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PRACTICAL DEEP LEARNING
A Python-Based Introduction

by Ronald T. Kneusel

San Francisco
PRACTICAL DEEP LEARNING. Copyright © 2021 by Ronald T. Kneusel.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of
the copyright owner and the publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-1-7185-0074-7 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-7185-0075-4 (ebook)

Publisher: William Pollock

Executive Editor: Barbara Yien
Production Editor: Dapinder Dosanjh
Developmental Editor: Alex Freed
Cover Illustration: Gina Redman
Interior Design: Octopod Studios
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phone: 415.863.9900; fax: 415.863.9950; info@nostarch.com; www.nostarch.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kneusel, Ronald T., author.
Title: Practical deep learning : a python-based introduction / Ronald T. Kneusel.
Description: First edition. | San Francisco, CA : No Starch Press, Inc.,
[2021] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020035097 (print) | LCCN 2020035098 (ebook) | ISBN
9781718500747 (paperback) | ISBN 9781718500754 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Machine learning. | Python (Computer program language)
Classification: LCC Q325.5 .K55 2021 (print) | LCC Q325.5 (ebook) | DDC 006.3/1–
dc23
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the information contained in it.
For my children: David, Peter, Paul, Monica, Joseph, and Francis.
 About the Author
Ron Kneusel has been working with machine learning in industry since
2003 and completed a PhD in machine learning from the University of
Colorado, Boulder, in 2016. He currently works for L3Harris
Technologies, Inc. Ron has two other books, both available from
Springer: Numbers and Computers, and Random Numbers and Computers.
 About the Technical Reviewer
Paul Nord works for the Valparaiso University Department of Physics
and Astronomy as a technical specialist and research assistant. He is a
1991 graduate from Valparaiso University with a degree in physics. He
also earned a master’s degree in analytics and modeling from VU in
2017. Paul has worked on numerous machine learning projects,
including the Disk Detective Collaboration, a Faculty Learning
Community discussion group, and an art show using Google Deep
Dream. Paul’s other activities include science outreach programs for
kids of all ages.
 BRIEF CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1: Getting Started
Chapter 2: Using Python
Chapter 3: Using NumPy
Chapter 4: Working with Data
Chapter 5: Building Datasets
Chapter 6: Classical Machine Learning
Chapter 7: Experiments with Classical Models
Chapter 8: Introduction to Neural Networks
Chapter 9: Training a Neural Network
Chapter 10: Experiments with Neural Networks
Chapter 11: Evaluating Models
Chapter 12: Introduction to Convolutional Neural Networks
Chapter 13: Experiments with Keras and MNIST
Chapter 14: Experiments with CIFAR-10
Chapter 15: A Case Study: Classifying Audio Samples
Chapter 16: Going Further
Index
 CONTENTS IN DETAIL
FOREWORD

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION
Who Is This Book For?
What Can You Expect to Learn?
About This Book

1
GETTING STARTED
The Operating Environment
NumPy
scikit-learn
Keras with TensorFlow
Installing the Toolkits
Basic Linear Algebra
Vectors
Matrices
Multiplying Vectors and Matrices
Statistics and Probability
Descriptive Statistics
Probability Distributions
Statistical Tests
Graphics Processing Units
Summary

2
USING PYTHON
The Python Interpreter
Statements and Whitespace
Variables and Basic Data Structures
Representing Numbers
Variables
Strings
Lists
Dictionaries
Control Structures
if-elif-else Statements
for Loops
while Loops
break and continue Statements
with Statement
Handling Errors with try-except Blocks
Functions
Modules
Summary

3
USING NUMPY
Why NumPy?
Arrays vs. Lists
Testing Array and List Speed
Basic Arrays
Defining an Array with np.array
Defining Arrays with 0s and 1s
Accessing Elements in an Array
Indexing into an Array
Slicing an Array
 The Ellipsis
Operators and Broadcasting
Array Input and Output
Random Numbers
NumPy and Images
Summary

4
WORKING WITH DATA
Classes and Labels
Features and Feature Vectors
Types of Features
Feature Selection and the Curse of Dimensionality
Features of a Good Dataset
Interpolation and Extrapolation
The Parent Distribution
Prior Class Probabilities
Confusers
Dataset Size
Data Preparation
Scaling Features
Missing Features
Training, Validation, and Test Data
The Three Subsets
Partitioning the Dataset
k-Fold Cross Validation
Look at Your Data
Searching for Problems in the Data
Cautionary Tales
Summary
5
BUILDING DATASETS
Irises
Breast Cancer
MNIST Digits
CIFAR-10
Data Augmentation
Why Should You Augment Training Data?
Ways to Augment Training Data
Augmenting the Iris Dataset
Augmenting the CIFAR-10 Dataset
Summary

6
CLASSICAL MACHINE LEARNING
Nearest Centroid
k-Nearest Neighbors
Naïve Bayes
Decision Trees and Random Forests
Recursion Primer
Building Decision Trees
Random Forests
Support Vector Machines
Margins
Support Vectors
Optimization
Kernels
Summary

7
EXPERIMENTS WITH CLASSICAL MODELS
Experiments with the Iris Dataset
Testing the Classical Models
Implementing a Nearest Centroid Classifier
Experiments with the Breast Cancer Dataset
Two Initial Test Runs
The Effect of Random Splits
Adding k-fold Validation
Searching for Hyperparameters
Experiments with the MNIST Dataset
Testing the Classical Models
Analyzing Runtimes
Experimenting with PCA Components
Scrambling Our Dataset
Classical Model Summary
Nearest Centroid
k-Nearest Neighbors
Naïve Bayes
Decision Trees
Random Forests
Support Vector Machines
When to Use Classical Models
Handling Small Datasets
Dealing with Reduced Computational Requirements
Having Explainable Models
Working with Vector Inputs
Summary

8
INTRODUCTION TO NEURAL NETWORKS
Anatomy of a Neural Network
The Neuron
 Activation Functions
Architecture of a Network
Output Layers
Representing Weights and Biases
Implementing a Simple Neural Network
Building the Dataset
Implementing the Neural Network
Training and Testing the Neural Network
Summary

9
TRAINING A NEURAL NETWORK
A High-Level Overview
Gradient Descent
Finding Minimums
Updating the Weights
Stochastic Gradient Descent
Batches and Minibatches
Convex vs. Nonconvex Functions
Ending Training
Updating the Learning Rate
Momentum
Backpropagation
Backprop, Take 1
Backprop, Take 2
Loss Functions
Absolute and Mean Squared Error Loss
Cross-Entropy Loss
Weight Initialization
Overfitting and Regularization
Understanding Overfitting
 Understanding Regularization
L2 Regularization
Dropout
Summary

10
EXPERIMENTS WITH NEURAL NETWORKS
Our Dataset
The MLPClassifier Class
Architecture and Activation Functions
The Code
The Results
Batch Size
Base Learning Rate
Training Set Size
L2 Regularization
Momentum
Weight Initialization
Feature Ordering
Summary

11
EVALUATING MODELS
Definitions and Assumptions
Why Accuracy Is Not Enough
The 2 × 2 Confusion Matrix
Metrics Derived from the 2 × 2 Confusion Matrix
Deriving Metrics from the 2 × 2 Table
Using Our Metrics to Interpret Models
More Advanced Metrics
Informedness and Markedness
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
there stalks that dreadful mother of hers, and her soul-blighting Uncle
Cyril, and her dreadful little twin brothers, and then—walking with a
man whom you happen to hate—the bride’s sister Gertie, the bright
little girl whom you really meant to marry.

THE NEWLY
RICH ELEMENT
Heroic little bands like
this annually advance
upon the fashionable
resorts, to make an
overt attack upon
society. These
invaders come from
the heart of the wilds,
where the head of the
family (merely a courtesy title) is known locally as the Gravel Roof
King. Little family groups of this sort are not considered complete
without four daughters, at least, each more painfully unmarried than
the rest.

Palmy Days at the

Seaside
Sights at the Bathing
Resorts When the
Season for Salt Water
is Declared On THE
FOND CINEMA
MEMORIES VAMP
There is, alas, This year the
but little of this movie vampire
sort of thing, is on the
these days. The promenade
spectacle of a resting from the
venerable waiter, outdoor scenes
working himself of her new
into a healthy picture, “The
glow over the Super-Sin,”
wholesome which will barely
indoor exercise ON THE SIDE LINES get by the
of bottle- national board
It is such little groups as these
opening is of censorship.
that lend a really homelike air to
becoming rarer The cinema
every day. A the seaside resorts. These pillars vampire is
corkscrew, once of society know the entire history highly unpopular
the national of the resort by heart; they are with the
emblem, will specialists on dates, social débutantes at
soon be but a standing, if any, and previous the seaside
relic for a civic conditions of matrimony. They are resort. They
museum. a complete Guide to the closet seem always to
skeletons of all the married and resent
unmarried guests in the hotel. professional
competition.

THE TENNIS
HOUNDS
Any day you may see
the tennis hounds
assembling at the
court for a set of
mixed—hopelessly
mixed—doubles. The
curious thing about
most of these strange
creatures is that no living-eye has ever beheld them actually playing;
they appear on the court with much ceremony, carrying all the
properties, and wearing the most technically correct costumes, but
that is as far as most of these sartorial creatures ever seem to go.

MIXED FOURSOMES
There is always a liberal assortment of these foursomes scattered over
the seaside golf course. They are the slowest-moving bodies known to
science; there is a wait of twenty minutes on every tee, while an
argument rages as to whether it took Ethel fifteen or seventeen to get
out of the rough, every argument, for and against, being carefully
considered. Any other players who happen to be golfing on the course
at the time, have just about as much chance of passing as the
Germans had at Verdun.
 THE RECENTLY RICH THE LURE OF THE
The little gatherings of those to STAGE
whom wealth has all the It is simply wonderful how the
refreshing charm of novelty are a drama has helped our resorts
familiar and well-loved sight in the along. It’s surprising how much a
seaside resorts. They have done pair of friendly young actresses
nicely for themselves in munitions can add to the charm of a place.
stocks, and expect to devote the The male half of the visitors are
years of peace to well-earned unanimous in declaring that the
spending. drama is the greatest institution of
the age.

SEASIDE
PANORAMA
Ask any experienced
traveler what
impressed him most
about the seaside,
and he will
immediately answer
that the welcome
committee, which met
him at the portals of the hotel, and which bade him a tender farewell,
is the memory which he will cherish longest,—even to his dying day.

GLIMPSES WITHIN
How little we know of the “vie intime” of the fashionable stage idols,
twinkling stars in the dramatic firmament, far-removed from the
orchestra astronomers. It has been our recent privilege to interview,
at close range, lovely Angeline Etoille, the famous dancer of two
continents, whose throbbing reactions to the simple things of life are
indeed a revelation. Her enthusiasm for her art is inspiring. Her whole
life, for that matter,
may be said to be a
lesson in adorable
enthusiasms.
 An Interview with A Great Dancer
Privileged Peeps into the Soul of Mlle. Angeline,
of Paris

BARKING BLOSSOMS ALONG THE BEACH

“Animals! I adore them,” cried la “There is only one word,” said
Belle Etoille. “I could not exist Mlle. A., “which describes the
without them. Only see my three ocean in all its moods of calm and
canine graces, Rose, Violet, and storm, fickle as a lover, rising and
Lily. My maid sprays each one of falling like the stock-market, as
them with its name-perfume every changeable in color as the fashion
morning.” in hair. It is ‘adorable.’”

THE MOTHER INSTINCT

When we spoke of children, the lovely dancer’s face took on a
madonna-like expression. “I adore them,” she faltered. “I often borrow
my sister’s twins, for photographic purposes. It is my crown of sorrow
that I have none of my own, but, as I am young and unmarried; what
would you?”
 BUCOLIC BEAUTIES THE FLORAL TRIBUTE
“One of the most adorable things “How can I express my love of
in an adorable world,” said the flowers except by saying that I
dainty danseuse, “is the country. adore them?” questioned the
The lowing kine, the bleating exquisite Angeline. “They are,
lambs, the bosky dells, all within with me, a passion, and, do you
season-ticket distance. It is my know, I can gauge a man’s
dream. I constantly see myself as devotion by the way he sends me
a shepherdess, strolling through flowers. If he spends more than
the meadows, whispering my little his salary—he loves me. If he
secrets to the bees and birds.” spends only his salary, I know that
he is cold.”

ANGELINE’S ADORABLE ADIEU

It was with real regret that our interviewer rose to take his leave of
the dancing idol. The great diva, reclining on the great divan, had
given us such a charming close-up of her soul that, for a moment, we
felt specially privileged. And then, a fatal moment! we noted, behind
the arras, and protruding beyond the lower right-hand cushion, a
smartly shod male foot—a well-rounded male knee, and we realized
instinctively that others beside ourselves had found Mlle. Etoille—
adorable.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Depending on the hard- and software
used to read this text and their
settings, not all elements may display
as intended. Slightly adjusting the
magnification or zoom level may
improve the display of overlapping
elements.
The page lay-out is loosely based on
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without any attempt at exactly
emulating it.
Chapter titles often occur after section
titles, which may lead to confusing
autogenerated tables of content.
Inconsistencies in spelling, lay-out, use
of accents, etc. have been retained;
only some minor obvious
typographical errors have been
corrected silently. Errors in non-
English words have not been
corrected.
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