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Picture Fuzzy Logic and Its
Applications in Decision
Making Problems
Advanced Studies in Complex Systems:
Theory and Applications
Series Editors: Valentina Emilia Balas, Dumitru Baleanu and Hemen Dutta
Picture Fuzzy Logic and Its
Applications in Decision
Making Problems
Chiranjibe Jana
Department of Applied Mathematics with Oceanology and Computer
Programming
Vidyasagar University
Midnapore, West Bengal, India

Madhumangal Pal
Department of Applied Mathematics with Oceanology and Computer
Programming
Vidyasagar University
Midnapore, West Bengal, India

Valentina Emilia Balas

Department of Automatics and Applied Software
Faculty of Engineering
Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad
Arad, Romania

Ronald R. Yager
Iona College
Machine Intelligence Institute
New Rochelle, NY, United States
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Contents

1. Introduction to picture fuzzy sets and operators 1

1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Preliminaries 3
1.3. Relation on picture fuzzy set 13
1.4. Picture fuzzy graph 15
1.5. Arithmetics on picture fuzzy set 18
1.6. Ordering of PFN 19
1.7. Similarity measures between picture fuzzy sets 20
1.8. Convex combination of picture fuzzy sets 23
1.9. Picture fuzzy averaging operators 25
1.10. Implication operator on picture fuzzy set 27
1.11. Topological operators on picture fuzzy set 30
1.12. Dombi operations on PFNs 32
1.13. Picture fuzzy Dombi aggregation operator 35
1.14. Conclusion 42
References 42

2. Picture fuzzy hybrid weighted operators and their application

in the decision-making process 47
2.1. Introduction 47
2.2. Preliminaries 48
2.3. Aggregation operators with PFN information 49
2.4. Interval-valued picture fuzzy approach 57
2.5. MCDM based on the proposed operators 60
2.6. Sensitivity analysis for the parameter γ 66
v
vi Contents

2.7. Conclusion 67
References 68

3. Multicriteria group decision-making process based on a

picture fuzzy soft parameterized environment 71
3.1. Introduction 71
3.2. Basic concept of PFSS and PFSN 72
3.3. Picture fuzzy soft weighted average operators 74
3.4. Model for MCGDM method using picture fuzzy soft
information 85
3.5. Case study 86
3.6. Comparative studies 88
3.7. Advantages of the approach 90
3.8. Conclusions 91
References 91

4. Picture fuzzy Dombi operators and their applications in

multiattribute decision-making processes 95
4.1. Introduction 95
4.2. Preliminaries 96
4.3. Picture fuzzy Dombi weighted average operators 97
4.4. Picture fuzzy Dombi weighted geometric operators 105
4.5. The MADM model based on PFN 108
4.6. Numerical results 109
4.7. Analysis on the effect of parameter  on decision making
results 111
4.8. Comparative analysis 111
4.9. Conclusions 112
References 112

5. Picture fuzzy Dombi prioritized operators and their

application in decision-making processes 115
 Contents vii

5.1. Introduction 115

5.2. Preliminaries 116
5.3. Picture fuzzy Dombi prioritized weighted arithmetic
aggregation operators 117
5.4. Picture fuzzy Dombi prioritized geometric aggregation
operators 123
5.5. Model for MADM using picture fuzzy Dombi operator 129
5.6. Numerical example and comparative analysis 130
5.7. Analysis on the effect of parameter  on decision making
results 132
5.8. Comparative analysis 133
5.9. Conclusions 135
References 135

6. Picture fuzzy power Dombi operators and their utilization in

decision-making problems 137
6.1. Introduction 137
6.2. Basic definitions and terminologies 138
6.3. Picture fuzzy power Dombi averaging operators 139
6.4. Dombi power geometric AOs with PFNs 146
6.5. MADM approach for PFNs 151
6.6. Case study and comparative analysis 153
6.7. Conclusion 156
References 157

7. m-Polar picture fuzzy Dombi operators and their applications

in multicriteria decision-making processes 159
7.1. Introduction 159
7.2. Preliminaries 160
7.3. Dombi operations on mPFNs 162
7.4. mPoPFN Dombi arithmetic operators 164
viii Contents

7.5. mPoPFN Dombi geometric operators 170

7.6. Model for MADM using mPoPF data 177
7.7. Numerical example 178
7.8. Conclusion 181
References 182

8. Picture fuzzy MABAC approach and its application in

multi-attribute group decision-making processes 185
8.1. Introduction 185
8.2. Some results of picture fuzzy sets 186
8.3. Conventional MABAC model 187
8.4. MABAC model with PFNs 189
8.5. Case study 190
8.6. Compare PFNs MABAC approach with some PFNs operators 193
8.7. Conclusions 193
References 194

9. Linear programming problem in a picture fuzzy environment 197

9.1. Introduction 197
9.2. Preliminaries 198
9.3. Some results 204
9.4. Methodology for solving FPFLPP with LR flat PFNs 210
9.5. Numerical example of FPFLPP 214
9.6. Conclusions 219
References 219

10. Multiobjective linear programming problem in a picture

fuzzy environment 221
10.1. Introduction 221
10.2. Preliminaries 223
10.3. Multiobjective linear programming problem 225
 Contents ix

10.4. Picture fuzzy multiobjective linear programming problem 229

10.5. Application of PFMOLPP 233
10.6. Conclusion 238
References 239

11. Picture fuzzy goal programming problem 241

11.1. Introduction 241
11.2. Preliminaries 244
11.3. Picture fuzzy goal programming problem 246
11.4. An application of picture fuzzy goal programming in the
recycling process of plastic 256
11.5. Conclusion 259
References 259

12. Picture fuzzy linear assignment problem and its application

in multicriteria group decision-making problems 261
12.1. Introduction 261
12.2. Preliminaries 262
12.3. Linear assignment method on picture fuzzy set 264
12.4. An application to a sponge iron factory location selection 269
12.5. Conclusions 274
References 274

Index 277
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Introduction to picture fuzzy sets
and operators

1.1 Introduction
Fuzzy sets (FSs) are essential for describing uncertain, insufficient, or erroneous informa-
tion. However, FSs are incompetent when they do not understand membership degrees.
Then, in 1986, Atanassov [2] created intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs), which are made up of
an element’s membership and nonmembership degrees. IFSs have received a lot of atten-
tion recently and are frequently used to solve problems involving multicriteria decision
making (MCDM). These theories have received much attention from researchers in recent
years and have been successfully applied to various real-world contexts, including decision
making, pattern recognition, medical diagnosis, and clustering analysis [21,22,37]. Also,
during the information-fusion process, weighted and ordered weighted aggregation oper-
ators [68,69] play a crucial role in aggregating all of the performance of the criteria for alter-
natives. For aggregating the various intuitionistic fuzzy numbers in that direction, Xu and
Yager [65] offered a geometric aggregation operator, and Xu [66] presented a weighted aver-
aging operator (IFNs). Moreover, Garg [23] suggested a number of interactive aggregation
operations for IFNs. Using Einstein’s t-norm and t-conorm operations, Garg [21] presented
a generalized intuitionistic fuzzy interactive geometric aggregation operator. Wang and Liu
[54] expanded these operators by employing Einstein norm operations in an IFS setting.
To rank the IVIFS, Garg [24] presented a generalized enhanced score function. The intu-
itionistic fuzzy Einstein Choquet integral-based operators for decision-making issues were
introduced by Xu et al. [67]. Wan et al. [60] provided a strategy for combining the various
IVIF numbers with insufficient attribute weight in order to address the decision-making
issues. Other than that, numerous MCDM approaches, including Elimination and Choice
Expressing Reality (ELECTRE), Weighted Aggregated Sum Product Assessment (WASPAS)
[72], Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) [29,34],
TODIM [36], and VIKOR [20], have been proposed to handle MCDM problems.
The concept of neutrosophic (NS) sets developed by Smarandache [43,44] is a general
platform that extends the concepts of the classical set and FS [71], IFS [2,15] and IVIFS [4].
In contrast to IFS and IVIFS [15,16], the indeterminacy is characterized explicitly in a neu-
trosophic set. A neutrosophic set has three basic components such as truth membership
(T), indeterminacy membership (I), and falsity membership (F), which are defined inde-
pendently of one another. However, a neutrosophic set will be more challenging to apply
in real scientific and engineering fields. Therefore Wang et al. proposed the concept of a
single-valued neutrosophic set (SVNS) and an interval neutrosophic set (INS), which are an
Picture Fuzzy Logic and Its Applications in Decision Making Problems. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-44-322024-1.00005-4 1
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2 Picture Fuzzy Logic and Its Applications in Decision Making Problems

instance of a neutrosophic set, and provide the set-theoretic operators and various proper-
ties of SVNSs and INSs. SVNSs present uncertainty, imprecise, inconsistent and incomplete
information existing in the real world. Also, handling indeterminate and inconsistent in-
formation would be more suitable. Although SVNS and INS have been successfully applied
in different areas, there are some real-life situations that SVNS or INS cannot represent.
For instance, in the case of voting, human opinions involving more answers of the types:
yes, abstain, no, refusal, cannot be accurately represented in a neutrosophic environment.
Also, if an expert takes an opinion from a certain person about a certain object, then a
person may say that 0.3 is the possibility that the statement is true, 0.4 says that the state-
ment is false, and 0.2 says that he or she is unsure of it. This issue is also not handled by
the neutrosophic environment. Thus handling this situation, Cuong [8,11,12] introduced
picture fuzzy set (PFS) as a new concept of computational intelligence problems, which
is characterized by three functions expressing the degree of membership, the degree of
neutral membership, and the degree of the nonmembership. Some authors are currently
working on specific issues that arise in the PFSs context. Singh [47] provided a correlation
coefficient for the PFS. In order to overcome the clustering problem in an image-fuzzy en-
vironment, Son [50] introduced a generalized picture distance measure. Wei [61] provided
a strategy for ranking the various options that were based on the picture fuzzy weighted
crossentropy. Currently, studies on PFSs and their extensions mainly concentrate on the
measures and aggregation operators and their application to MCDM problems and clus-
tering analysis. Peng [40] has developed risk management-based multiattribute decision
making (MADM) in PFSs. Later, a PFS analog decision-making measure was calculated by
Son [51]. In the same environment, Thong [52] implemented picture composite cardinal-
ity and swarm optimization methods for automatic clustering. Selection of risk ranking
for energy performance of a contracting project was based on a PFS and a novel MCDM
model executed by Wang et al. [55]. In [56], Wang et al. proposed the MCDM method for
calculating financial investment risk based on PFS Muirhead mean operators. Risk evalu-
ation of construction project selection problems based on a normalized projection-based
VIKOR model has been introduced by Wang et al. [57]. Wang et al. [58] have applied the PFS
MCDM method to select a project building energy-efficiency retrofit. Later, the geometric
aggregation-based-MADM method was introduced by Wang et al. [59]. Wei [62] has pro-
posed PFS aggregation-based MADM. Again, Wei and others [64] focused on developing a
projection-based PFS MADM model. Later, Zhang et al. [73] provided a distanced-based
average solution for the MCGDM method under a picture 2-tuple linguistic environment.
Picture 2-tuple linguistic aggregation operators based MCDM have been developed by
Zhang et al. [74]. Tian et al. [53] studied the notion of a weighted PFS Choquet integral
approach under a fuzzy Shapley measure and a power operator and developed these in
connection with the MCDM problems. Luo and Zhang [35] utilized PFS in a new similarity
measure. Then, Jana et al. [30] used Dombi operators to study MADM in a PFS environ-
ment. Singh and Kumar [46] proposed a new frame of the MCDM method for developing
quality deployment under PFS. Haktanır and Kahraman [27] used CRITIC and REGIME
methodology under PFS to the application of wearable health technology. Later, Haktanır
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to picture fuzzy sets and operators 3

and Kahraman [26] studied the defender–challenger problem for intelligent replacement
analysis under PFS. Zhao et al. [76] developed the effective and failure model under the
framework of flexible knowledge acquisition using the PFS argument. Jana and Pal [31]
developed an enterprise-performance evaluation method using the PFS-Hamacher oper-
ator. Jan et al. [32] proposed to study generative adversarial network problems in complex
PFS soft environments. Quality service transport-provider selection problems have been
introduced by Gündoǧdu et al. [25] under PFS-AHP and a linear assessment model. Singh
and Ganie [49] used PFS similarity to apply the MADM pattern recognition and cluster-
ing model. Simic et al. [45] studied shredding facility location selection problems under
the extended picture fuzzy CODAS MCDM method. Recently, Peng et al. [41] studied trust-
relation-based social network problems in the PFS group decision-making method. A PFS
distance and similarity measure has been developed for application with a complete lat-
tice structure by Jin et al. [33].

1.2 Preliminaries
In this section, we annotate some essential ideas of PFSs of the universe. In a fuzzy set Ã,
only the membership values of the members are considered. This membership value say
μ, 0 ≤ μ ≤ 1, indicates the belongingness of an element x to the set Ã. It does not mean
that 1 − μ represents the degree of nonbelongingness of the element x to the set Ã. If it
happens for all elements of Ã, then a fuzzy set is sufficient to explain all the nonrandom un-
certainties. However, this is not possible for all types of nonrandom uncertainties. Hence,
Atanassov [2] incorporated the concept of the nonmembership value of an element to the
set à and hence IFS is defined. In IFS, each element is associated with two real numbers,
which lie between 0 and 1 and includes them. One is called a membership value, and the
other is called a nonmembership value. The formal definition of IFS is given below.

Definition 1.1. [2] Let X be the set of the universe. Then, an IFS P over X is defined as P =
{(t, YP (t), NP (t)) : t ∈ X}, where YP (t) ∈ [0, 1] is the measure of membership and NP (t) ∈
[0, 1] is the measure of nonmembership of t in P with the condition 0  YP (t) + NP (t)  1
for all t ∈ X. The quantity π(t) = 1 − (YP (t) + NP (t)) is called the hesitancy of t. This value
lies between 0 and 1.

For more work on IFS see [3,5,6,13,14].

There are many extensions on IFS. For example, if the sum of squares of all components
of all elements is less than or equal to 1, the set is called a Pythagorean fuzzy set (PyFS). If
the sum of the cube of all components of an element is less than or equal to 1, then the set is
called a Fermatean fuzzy set (FFS). If the sum of the qth (q ≥ 1) powers of the components
of an element is less than or equal to 1, the set is called a q-rung orthopair fuzzy (q-ROPF)
set.

Definition 1.2. Let X be the set of the universe. A q-ROPF set P over X is defined as P =
{(t, YP (t), NP (t)) : t ∈ X}, where YP (t) ∈ [0, 1] is the measure of membership and NP (t) ∈
4 Picture Fuzzy Logic and Its Applications in Decision Making Problems

FIGURE 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of IFS, PyFS, and q-ROPF sets.

q q
[0, 1] is the measure of nonmembership of t in P with the condition 0  YP (t) + NP (t)  1
q q q q
for all t ∈ P . The quantity π(t) = (YP (t) + NP (t) − YP (t).NP (t))1/q is called the indetermi-
nacy of t.

A q-ROFS becomes IFS when q = 1, PyFS when q = 2, and FFS when q = 3. The diagram-
matic representation of these sets is shown in Fig. 1.1.
The IFS is useful when membership and nonmembership cannot explain all possible
cases with an element x. Suppose there is a proposition P and a set of people X. Assume
that c1 number of people from X accept the proposition P, c2 number of people reject
the proposition, and the remaining people, say c3 , either remain silent or do not give a
clear response. In this situation, the degree of acceptance (membership value) is c1 /|X|,
and the degree of nonacceptance (nonmembership value) is c2 /|X|. The value 1 − (c1 /|X| +
c2 /|X|) (obviously (c1 + c2 + c3 = |X|) is called hesitancy. Note that the remaining c3 number
of people is of two types. Either they are neutral, or they give ambiguous responses. By
considering the neutral case with IFS, Cuong et al. [8], defined a new type of fuzzy set
called a picture fuzzy set. The mathematical definition of a PFS is provided below.

Definition 1.3. [8,11] A PFS P over the fixed set X is written as

P = {(YP (t), AP (t), NP (t)) : t ∈ X},

YP (t) : X → [0, 1], AP (t) : X → [0, 1] and NP (t) : X → [0, 1] are, respectively, presented
positive membership degree, neutral membership degree and a nonmembership degree
in a fuzzy set P , where 0 ≤ YP (t) + AP (t) + NP (t) ≤ 1 for t ∈ X. Also, the term πP (t) =
1 − (YP (t) + AP (t) + NP (t)) is called the refusal membership degree for t.

Let P be a PFS. The height of P is h(P ) = (h+ (P ), h0 (P ), h− (P )), where h+ (P ) =

sup{YP (t)}, h0 (P ) = inf{AP (t)}, h− (P ) = inf{NP (t)} for all t ∈ X.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 79. 4th Col., lines 1-6.

80. Col. 10.

81. This portion of Nebuchadnezzar’s inscription is confirmed by

the following statement in the book of Daniel: “And the Lord gave
the King of Judah into his (Nebuchadnezzar’s) hand with part of the
vessels of the house of God, which he carried into the land of Shinar
to the house of his god.“ (Daniel i, 2.)

82. Col. 3. lines 43-45.

83. Nebo is alluded to as one of the heathen gods in Isaiah xlvi, 1,

and kindred passages.

84. Compare Judges xvi, 23; also 1 Samuel v.

85. Tablets of Tel-El-Armana, “Dispatches from Palestine in the

century before the Exodus,” Rec. of P. Vol. I, p. 64.

86. Babylonian Literature, p. 64.

87. Compare Lev. xx, 2; Deut. xii, 31, and kindred passages.

88. The Moabite stone was about three feet and nine inches long,
two feet and four inches in breadth and fourteen inches thick. The
inscription contained many incidents concerning the wars of King
Mesha with Israel; see also 2 Kings, 3d chap. The literature
connected with this stone is very great, no less than forty-nine
Orientalists having written in various languages upon this fascinating
theme, and although many of these productions are merely papers
or brochures, there are at least eight different volumes upon this
subject.
The characters are Phœnician, and form a link between those of
the Baal-Lebanon inscription of the tenth century B.C. and those of
the Siloam text.
 89. Chemosh, who is called “the abomination of the Moabites,” is
alluded to in Numb. xxi, 29; also Jer. xlviii, 7, and various other
passages.

90. Tablet K 4902 of the British Museum Collection, translated by

Ernest A. Budge.

91. “They have builded also the high places of Baal, to burn their
sons with fire for burnt offerings unto Baal,” etc. (Jeremiah xix. 5.
See also many kindred passages.)

92. This inscription was translated by Dr. Oppert, and Esmunazar

is supposed to have lived in the fourth century B.C.

93. 2 Kings xvii. 16, and kindred passages.

94. Western Asia Inscriptions, Vol. IV. p. 32.

95. The prophet Ezekiel speaks of the fact that “there sat women
weeping for Tammuz,” as even a “greater abomination” than burning
incense to idols. (See Ezekiel viii, 13-14.)

96. The worship of Ashtaroth, which represented the grossest

licentiousness and demanded human sacrifices, is strongly
condemned in Judges ii, 12-13, and many other passages.

97. Annals of Assur-bani-pal, Cylinder B, Column 5.

98. Pliny, Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 619.

99. Pausanius, III, 25.

100. Literally “blue stone;” it was a brilliant dark blue.

101. The eagle, the lion, the horse, the king and the workman are
supposed to represent the numerous bridegrooms of this
treacherous goddess.
 102. Inscriptions Western Asia, Vol. IV, p. 48, published by the
British Museum, and translated by H. Fox Talbot, F.R. S.

103. Ovid’s Metamorphoses, VII, 234.

104. The great celebrity of this fable is well illustrated by the fact
that Ovid in his Metamorphoses (III, 206), has preserved the
individual names of all the dogs, thirty-five in number.

105. “Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not
how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great
goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?”
(Acts xix, 35.) This question of the town clerk is strangely illustrated
by an inscription found by Chandler near the aqueduct at Ephesus,
which states that “It is notorious that not only among the Ephesians,
but also everywhere among the Greek nations, temples are
consecrated to her,” etc.

106. Anthon’s Class. Dict.

107. A principal seat of Ishtar’s worship.

108. The end of this line, and all the remaining lines of Column I,
are lost, but some mutilated fragments indicate that Namtar is
commanded to afflict Ishtar with dire diseases of the eyes, the feet,
the heart, the head, etc.

109. A sign of violent grief in the East, forbidden in Deut. xiv, 1;

also Lev. xix, 28.

110. Nabonidus says in his inscription (Col. II, 17) Oh, sun,
protect this temple, together with the moon, thy father.

111. A genius often mentioned, who here acts the part of a judge,
pronouncing the absolution of Ishtar.
 112. Tablet K, 162, British Museum, translated by H. Fox Talbot,
F.R. S. Records of the Past, Vol. I, 1st Series.

113. The statement of Herodotus concerning the attack upon the

sacred bull is probably correct, even though the Egyptian
monuments claim that Cambyses, and also the Roman emperors,
bowed down to the Egyptian gods. We may conclude that
Cambyses, in doing reverence to the gods of Egypt, was following in
the footsteps of his cool and politic father (Cyrus), and was guided in
these acts by the precedent which his father had set in reference to
the gods of Babylonia.

114. Hindu Literature, p. 59.

115. .sp 1
“Let down our golden everlasting chain,
Whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and men;
I fix the chain to great Olympus height,
And the vast world hangs trembling in my sight.”—Il.viii, 19-26.

116. Isa. xiv, 13.

117. Ninth tablet of the Epic of Gisdhubar.

118. Hindu Literature, pp. 126-148.

119. Anderson—Norse Mythology, pp. 104-434.

120. Hindu Literature, p. 126.

121. Alborz, being changed into Elburz, became the name of a

mountain range on the southern shore of the Caspian sea, and
Mount Demavend, its highest peak, is looked upon as the home of
the Simurgh, and it is also the scene of many mythical adventures.

122. xxi.
 123. Trans. by Paul Guieysse. Rec. of P., Vol. III, p. 48. The belief
in the celestial origin of the Nile survived in Egypt as lately as the
time of Joinville. (Histoire de Saint Louis, Chap. II.)

124. Hel, the world of the dead, irrespective of character.

125. The first record of the worship of Ardvi Sura is in a cuneiform

inscription by Artaxerxes Mnemon (404-361), in which her name is
corrupted into Anahata. Artaxerxes Mnemon appears to have been
an eager promoter of her worship, as he is said to have first erected
the statues of Venus-Anahita in Babylon, Suza, and Ecbatana, and to
have taught her worship to the Persians, the Bactrians, and the
people of Damas and Sardes (Clemens Alexandrians, Protrept. 5, on
the authority of Berosus; about 260 B.C.).

126. Hindu Literature, p. 39.

127. Vendidad, xxi.

128. Sayce, Lec. Rel. Babylonians, pp. 293-299.

129. Hymn to Osiris on the stele of Amon-em-ha. Translated by D.

Mallet. Rec. of P., IV, 21.

130. Hindu Literature, p. 267.

131. Anderson—Norse Mythology, pp. 75-190.

132. Bahram Yast, vii.

133. Bahram Yast, xiii.

134. Minokhirad—62 and 87. Trans. by West.

135. Rig-veda Sanhita—Wilson’s Trans., Vol. V, p. 102

136. Yast, x.
 137. See the Bundehesh.

138. This word is frequently spelled Daeva.

139. Yast, viii.

140. Chinvat, the popular orthography of this word, is adopted as

it represents the pronunciation.

141. History of Vartan by Elisaeus (Newman’s trans.), p. 9.

142. Gibbon, Chap. 23.

143. Yast, x.

144. Hindu Literature, p. 27.

145. Chips, Vol. I, p. 82.

146. Prof. Darmesteter and M. de Harlez claim that the Zend was
the language of Aryan Media.

147. See page 20.

148. Haug’s Rel. of Parsis, p. 123.

149. Diodorus (xvii, 72) and Curtius (v. 7) declare that Alexander
burned the citadel and royal palace at Persepolis in a drunken frenzy
at the instigation of the Athenian courtezan Thais, and in revenge for
the destruction of the Greek temple by Xerxes. Arrian (Exped. Alex.,
iii, 18) also speaks of his burning the royal palace of the Persians.

150. Sacred Books of the East, Vol. IV, Int., p. 39.

151. This is a literal rendering of the passage, the meaning of all

the words being certain, except the four which are written in italics.
 152. In the Elamite and Babylonian versions Avesta is simply
rendered “law” or “laws.”

153. Shapur II ascended the throne about A.D. 309.

154. Sa. Books of East, Vol. IV. Int., p. 2.

155. About 1754.

156. Chips, Vol. I, p. 119.

157. 1829-1843.

158. 1850.

159. 1851.

160. 1852-1854.

161. About 1826.

162. Codex numbered 5.

163. Dastur Jamaspji Minocheherji Jamasp Asana, Ph. D. of

Tübingen, Hon. D.C. L. Oxon. Dr. L.H. Mills applied to the Dastur for
the loan of his manuscript to enable him to complete a critical
edition of the Zend and Pahlavi texts of the Gathas, and Dastur
Jamaspji not only loaned it to Dr. Mills, but most generously
presented it to the University of Oxford.

164. See page xx.

165. 382 folios.

166. Clement, who is supposed to have written in the first century

of the Christian era, claims that the original name was Nebrod, but
that “the magician being destroyed by lightning, his name was
changed to Zoroaster by the Greeks on account of the living Ζωσαν
stream of the star (ἀστέρος) being poured upon him.”—Clementine
Homilies, IX, Chap. 5.

167. Masudi, the noted Arabian historian and traveler who wrote
about A.D. 950, remarks that “according to the Magi, Zoroaster lived
two hundred and eighty years before Alexander the Great,” or about
610 B. C, in the time of the Median king Cyaxares.

168. Dr. Haug, while maintaining the personality of Zarathustra

Spitama, claims that after his death, and possibly during his life, the
name of Zarathustra was adopted by a successive priesthood.
(Essays, p. 297).

169. Vendidad, Farg. xix, 4.

170. Rig-veda, ii, 30, 40.

171. The bird Karsipta dwells in the heavens. Were he living on

the earth he would be the king of birds. He brought the law into the
Var of Yima, and recites the Avesta in the language of birds (Bund.
xix and xxiv). As a bird, because of the swiftness of his flight, was
often considered an incarnation of lightning, and as the thunder was
supposed to be the voice of a god speaking from above, so the song
of a bird was often thought to be the utterance of a god.

172. Chips, Vol. I, p. 167.

173. Clas. Dict., p. 1015.

174. Clement says: “The Persians, first taking coals from the
lightning which fell from heaven, preserved them by ordinary fuel,
and honoring the heavenly fire as a god, were honored by the fire
itself, with the first kingdom, as its first worshippers. After them the
Babylonians, stealing coals from the fire that was there, and
conveying it safely to their own home and worshipping it, they
themselves also reigned in order. And the Egyptians, acting in like
manner, and calling the fire in their own dialect Phthaë, which is
translated Hephaistus or Osiris, he who first reigned amongst them
is called by its name.”—Clementine Homilies, IX, Chap. vi.

175. Chips, Vol. I, pp. 162-177.

176. Sa. Bks. of the East, Vol. IV, Int., pp. 56, 83.

177. Sa. Bks. of the East, Vol. XXXI, pp. 6-194.

178. Having an especial Yast.

179. The first month is called Fravisha, and indicates the particular
time of this celebration. Fravisha also means the departed souls of
ancestors, and these angels or protectors are numberless. Every
being of the good creation, whether living, dead or still unborn, has
its own Fravisha or guardian angel, who has existed from the
beginning.

180. Haug was the first to call attention to this striking coincidence
with Hindu mythology; in the Aitareya, and Satapatha Brahmanas, in
the Atharva-veda, and in the Ramayana, the gods are numbered at
thirty-three.

181. Yasna, xvi.

182. See Yasna, xix.

183. This expression probably points to an immigration of

Zarathustranism.

184. Yasna, xlii.

185. Yasna, lvii.

186. From the fifth to the twelfth.

187. When a dog dies his spirit passes to Ardvi Sura, the goddess
of the living waters that pour into the celestial sea. The penalty for
frightening a pregnant dog was from ten to two hundred stripes.

188. As the symbol and instrument of sovereignty. He reigned

supreme by the strength of the ring and of the poniard.

189. Spenta Armaiti is a general name for heavenly counsellors,

and they represent also the genii of the earth and waters. Under
Ahura were six Amesha Spentas, which were at first mere
personifications of virtues and moral powers, but as their lord and
father ruled over the whole world, in later times they took each a
part of the world under especial care. The dominion of the trees and
waters was vested in Haurvatad and Ameretad, or Health and
Immortality; here we find the influence of the old Indo-Iranian
formulæ, in which waters and trees were invoked as the springs of
health and life. Perfect Sovereignty had molten brass for his emblem,
as the god in the storm established his empire by means of that
“molten brass,” the fire of lightning, and he thus became the king of
metals in general. Asha Vahista, the holy order of the world, as
maintained chiefly by the sacrificial fire, became the genius of fire.
Armaiti seems to have become a goddess of the earth as early as
the Indo-Iranian period, and Vohu-mano, or Good Thought, had the
living creation left to his superintendence. These Amesha Spentas
projected, as it were, out of themselves as many demons who were
hardly more than inverted images of the gods they were to oppose;
for instance. Health and Immortality were opposed by Sickness and
Decay, but these very demons were changed into the rulers of
hunger and thirst when they came in contact with the genii of the
waters and the trees. Vohu-mano, or Good Thought, was reflected in
Evil Thought, and after these came the symmetrical armies of
numberless gods and fiends.—Darmesteter in Sa. Bks. E.

190. According to the hymns of the Rig-veda, “Yama the king, the
gatherer of the people, has descried a path for many which leads
from the depths to the heights; he first found out a resting place
from which nobody can turn out the occupants; on the way the
forefathers have gone, the sons will follow them.”—Rig-veda, X, 14,
1, 2.

191. The Druj went back to hell in the shape of a fly. The fly that
came to smell of a dead body was thought to be a corpse-spirit that
came to take possession of the dead in the name of Ahriman.

192. Rig-veda, X, 18, 1.

193. Hindu Literature, p. 35.

194. Strabo XV, 14; Herod. I, 138.

195. The Mosaic law mentions only seventeen crimes as being

worthy of capital punishment.

196. Blackstone’s Commentaries, IV, 4. 15, 18.

197. Says Prof. Darmesteter: “It may be doubted whether the

murder of a water-dog could actually have been punished with ten
thousand stripes unless we suppose that human endurance was
different in ancient Persia from what it is elsewhere; in the time of
Chardin the number of stripes inflicted on the guilty never exceeded
three hundred; in the old German law, two hundred; in the Mosaic
law, forty.”—Sa. Bks. E., Vol. IV, p. 99, Int.

198. The penalties for uncleanness in men were far more severe
upon woman; after giving birth to a child she was forbidden to taste
of water, as her touch would defile the element, and at times her
food was handed to her upon a long-handled spoon. Woman was
made a creature of contract, and disposed of by a bill of sale; like
land or cattle, she was classed under “the fifth contract,” being
considered more valuable than cattle, but far cheaper than real
estate. They were sometimes sold in the cradle and often when only
two or three years of age.—See Dosabhoy Framjee’s work on The
Parsis, p. 77.
 199. Every one has a noose cast around his neck; when a man
dies, if he is righteous, the noose falls from his neck; but if wicked,
they drag him with that noose down to hell.—(Farg., V, 8.)

200. Fargard, xix, 27-32.

201. Visparad, II, V, XVI, XXII.

202. Isaiah xlv, 6.

203. Sir M. Monier-Williams, Trans. Vic. Ins., Vol. XXV, p. 10.

204. The word Qur’an, a reading, comes from the verb qara’a, “to
read.” It is also called El Forqān, “the discrimination,” a word
borrowed from the Hebrew. It is also designated by the words El
Mus-haf, volume, or El Kitāb, the book.

205. The chronology of this conquest is in many points uncertain,

as the accounts differ. The most important event, however, in the
long war was the battle of Nehāwend, which took place probably
about A.D. 641.

206. Chap. II, v. 100.

207. It was probably about A.D. 571.

208. Chap. liii, v. 19-20.

209. It took place on June 16, A.D. 622.

210. A.D. 624.

211. About A.D. 629.

212. A.D. 629.

213. June 8, A.D. 632.

 214. A.D. 660.

215. Koran, Chaps. 56, 67, 76, Palmer’s Trans. The more sensuous
portions of these descriptions are necessarily omitted.

216. Chap. vii, v. 88, 56, 67.

217. Chap. xiv, v. 95.

218. Chap. viii, v. 15.

219. Chap. xv.

220. Chap. iv, v. 1.

221. Chap. iv, v. 24.

222. Koran, iv, v. 15-20.

223. Koran, iv, v. 38.

224. Chap. iv, v. 59.

225. About A.D. 570.

226. Canopus was a star which stood at the right in the heavens
when the observer was looking from Hirat, and consequently it lay in
the direction of Arabia, which the prophet claimed as the home of
wisdom, and therefore wisdom was represented by Canopus.

227. Translated by Almokaffa about A.D. 770.

228. See preface, Eastwick’s version, p. 10.

229. The planet Mars.

230. From Sir Wm. Jones’ revision of the Hitopadesa.

 231. Sometimes called Pilpay.

232. That there were historic materials of great antiquity, we have

the testimony of Herodotus and Ctesius, and also of the book of
Esther—“On that night the king could not sleep and he commanded
to bring the books of records of the chronicles, and they were read
before the king.”—Esther vi, 1. Also it is written. “And all the acts of
his power and his might and the declaration of the greatness of
Mordecai, are they not written in the books of the chronicles of the
kings of Media and Persia?”—Esther x, 2.

233. A.D. 636.

234. A.D. 837.

235. The name of Firdusi is said to have been given him by the
Governor of Tus, because his garden, which was called Ferdus
(Paradise), was looked after by the father and brother of the poet,
and it was in this delightful spot that he began the versification of
the great national epic, the Shah Namah.

236. The sacred well at Mecca, the waters of which are claimed to
have wondrous healing power.

237. In addition to the Shah Namah, Firdusi composed a poem of

nine thousand couplets on the loves of Yusuf and Zulaikha, that
abounds in elegant and spirited diction, but it is inferior to the
greater epic, partly in consequence of his adoption of the same
metre which he used in the Shah Namah, and which was well
adapted to that martial poem, but not at all appropriate for the
expression of the gentle strains of a love song.

238. Kaiumers is represented as the grandson of Noah.

239. About A.D. 636.

240. See Hindu Literature, Chapters II and III.

 241. Unless otherwise indicated, the poetical quotations in this
legend will be from Atkinson’s Translation.

242. The Anka of the Arabians.

243. Iliad, B. 24.

244. The Narcissus, to which the beautiful eyes of Eastern women

are often compared.

245. Called the “Serpent King” because he at one time allowed an

evil creature to kiss his shoulder, and from the spot two fearful
serpents sprang that required human brains for their food. The king
used to select the victims by lot, and when the blacksmith Kaveh
found his name upon the fatal register he tore the document in
pieces, and

“On his javelin’s point

He fixed his leathern apron for a banner,
And lifting it high he went abroad
To call the people to a task of vengeance.”
The multitude of rebels joined a foreign foe, and the hated Zohak
was destroyed, and then the leathern banner was splendidly
adorned with gold and jewels, and it is said that this legend gave
rise to the blacksmith’s apron as the royal ensign of Persia.

246. It appears to have been not unusual amongst the secluded

women of the East to fall deeply in love with men of whom they
knew very little. Josephus claims that the king’s daughter betrayed
the city of Sava in Ethiopia into the hands of Moses, having fallen in
love with his valor and bravery as she saw him from the walls of the
city gallantly leading the Egyptian host. Dido was won merely by the
fame of Æneas, and Kotzebue has pictured Elvira as enamored of
the glory of Pizarro; but when at last she discovered the savage and
merciless disposition of the conqueror, she taunted him with being a
fraud. The lovely Desdemona affords another instance:
 Oth.—“Her father loved me; oft invited me;
Still questioned me the story of my life.
* * * * * *
“I ran it through, even from my boyish days,
Wherein I spoke of most disastrous chances.
* * * * * *
“She loved me for the dangers I had passed,
And I loved her that she did pity them.”
(Othello, Act. 1, Sc. 3)

247. This picture is highly suggestive of the Demon King of

Ceylon, who is so prominent in Hindu mythology, especially in the
Ramayana.

248. Firdusi thought proper to bestow upon his hero a gigantic

stature and marvelous physical powers, but other classic writers
have done the same. It will be remembered that Hercules had but
completed his eighth month before he strangled the serpents that
Juno sent to devour him, and Homer says of Otus and Ephialtes:

“The wondrous youths had scarce nine winters told,

When high in air, tremendous to behold,
Nine ells aloft they reared their towering heads,
And full nine cubits broad their shoulders spread.
Proud of their strength and more than mortal size,
The gods they challenge and affect the skies.”
Odyssey XI, 310.

249. The blacksmith’s apron.

250. Herodotus speaks of a people confederated with the army of

Xerxes who employed the noose.

251. Kai-kaus, the second Persian king belonging to the dynasty of

Kainanides.
 252. In the Shah Namah, where so much fiction is founded upon
so little historic fact, we find, as in Hindu literature, an active race of
demons. These are generally defined as being in human shape, with
horns, long ears, and sometimes with tails, like the monkeys in the
Ramayana. Again, they assume the characteristics of the Rakshasas
in Hindu mythology, and appear as enchanters, sorcerers, etc.—
(Compare Hindu Literature, pp. 189-232.)

253. The gor is the onager, or wild ass of the East, and in its
native wilds is a very dangerous foe to encounter. Its flesh is often
used for food when the hunter is driven to extremity.

254. It was evidently the custom, even among the Greeks also, to
harangue their horses, for Homer repeatedly puts these speeches
into the mouths of his heroes. Hector addresses his horses in the
Eighth Book:

“Be fleet, be fearless, this important day.

And all your master’s well-spent care repay.
Now swift pursue, now thunder uncontroll’d,
Give me to seize rich Nestor’s shield of gold.”
And in the Nineteenth Book, Achilles reproaches his horses with
the death of Patrocles, when

“The generous Xanthus as the words he said

Seemed sensible of woe and drooped his head;
Trembling he stood before the golden wain,
And bowed to dust the honors of his mane,”
before he makes a spirited reply foretelling his master’s death.

255. This “tiger skin” is supposed to be a magic garment which

had the power of resisting the impression of every weapon. It was
proof against fire, and would not sink in water. According to some
classic authorities, he received it from his father, Zal; others say it
was made from the skin of an animal which Rustem killed on the
mountain of Sham. It will be remembered that the heroes of ancient
poets frequently wore the skins of animals. Hercules wore the skin of
the Nemæan lion. The skins of panthers and leopards were worn by
the Greek and Trojan chiefs, and Virgil says of Alcestes:

“Rough in appearance, with darts, and a Libyan bearskin around

him,
Whom once a Trojan mother had borne to the river Cremisus.”
(Æn., Book V, 36.)

256. Compare Shakespeare—

“Here in her hairs

The painter plays the spider—and hath woven
A golden mesh to entrap the hearts of men
Faster than gnats in cobwebs: but her eyes.”
—Merchant of Venice, iii, 2.

257. In Virgil there is a similar scene, where Dido bids her sister
erect a pile to burn the arms and the presents of Æneas.

258. There is a tradition that Gushtasp was Darius Hystaspes, and

that his son Isfendiyar was Xerxes.

259. Compare the wooden horse that caused the fall of Troy, also
the fall of Arzestan, which the Saracen general conquered by
smuggling into the city a portion of his troops in chests, having
obtained leave of the governor to deposit there some old lumber
which impeded his march.

260. Pichula, used anciently for Persian arrows. During the rainy
season it blooms profusely on the banks of the rivers, where it is
interwoven with twining Asclepias.—Sir W. Jones in “Botanical
Observations.”

261. About A.D. 1200.

262. Born A.D. 1141, and died A.D. 1203.

 263. Kais was the proper name of the lover, but he received the
cognomen of Majnun on account of his madness.

264. Except the desert scene, the poetical extracts in this chapter
are from Atkinson’s translation.

265. Zemzem is the sacred well enclosed by the temple at Mecca,

and even a stone dipped in its waters is thought to possess
marvelous virtues.

266. Born at Balkha, A.D. 1297.

267. A.D. 1176.

268. Some authorities say that he died at the age of one hundred
years, while others claim that he lived to be one hundred and
sixteen.

269. Journal Asiatique, Jan., 1843.

270. From Davies’ version.

271. From Gladwin’s Translation.

272. A.D. 1388.

273. It is claimed that he used ninety thousand human heads in

erecting pyramids to illustrate his horrible triumph.

274. Timur was also of Mongol origin, and a descendant of

Genghis Khan.

275. Khizer was the prophet who, according to Oriental tradition,

discovered and drank of the Fountain of Life, and it was he who bore
the nectar to the waiting poet.

276. Most of the Asiatic poets are Sufis, and claim to prefer the
meditations of mysticism to the pleasures of the world. Their
fundamental tenets are that nothing exists, absolutely, except God,
and that the human soul is an emanation from his essence, and will
finally be restored to him.

277. Sidrah—Tree of Paradise.

278. Bichnel’s Trans.

279. Finished about A.D. 1575.

280. A.D. 1611.

281. A.D. 1430.

282. Haji Luft Ali.

283. A.D. 1556-1605.

284. A.D. 1585-1628.

285. Herodotus IX.

286. Ousley, Biog. Pers. Poets, p. 202.

287. A very popular style of decoration in Persia is the kainah-

karree; while the plaster is yet soft, the surface is inlaid with minute
mirrors of every conceivable shape. The amount of work and skill
necessary to inlay a room in this style is almost incalculable, and
although the materials are comparatively cheap, the immense
amount of labor required make the work very expensive. The effect,
however, is one of bewildering splendor as if the light were flashed
from the polished facets of millions of gems.—Benjamin, Persia and
Persians, p. 279.

288. Ven., XIX, 43.

289. Yasna, XII, 9, p. 174.

 290. Dr. Haug, Essays, p. 2. 67

291. Prof. Roth, Tubingen. Chips, p. 85.

292. There are also many so-called historical works, which,

although deficient in sound criticism, and to a greater or less extent
unreliable, still furnish some curious and noteworthy data. They have
translations of the Maha-bharata, the Ramayana and other standard
works of Sanskrit literature, but the original fire of Persian genius
appears to be hopelessly crushed.

293. The Tazieh is the outgrowth of a ceremony which, for

centuries, the Persians have annually performed in the holy month
Moharrem. At this time they celebrate the tragic death of Hossein,
the grandson of the Prophet who perished with all his house at the
hands of a rival for the honors of a caliphate. The month of
mourning is largely occupied with the recitals and ceremonies
pertaining to the event; halls being especially constructed for these
rhapsodies, as after more than seven hundred years, the terrible
scenes of the tragedy were dramatized and placed upon the Persian
stage. In the royal Takieh, or theatre, the great drama is unfolded
for ten successive days, during the month of mourning, while in all
other portions of the empire it is reproduced with more or less
power, at the same time.