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Geometric and Engineering
Drawing

This introduction to descriptive geometry and contemporary drafting guides the

student through the essential principles to create engineering drawings that comply
with international standards of technical product specification. This heavily updated
new edition now applies to CAD as well as conventional drawing. Extensive new
coverage is given of:

• International drafting conventions

• Methods of spatial visualisation such as multi-view projection
• Types of views
• Dimensioning
• Dimensional and geometric tolerancing
• Representation of workpiece and machine elements
• Assembly drawings

Comprehensible illustrations and clear explanations help the reader master

drafting and layout concepts for creating professional engineering drawings. The
book provides a large number of exercises for each main topic. This edition covers
updated material and reflects the latest ISO standards.
It is ideal for undergraduates in engineering or product design, students of
vocational courses in engineering communication and technology students covering
the transition of product specification from design to production.
Ken Morling trained as a mechanical engineer at Vickers Armstrong in 1956. He
helped develop many aircraft including the TSR2 and Concorde. In 1963 he
started teaching technical drawing to GCE O and A level students and wrote this
book first published in 1969. In 1965 he became a graduate of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers and a Master of Philosophy in 1980 for development
in education. During the life of his book there have been three editions and two
translations into Spanish and Portuguese.
Stéphane Danjou is Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Plant Design at
Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences in Germany, teaching Engineering
Drawing, 3D CAD and Design. He started as a draftsman in a global acting
company, studied mechanical engineering and worked as Technical Director in
the packaging industry. With more than 25 years of experience in engineering
drawing, he specialises in product development, particularly within the context
of modern approaches in engineering design.
 Geometric and
Engineering Drawing

Fourth Edition

Ken Morling
Stéphane Danjou
Cover credit: iStock/matejmo
Fourth edition published 2022
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2022 Ken Morling and Stéphane Danjou
The right of Kenneth Morling and Stéphane Danjou to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Edward Arnold 1969
Third edition published by Routledge 2010
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-43127-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-43123-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-00138-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003001386
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

Prefacex
Acknowledgementsxii

1 Introduction to Engineering Communication 1

1.1 Product Development and the Engineering
Design Process 1
1.2 Communication Modes 3
1.3 Importance of Engineering Drawing 6

2 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Drafting Equipment 9
2.2.1 Manual Drafting 9
2.2.2 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 15
2.3 Drafting Conventions 17
2.3.1 Standardisation 17
2.3.2 Line Conventions 19
2.3.3 Lettering 22
2.3.4 Drawing Layout 23
2.4 Scales 25
2.5 Types of Drawings 28
2.6 Technical Sketching 30
2.6.1 Pictorial Sketching 30
2.6.2 Sketching in Orthographic Projection 32
2.7 Planning the Drawing 34
2.8 Problems 36
vi Contents

3 Geometric Constructions 39
3.1 The Construction of Geometric Figures From Given
Data 39
3.1.1 The Triangle 39
3.1.2 The Quadrilateral 46
3.1.3 Polygons 50
3.1.4 Circles 57
3.2 Tangency 68
3.3 Loci 77
3.3.1 Loci of Mechanisms 79
3.3.2 The Cycloid 83
3.3.3 The Trochoid 85
3.3.4 The Involute 87
3.3.5 The Archimedean Spiral 89
3.3.6 The Helix 90
3.4 Problems 91

4 Methods of Spatial Visualisation 115

4.1 Introduction 115
4.2 Perspective Projection 118
4.3 Oblique Projection 121
4.4 Axonometric Projection (Isometric and Dimetric) 124
4.4.1 Conventional Isometric Projection (Isometric
Drawing) 126
4.4.2 Circles and Curves Drawn in Isometric
Projection 128
4.4.3 True Isometric Projection 131
4.4.4 Dimetric Projection 133
4.5 Multi-View Projection (First Angle and Third
Angle) 135
4.6 Auxiliary Elevations and Auxiliary Plans 142
4.7 Projection of Sectioned Solids 153
4.7.1 Section Planes 153
4.7.2 Conic Sections 154
4.8 Problems 163

5 Basic Concepts of Descriptive Geometry 183

5.1 Orthographic Projection 183
5.1.1 Projection of Lines 183
5.1.2 Projection of Planes 189
5.2 Enlarging and Reducing Plane Figures and Equivalent
Areas 195
 Contents vii

5.3 Intersection of Regular Solids 205

5.4 Developments 215
5.4.1 Prisms 216
5.4.2 Cylinders 219
5.4.3 Pyramids 221
5.4.4 Cones 223
5.5 Problems 225

6 Views 243
6.1 Basic Conventions 243
6.1.1 The Six Principal Views 243
6.1.2 Selection of Views 246
6.2 Special Views 246
6.2.1 Detail View 246
6.2.2 Partial Views 247
6.2.3 Broken Views 247
6.2.4 Auxiliary Views 248
6.2.5 Removed Views 249
6.3 Sectional Views 250
6.3.1 Conventions for Sections 251
6.3.2 Full Sections 254
6.3.3 Half Sections 254
6.3.4 Offset Sections 254
6.3.5 Broken-Out Sections 256
6.3.6 Aligned Sections 256
6.3.7 Profile Sections 258

7 Dimensioning 261
7.1 Introduction 261
7.2 Dimensional Values 263
7.3 Systems of Dimension Positioning 266
7.4 Arrangement of Dimensions 267
7.5 Presentation of Special Dimensions 273
7.6 Dimensioning Guidelines 278
7.7 Dimensioning Systems 282

8 Tolerancing 285
8.1 Dimensional Tolerances 285
8.1.1 Introduction 285
8.1.2 General Tolerances 287
8.1.3 Specific Tolerances 288
viii Contents

8.2 Fits 290

8.2.1 Introduction 290
8.2.2 Types of Fits 291
8.2.3 The ISO Code System 292
8.2.4 Fit Systems 295
8.2.5 Designation of Tolerances in Drawings 297
8.2.6 Tolerance Stack-Up 297
8.3 Geometrical Tolerancing 299
8.3.1 Introduction to Geometrical Tolerancing 299
8.3.2 Datums 301
8.3.3 General Rules for Indication 303
8.3.4 Types of Geometric Specification 305
8.4 Surface Texture 315
8.4.1 Surface Roughness Parameters 315
8.4.2 Indication of Surface Texture in Drawings 320

9 Representation of Workpiece Elements 325

9.1 Keyways 325
9.2 Splines and Serrations 326
9.3 Undercuts 328
9.4 Centre Holes 330
9.5 Corners and Edges 331
9.6 Knurling 335
9.7 Further Conventional Representations 336

10 Representation of Machine Elements 341

10.1 Threads 341
10.1.1 Screw Threads 341
10.1.2 Drawing Screw Threads 344
10.2 Fasteners 346
10.2.1 Screws, Bolts and Studs 346
10.2.2 Designation of ISO Screw Threads 346
10.2.3 Types of Bolts and Screws 348
10.2.4 Locking Devices 348
10.2.5 Rivets and Riveted Joints 351
10.2.6 Keys, Keyways and Splines 352
10.2.7 Cottered Joints 355
10.3 Problems 355

11 Assembly Drawings 361

11.1 Introduction 361
11.2 Assembly Views 364
 Contents ix

11.3 Parts Lists 365

11.4 Item Numbering 367
11.5 Revision Block 370
11.6 Reading Assembly Drawings 370
11.7 Problems 371

12 Some More Problems Solved by Drawing 383

12.1 Areas of Irregular Shapes 383
12.2 Resolution of Forces 383
12.3 Simple Cam Design 390
12.4 Problems 395

Appendix A: ISO Standards Mentioned in This Book401

Appendix B: Representation of Threaded Fasteners404
Index 405
Preface

Engineering drawings have been used to convey clear information about an

object or system for many decades. They are graphic representations of prod-
ucts and depict how an object is designed, how it functions and how it is sup-
posed to be manufactured and assembled. With the advent of comprehensive
computer-aided design (CAD) programs, the way engineering drawings are cre-
ated significantly changed. The introduction of three-dimensional (3D) CAD
systems especially has revolutionised the approach for conveying the specifica-
tions of a technical product. Although the tools for creating engineering draw-
ings have changed dramatically with time, the underlying principles are still the
same. The fundamentals of descriptive geometry are still necessary for many
applications of geometric drawing, and the same conventions and best prac-
tices still apply to the drafting process. Despite the rapid pace of computational
improvements and the resulting possibilities of supporting and rationalising
the drafting process, the basic concepts of geometric and engineering draw-
ing have lost nothing of their relevance. Nowadays, geometric drawing is an
essential skill for graphically solving geometric problems as part of a concept
phase in a design process and for understanding the theory behind CAD sys-
tems. Although the current trend is to communicate product data exclusively
with means of 3D CAD models for paperless production, we are far away from
sending engineering drawings into retirement. Engineering drawings, no mat-
ter if resulting from manual drafting or as end products of a CAD modelling
process, are still an efficient form of communication, required in all engineering
disciplines.
This fourth edition has been entirely revised and heavily updated. While
the fundamentals of geometric drawing have been taken from earlier editions,
some completely new chapters are included that emphasise each part of the
engineering drawing.
The new edition starts with an introduction to engineering communication
and some basics of engineering drawing such as drafting equipment, interna-
tionally agreed conventions and principal techniques of technical sketching. The
chapter on geometric constructions is almost unchanged from earlier editions.
It shows specific drawing solutions to many geometric problems. Before intro-
ducing readers to the different types of views in engineering drawing, methods

x
 Preface xi

of spatial visualisation and basic concepts of descriptive geometry are pre-

sented. New chapters thoroughly address the important topics of dimensioning
and tolerancing. Further, we introduce common representations of workpiece
elements and frequently occurring machine elements as well as assembly draw-
ings and their properties.
All chapters related to engineering drawing have been updated to the lat-
est recommendations from the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO), that is, best practices from the international standards developing
organisation.
However carefully one checks a manuscript, errors creep in. We shall be very
grateful if any readers who find errors let us know through the publishers.
S. Danjou & K. Morling
November 2021
Acknowledgements

To start with, I wish to express my sincere appreciation for the excellent work
Ken Morling has provided with all previous editions of this book. I am deeply
grateful for the opportunity to carry on with the success story he started more
than 50 years ago.
My special thanks to the following examination boards for giving their per-
mission to use questions from past papers. I am particularly grateful to them
for allowing us to change many of the questions from imperial to metric units.

Certificate of Secondary Education

Associated Lancashire Schools Examining Board
East Anglian Regional Examinations Board
Metropolitan Regional Examinations Board
Middlesex Regional Examining Board
North Western Secondary School Examinations Board
South-East Regional Examinations Board
Southern Regional Examinations Board
West Midlands Examinations Board

General Certificate of Education

Associated Examining Board
Local Examinations Syndicate, University of Cambridge
Joint Matriculation Board
University of London School Examinations
Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board
Southern Universities’ Joint Board

I especially thank the West Midlands Examinations Board, the Associated

Lancashire Schools Examining Board and the Southern Universities’ Joint
Board for allowing us to draw solutions to questions set by them.

xii
 Acknowledgements xiii

The extracts from BS 308, Engineering Drawing Practice and BS 3692, ISO
Metric Precision Hexagon Bolts, Screws and Nuts are taken from a number of
recent British Standards Institution Publications who have given their permis-
sion for the reproductions. Copies of the complete standards are available from
BSI, 2, Park Street, London W1A 2BS.
My sincere thanks to the publisher, Taylor & Francis, and its editorial staff
for making this fourth edition possible, and for showing so much sympathy
during these difficult times which affected so many of us.
I would like to express heartfelt gratitude to my beloved wife, Marie-Kristin,
and my children Lisanne and Eric for all their support, patience and encourage-
ment. Finally, this edition became reality because they tolerated my incessant
disappearances into my home office.
S. Danjou
The fourth edition has been compiled by Stéphane Danjou. I am very grate-
ful that he has offered me many opportunities to make contributions where he
thought they were appropriate. My thanks to S. Pagett for checking the manu-
script of the original publication.
K. Morling
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