, it is one
continuous [200] plain of sand, though the tibas, or sandhills,
commence in the centre of the country, the principal chain running
in the direction of Jaisalmer, and shooting forth subordinate
branches in every direction; or it might be more correct to designate
this main ridge, originating in the tracts bordering the eastern valley
of the Indus, as terminating its elevations about the heart of Bikaner.
On the north-east quarter, from Rajgarh to Nohar and Rawatsar, the
soil is good, being black earth, slightly mixed with sand, and having
water near enough to the surface for irrigation; it produces wheat,
gram, and even rice, in considerable quantities. The same soil exists
from Bhatner to the banks of the Gara. The whole of the Mohila tract
is a fertile oasis, the tibas just terminating their extreme offsets on
its northern limit: being flooded in the periodical rains, wheat is
abundantly produced.
Products of the Desert.—But exclusive of such spots, which are
“few and far between,” we cannot describe the desert as a waste
where “no salutary plant takes root, no verdure quickens”; for
though the poverty of the soil refuses to aid the germination of the
more luxuriant grains, Providence has provided a countervailing
good, in giving to those it can rear a richness and superiority
unknown to more favoured regions. The bajra of the desert is far
superior to any grown in the rich loam of Malwa, and its inhabitant
retains an instinctive partiality, even when admitted to revel in the
luxurious repasts of Mewar or Amber, for the vatis or batis or ‘bajra
cakes,’ of his native sandhills, and not more from association than
from their intrinsic excellence. In a plentiful season they save
enough for two years’ consumption. The grain requires not much
water, though it is of the last importance that this little should be
timely.
Besides bajra we may mention moth and til;[5] the former a useful
pulse both for men and cattle; the other the oil-plant, used both for
culinary purposes and burning. Wheat, gram, and barley are
produced in the favoured spots described, but in these are
enumerated the staple products of Bikaner.
Cotton is grown in the tracts favourable for wheat.[6] The plant is
said to be septennial, even decennial, in these regions. As soon as
the cotton is gathered, the shoots are all cut off, and the root alone
left. Each succeeding year, the plant increases in strength, and at
length attains a size unknown where it is more abundantly
cultivated.
Nature has bountifully supplied many spontaneous vegetable
products for the use of man, and excellent pasture for cattle. Guar,
Kachri, Kakri, all of the cucurbitaceous family, and water-melons of a
gigantic size, are produced in great plenty.[7] The latter is most
valuable; for being cut in slices and dried in the sun, it is stored up
[201] for future use when vegetables are scarce, or in times of
famine, on which they always calculate. It is also an article of
commerce, and much admired even where vegetables are more
abundant. The copious mucilage of the dried melon is extremely
nourishing; and deeming it valuable as an anti-scorbutic in sea
voyages, the Author sent some of it to Calcutta many years ago for
experiment.[8] Our Indian ships would find no difficulty in obtaining a
plentiful supply of this article, as it can be cultivated to any extent,
and thus be made to confer a double benefit on our seamen and the
inhabitants of those desert regions. The superior magnitude of the
water-melons of the desert over those of interior India gives rise to
much exaggeration, and it has been gravely asserted by travellers in
the sand tibas,[9] where they are most abundant, that the mucilage
of one is sufficient to allay the thirst both of a horse and his rider.
In these arid regions, where they depend entirely on the heavens
for water, and where they calculate on a famine every seventh year,
nothing that can administer to the wants of man is lost. The seeds of
the wild grasses, as the bharut, baru, harara, sawan, are collected,
and, mixed with bajra-flour, enter much into the food of the poorer
classes. They also store up great quantities of the wild ber, khair,
and karel berries; and the long pods of the khejra, astringent and
bitter as they are, are dried and formed into a flour. Nothing is lost in
these regions which can be converted into food.
Trees.—Trees they have none indigenous (mangoes and tamarind
are planted about the capital), but abundant shrubs, as the babul,
and ever-green pilu, the jhal, and others yielding berries. The
Bidawats, indeed, apply the term ‘tree’ to the rohira, which
sometimes attains the height of twenty feet, and is transported to all
parts for house-building; as likewise is the nima, so well known
throughout India. The phog is the most useful of all these, as with
its twigs they frame a wicker-work to line their wells, and prevent
the sand from falling in.
The ak, a species of euphorbia, known in Hindustan as the madar,
grows to an immense height and strength in the desert; from its
fibres they make the ropes in general use throughout these regions,
and they are reckoned superior, both in substance and durability, to
those formed of munj (hemp), which is however cultivated in the
lands of the Bidawats.
Their agricultural implements are simple and suited to the soil.
The plough is one [202] of single yoke, either for the camel or ox:
that with double yoke being seldom required, or chiefly by the Malis
(gardeners), when the soil is of some consistence. The drill is
invariably used, and the grains are dropped singly into the ground,
at some distance from each other, and each sends forth a dozen to
twenty stalks. A bundle of bushes forms their harrow. The grain is
trodden out by oxen; and the moth (pulse), which is even more
productive than the bajra, by camels.
Water.—This indispensable element is at an immense distance
from the surface throughout the Indian desert, which, in this
respect, as well as many others, differs very materially from that
portion of the great African Desert in the same latitudes. Water at
twenty feet, as found at Mourzook by Captain Lyon, is here unheard
of, and the degree of cold experienced by him at Zuela, on the
winter solstice, would have “burnt up” every natural and cultivated
production of our Hindu Sahara. Captain Lyon describes the
thermometer in lat. 26°, within 2° of zero of Reaumur. Majors
Denham and Clapperton never mark it under 40° of Fahrenheit, and
mention ice, which I never saw but once, the thermometer being
28°; and then not only the mouths of our mashaks, or ‘water-skins,’
were frozen, but a small pond, protected from the wind (I heard, for
I saw it not), exhibited a very thin pellicle of ice. When at 30° the
cold was deemed intense by the inhabitants of Maru in the tracts
limiting the desert, and the useful ak, and other shrubs, were
scorched and withered; and in north lat. 25°, the thermometer being
28°, desolation and woe spread throughout the land. To use their
own phrase, the crops of gram and other pulses were completely
“burnt up, as if scorched by the lightnings of heaven”; while the
sun’s meridian heat would raise it 50° more, or up to 80°, a degree
of variability at least not recorded by Captain Lyon.
At Deshnokh,[10] near the capital, the wells are more than two
hundred cubits, or three hundred feet, in depth; and it is rare that
water fit for man is found at a less distance from the surface than
sixty, in the tracts decidedly termed thal, or ‘desert’: though some of
the flats, or oases, such as that of Mohila, are exceptions, and
abundance of brackish water, fit for cattle, is found throughout at
half this depth, or about thirty feet. All the wells are lined with
basket-work made of phog twigs, and the water is generally drawn
up by hand-lines [203].[11]
Sar, or ‘Salt Lakes.’—There are a few salt lakes, which,
throughout the whole of the Indian desert, are termed sar, though
none are of the same consequence as those of Marwar. The largest
is at the town of Sar,[12] so named after the lake, which is about six
miles in circumference. There is another at Chhapar about two miles
in length, and although each of them frequently contains a depth of
four feet of water, this entirely evaporates in the hot winds, leaving a
thick sheet of saline incrustation. The salt of both is deemed of
inferior quality to that of the more southerly lakes.
Physiography of the Country.—There is little to vary the
physiography of this region, and small occasion to boast either of its
physical or moral beauties; yet, strange to say, I have met with
many whose love of country was stronger than their perceptions of
abstract veracity, who would dwell on its perfections, and prefer a
mess of rabri, or porridge made of bajra, to the greater delicacies of
more civilized regions. To such, the tibas, or ‘sand-ridges,’ might be
more important than the Himalaya, and their diminutive and scanty
brushwood might eclipse the gigantic foliage of this huge barrier.
Verdure itself may be abhorrent to eyes accustomed to behold only
arid sands; and a region without tufans or ‘whirlwinds’; or armies of
locusts rustling like a tempest, and casting long shadows on the
lands, might be deemed by the prejudiced, deficient in the true
sublime. Occasionally the sandstone formation rises above the
surface, resembling a few low isolated hills; and those who dwell on
the boundaries of Nagor, if they have a love of more decided
elevations than their native sandhills afford, may indulge in a distant
view of the terminations of the Aravalli.
Mineral Productions.—The mineral productions of this country
are scanty. They have excellent quarries of freestone in several
parts, especially at Hasera, thirteen coss to the north-east of the
capital, which yield a small revenue estimated at two thousand
rupees annually. There are also copper mines at Biramsar and
Bidesar; but the former does not repay the expense of working, and
the latter, having been worked for thirty years, is nearly exhausted.
An unctuous clay is excavated from a pit, near Kolait, in large
quantities, and exported as an article of commerce, besides adding
fifteen hundred rupees annually to the treasury. It is used chiefly to
free the skin and hair from impurities, and the Cutchi ladies are said
to eat it to improve their complexions.[13]
Animal Productions.—The kine of the desert are highly
esteemed; as are the camels, especially those used for expedition
and the saddle, which bear a high price,[14] and are [204] considered
superior to any in India. They are beautifully formed, and the head
possesses much blood and symmetry. Sheep are reared in great
abundance, and find no want of food in the excellent grasses and
shrubs which abound. The phog, jawas,[15] and other prickly shrubs,
which are here indigenous, form the dainties of the camel in other
regions. The Nilgae, or elk, and deer of every kind, are plentiful; and
the fox of the desert is a beautiful little animal. Jackals and hyaenas
are not scarce, and even lions are by no means unknown in Bikaner.
Commerce and Manufactures.—Rajgarh[16] was the great
commercial mart of this country, and the point of rendezvous for
caravans from all parts. The produce of the Panjab and Kashmir
came formerly direct by Hansi-Hisar—that of the eastern countries
by Delhi, Rewari, Dadri, etc., consisting of silks, fine cloths, indigo,
sugar, iron, tobacco, etc.; from Haraoti and Malwa came opium,
which supplied all the Rajput States; from Sind, via Jaisalmer, and by
caravans from Multan and Shikarpur, dates, wheat, rice, lungis (silk
vestments for women), fruits, etc.; from Pali, the imports from
maritime countries, as spices, tin, drugs, coco-nuts, elephants’ teeth,
etc. Much of this was for internal consumption, but the greater part
a mere transit trade, which yielded considerable revenue.
Woollens.—The wool of the sheep pastured in the desert is,
however, the staple commodity both of manufacture and trade in
this region. It is worked into every article of dress, both male and
female, and worn by all, rich and poor. It is produced from the loom,
of every texture and quality, from the coarse loi or ‘blanket,’ at three
rupees per pair (six shillings), to thirty rupees. The quality of these
last is very fine, of an intermediate texture between the shawl and
camlet, and without any nap; it is always bordered with a stripe of
chocolate brown or red. Of this quality are the dopattas or ‘scarfs’
for the ladies. Turbans are also manufactured of it, and though
frequently from forty to sixty-one feet in length, such is the fineness
of the web, that they are not bulky on the head.
From the milk of the sheep and goats as well as kine, ghi or
‘clarified butter’ is made, and forms an important article of trade.
Manufactures in Iron.—The Bikaneris work well in iron, and
have shops at the capital and all the large towns for the
manufacture of sword blades, matchlocks, daggers, iron lances, etc.
The sword-handles, which are often inlaid with variegated steel, or
burnished, are in high request, and exported to various parts of
India. They have also expert artists in ivory, though the articles are
chiefly such as are worn by females, as churis, or ‘bracelets’ [205].
Coarse cotton cloths, for internal consumption, are made in
considerable quantities.
Fairs.—Annual fairs were held, in the months of Karttik and
Phalgun, at the towns of Kolait and Gajner,[17] and frequented by the
merchants of the adjacent countries. They were celebrated for
cattle, chiefly the produce of the desert, camels, kine, and horses
from Multan and the Lakhi Jungle,[18] a breed now almost extinct.
These fairs have lost all their celebrity; in fact, commerce in these
regions is extinct.
Government Revenues.—The personal revenues of the Raja
were derived from a variety of sources: from the Khalisa, or ‘crown-
lands’ imposts, taxes on agriculture, and that compendious item
which makes up the deficiencies in all oriental budgets, dand, or
‘contribution.’ But with all these “appliances and means to boot,” the
civil list of this desert king seldom exceeded five lakhs of rupees, or
about £50,000 per annum.[19] The lands of the feudality are more
extensive proportionally in this region than in any other in
Rajputana, arising out of the original settlement, when the Bidawats
and Kandhalots, whose joint acquisitions exceeded those of Bika,
would not admit him to hold lands in their territory, and made but a
slight pecuniary acknowledgment of his supremacy. The districts in
which the crown-lands lie are Rajgarh, Reni, Nohar, Gharib,
Ratangarh, Rania, and more recently Churu.
The following are the items of the revenue: (1) Khalisa, or fiscal
revenue; (2) Dhuan; (3) Anga; (4) Town and transit duties; (5)
Paseti, or ‘plough-tax’; (6) Malba.
Khālisa Lands.—1. The fisc. Formerly this branch of revenue
yielded two lakhs of rupees; but with progressive superstition and
prodigality, the raja has alienated almost two-thirds of the villages
from which the revenue was drawn. These amounted to two
hundred; now they do not exceed eighty, and their revenue is not
more than one lakh of rupees. Surat Singh is guided only by caprice;
his rewards are uniform, no matter what the service or the object,
whether a Brahman or a camel-driver. The Khalisa is the only source
which he considers he has merely a life-interest in. To supply the
deficiencies, he has direct recourse to the pockets of his subjects.
Hearth-Tax.—2. Dhuan may be rendered hearth-tax, though
literally it is a smoke (dhuan) tax. All must eat; food must be
dressed; and as they have neither chimneys nor glass windows on
which to lay the tax, Surat Singh’s chancellor of the exchequer
makes the smoke pay a transit duty ere it gets vent from the various
orifices of the edifice. It only amounts to one rupee on each house
or family, but would form an important item if not evaded by the
powerful chiefs; still it yields a lakh of rupees. The town [206] of
Mahajan, which was settled on Ratan Singh, son of Raja Nunkaran,
on the resignation of his right of primogeniture and succession,
enjoys exemption from this tax. It is less liable to fluctuation than
other taxes, for if a village becomes half-deserted, those who remain
are saddled with the whole. Dhuan is only known to the two western
States, Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
Poll-Tax.—3. Anga. This is not a capitation but a body tax (from
anga, the body), and was established by Raja Anup Singh. It might
almost be termed a property-tax, since it embraced quadrupeds as
well as bipeds of every sex and age, and was graduated according to
age and sex in the human species, and according to utility in the
brute. Each male adult was assessed one anga, fixed at four annas
(about sixpence), and cows, oxen, buffaloes, were placed upon a
level with the lord of the creation. Ten goats or sheep were
estimated as one anga; but a camel was equivalent to four angas, or
one rupee, which Raja Gaj Singh doubled. This tax, which is by far
the most certain in a country perhaps still more pastoral than
agricultural, is most providently watched, and though it has
undergone many changes since it was originally imposed, it yet
yields annually two lakhs of rupees.
4. Sāīr, or ‘imposts.’ This branch is subject to much fluctuation,
and has diminished greatly since the reign of Surat Singh. The duties
levied in the capital alone formerly exceeded what is collected
throughout the whole of his dominions; being once estimated at
above two lakhs, and now under one. Of this amount, half is
collected at Rajgarh, the chief commercial mart of Bikaner. The
dread of the Rahats, who have cut off the communications with the
Panjab, and the want of principle within, deter merchants from
visiting this State, and the caravans from Multan, Bahawalpur, and
Shikarpur, which passed through Bikaner to the eastern States, have
nearly abandoned the route. The only duties of which he is certain
are those on grain, of four rupees on every hundred maunds sold or
exported, and which, according to the average sale price of these
regions, may be about two per cent.
Paseti.—5. Paseti is a tax of five[20] rupees on every plough used
in agriculture. It was introduced by Raja Rae Singh, in commutation
of the corn-tax, or levy in kind, which had long been established at
one-fourth of the gross produce. The Jats were glad to compound,
and get rid of the agents of corruption, by the substitution of the
plough-tax. It formerly yielded two lakhs of rupees, but with
decreasing agriculture has fallen, like every other source, to a little
more than one-half, but still yields a lakh and a quarter.
Malba.—6. Malba[21] is the name of the original tax which the Jat
communities imposed [207] upon themselves, when they submitted
to the sway in perpetuity of Bika and his successors. It is the land-
tax[22] of two rupees on each hundred bighas of land cultivated in
Bikaner. It is now unproductive, not realizing fifty thousand rupees,
and it is said that a composition has been effected, by which it has
been, or will be, relinquished: if so, Surat Singh gives up the sole
legitimate source of revenue he possesses.
Recapitulation
1. Khalisa, or fisc[23] Rs.
100,000
2. Dhuan 100,000
3. Anga 200,000
[24]
4. Sair, imposts 75,000
5. Paseti, plough-tax 125,000
6. Malba, land-tax 50,000
Total 650,000
Besides this, the fullest amount arising to the prince from annual
taxation, there are other items which occasionally replenish the
treasure of Surat Singh.
Datoi.—Datoi is a triennial tax of five rupees levied on each
plough.[25] It was instituted by Raja Zorawar Singh. The whole
country is liable to it, with the exception of fifty villages in
Asaichwati, and seventy of the Beniwals, conditionally exempted, to
guard the borders. It is now frequently evaded by the feudal
chieftains, and seldom yields a lakh of rupees.
In addition to these specific expedients, there are many arbitrary
methods of increasing the “ways and means” to satisfy the
necessities or avarice of the present ruler, and [208] a train of
dependent harpies, who prey upon the cultivating peasantry, or
industrious trader. By such shifts, Surat Singh has been known to
double his fixed revenue.
Dand, Khushhali.—The terms Dand and Khushhali, though
etymologically the antipodes of each other—the first meaning a
‘compulsory contribution,’ the other a ‘benevolence, or voluntary,’[26]
—have a similar interpretation in these regions, and make the
subjects of those parts devoutly pray that their prince’s house may
be one rather of mourning than rejoicing, and that defeat rather
than victory may be attendant on his arms.
The term dand is coeval with Hindu legislation. The bard Chand
describes it, and the chronicler of the life of the great Siddhraj of
Anhilwara, “who expelled the seven Daddas,” or ‘great evils,’ whose
initial letter was d, enumerates dand as one of them, and places it
with the Dholis and Dakins, or minstrels and witches, giving it
precedence amongst the seven plagues which his ancestors and
tyrant custom had inflicted on the subject. Unhappily, there is no
Siddhraj to legislate for Rajputana; and were there fourteen Daddas
by which Surat Singh could swell his budget, he would retain them
all for the oppression of the impoverished Jats, who, if they could,
would be happy to expel the letter S from amongst them. But it is
from the chieftain, the merchant, and the banker that the chief sums
are realized; though indirectly the poor peasant contributes his
share. There are fourteen collectors of dand,[27] one to every chira or
division, and these are furnished with arbitrary schedules according
to the circumstances, actual or supposed, of each individual. So
unlimited are these exactions, that the chief of Gandeli for two years
offered the collector of his quarter ten thousand rupees if he would
guarantee him against any further demand during even twelve
months; and being refused, he turned the collector out, shut the
gates of his castle, and boldly bid his master defiance.
One of his expedients to levy a khushhali, or ‘benevolence,’ is
worth relating: it was on the termination of his expedition against
Bhatner, which added this celebrated desert and castle to his
territory, and in which he was attended by the entire feudal army of
Bikaner. On his return, “flushed with conquest,” he demanded from
each house throughout his dominions the sum of ten rupees to cover
the expenses of the war. If the tyrant-ridden subjects of Surat Singh
thus rejoice in his successes, how must they feel for his defeats! To
them both are alike ominous, when every [209] artifice is welcomed,
every villainy practised, to impoverish them. Oppression is at its
height, and must work out its own cure.
Feudal Levies.—The disposable force of all these feudal
principalities must depend on the personal character of the Raja. If
Surat Singh were popular, and the national emergencies demanded
the assemblage of the Kher, or levée en masse, of the “sons of Bika,”
he might bring ten thousand Rajputs into the field, of whom twelve
hundred might be good horse, besides the foreign troops and park;
but under present circumstances, and the rapid deterioration of
every branch of society, it may be doubted whether one-half could
be collected under his standard.
The household troops consist of a battalion of foreign infantry, of
five hundred men with five guns, and three squadrons of horse,
about two hundred and fifty in number; all under foreign leaders.
This is independent of the garrison of the capital, whose
commandant is a Rajput of the Parihar tribe, who has twenty-five
villages assigned for the payment of his troops.[28]
Schedule exhibiting the Fiefs of Bikaner.
Names of Places of Retainers:
Clans. Revenue. Remarks.
Chieftains. Abode. Foot. Horse.
Behri Sal Bika Mahajan 40,000 5,000 100 One hundred
and forty
villages,
attached to this
fief, settled on
the heir of Raja
Nunkaran, who
consequently
forfeited the
gaddi. The first
of the chiefs of
Bikaner.
Abhai Singh Benirot Bhukarka 25,000 5,000 200
Anup Singh Bika Jasana 5,000 400 40
Pem Singh Do. Bai 5,000 400 25
Chain Singh Benirot Sawa 20,000 2,000 300
Himmat Rawat Rawatsar 20,000 2,000 300
Singh
Sheo Singh Benirot Churu 25,000 2,000 200
Ummed Bidesar One hundred
Singh and forty kothri
Bidawat 50,000 10,000 2,000 (families, lit.
Jeth Singh Sondwa chambers) of
this class.
Bahadur Bidesar
Singh
Suraj Mall Tendesar
Narnot 40,000 4,000 500
Guman Katar
Singh
Atai Singh Kachor
Sher Singh Narnot Nimbaj 5,000 500 125
Devi Sidmukh
Singh
Ummed Karipura
Singh Narnot 20,000 5,000 400
Surthan Ajitpura
Singh
Karnidhan Beasar
Surthan Kachhwaha Nainawas 4,000 150 30 These two fiefs
Singh are held by
Padam Panwar Jethsisar 5,000 200 100 foreign nobles of
Singh the house of
Amber, and the
Kishan Bika Hayadesar 5,000 200 50 ancient Pramara
Singh (vulg. Panwar).
Rao Singh Bhatti Pugal[29] 6,000 1,500 40 The fief of Pugal
Sultan Do. Rajasar 1,500 200 50 was wrested
Singh from the Bhattis
of Jaisalmer.
Laktir Singh Do. Raner 2,000 400 75
Karnai Do. Satasar 1,100 200 9
Singh
Bhum Singh Do. Chakara 1,500 60 4

Four
Chieftains,
[30] viz.
 1. Bhoni Bhatti Bichnok 1,500 60 6
Singh
2. Zalim Do. Gariala 1,100 40 4
Singh
3. Sardar Do. Surjara 800 30 2
Singh
4. Khet Do. Randisar 600 32 2
Singh

Chand Karamsot Nokha 11,000 1,500 500 Twenty-seven

Singh villages
dependent on
this family from
Satidan Rupawat Badila 5,000 200 25
Jodhpur, and
Bhum Singh Bhatti Janglu 2,500 400 9 settled here
eleven years.
Ketsi Do. Jaminsar 15,000 500 150 Twenty-seven
villages.
Isari Singh Mandla Sarunda 11,000 2,000 150
Padam Bhatti Kudsu 1,500 60 4
Singh
Kalyan Do. Nainea 1,000 40 2
Singh
Total 332,100 44,072 5,402 [210]
If ever the whole feudal array of Bikaner amounted to this, it
would assuredly be found difficult now, were the ban proclaimed, to
assemble one-fourth of this number [211].