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 SECOND EDITION

Tunable
Laser
Optics

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 SECOND EDITION

Tunable
Laser
Optics
F.J. Duarte
INTERFEROMETRIC OPTICS, ROCHESTER, NEW YORK, USA

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
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© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20141121

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 Dedication

To my family.

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xiii
List of Tables ..........................................................................................................xxv
Preface..................................................................................................................xxvii
Author ...................................................................................................................xxix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Lasers ..........................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1
1.1.1 Historical Remarks.......................................................2
1.2 Lasers.........................................................................................3
1.2.1 Laser Optics .................................................................4
1.2.2 Laser Categories ...........................................................4
1.3 Excitation Mechanisms and Rate Equations .............................5
1.3.1 Rate Equations .............................................................5
1.3.2 Dynamics of Multiple-Level System ............................7
1.3.2.1 Example ...................................................... 11
1.3.2.2 Example ...................................................... 11
1.3.3 Transition Probabilities and Cross Sections ............... 12
1.3.3.1 Example ...................................................... 16
1.4 The Schrödinger Equation and Semiconductor Lasers ........... 16
1.4.1 A Heuristic Introduction to the Schrödinger
Equation ..................................................................... 16
1.4.2 The Schrödinger Equation via Dirac’s Notation ........ 18
1.4.3 The Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation ........... 19
1.4.4 Semiconductor Emission ............................................20
1.4.4.1 Example ......................................................20
1.4.5 Quantum Wells ........................................................... 22
1.4.6 Quantum Cascade Lasers ........................................... 23
1.4.6.1 Example ......................................................24
1.4.7 Quantum Dots ............................................................24
1.5 Introduction to Laser Resonators and Laser Cavities..............25
Problems ............................................................................................. 30

Chapter 2 Dirac Optics ....................................................................................... 31

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 31
2.2 Dirac’s Notation in Optics ....................................................... 31
2.3 Interference ..............................................................................34
2.3.1 Example ...................................................................... 37
2.3.2 Geometry of the N-Slit Interferometer ....................... 37
2.3.3 N-Slit Interferometer Experiment .............................. 39

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viii Contents

2.4 Generalized Diffraction .......................................................... 42

2.4.1 Positive Diffraction .................................................... 50
2.5 Positive and Negative Refraction ............................................. 50
2.6 Reflection ................................................................................. 51
2.7 The Cavity Linewidth Equation .............................................. 53
2.7.1 Introduction to Angular Dispersion ........................... 54
2.8 Dirac and the Laser ................................................................. 56
Problems ............................................................................................. 57

Chapter 3 The Uncertainty Principle in Optics .................................................. 59

3.1 Approximate Derivation of the Uncertainty Principle ............ 59
3.1.1 The Wave Character of Particles ................................ 59
3.1.2 The Diffraction Identity and the Uncertainty
Principle ..................................................................... 59
3.1.3 Alternative Versions of the Uncertainty Principle ..... 63
3.2 Applications of the Uncertainty Principle in Optics ...............64
3.2.1 Beam Divergence .......................................................64
3.2.1.1 Example ......................................................66
3.2.2 Beam Divergence and Astronomy..............................66
3.2.2.1 Laser Guide Star ......................................... 69
3.2.2.2 Example ...................................................... 69
3.3 The Interferometric Equation and the Uncertainty Principle ..... 70
3.3.1 Quantum Cryptography ............................................. 71
3.3.1.1 Example ...................................................... 74
Problems ............................................................................................. 76

Chapter 4 The Physics of Multiple-Prism Optics................................................ 77

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 77
4.2 Generalized Multiple-Prism Dispersion .................................. 78
4.2.1 Double-Pass Generalized Multiple-Prism
Dispersion ................................................................ 81
4.2.2 Multiple Return-Pass Generalized
Multiple- Prism Dispersion ......................................... 83
4.2.3 Single-Prism Equations .............................................. 85
4.3 Multiple-Prism Dispersion Linewidth Narrowing .................. 86
4.3.1 Mechanics of Linewidth Narrowing in Optically
Pumped Pulsed Laser Oscillators .............................. 86
4.3.2 Design of Zero-Dispersion Multiple-Prism Beam
Expanders ................................................................... 88
4.3.2.1 Example ...................................................... 89
4.3.2.2 Example ......................................................90

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Contents ix

4.4 Dispersion of Amici, or Compound, Prisms ........................... 91

4.4.1 Example ...................................................................... 93
4.5 Multiple-Prism Dispersion and Pulse Compression ................94
4.5.1 Example ...................................................................... 98
4.6 Applications of Multiple-Prism Arrays ...................................99
Problems ........................................................................................... 100

Chapter 5 Polarization ...................................................................................... 101

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 101
5.2 Maxwell Equations ................................................................ 101
5.3 Polarization and Reflection.................................................... 103
5.3.1 Plane of Incidence .................................................... 106
5.4 Jones Calculus ....................................................................... 106
5.4.1 Example .................................................................... 109
5.5 Polarizing Prisms .................................................................. 109
5.5.1 Transmission Efficiency in Multiple-Prism Arrays ....109
5.5.2 Induced Polarization in a Double-Prism Beam
Expander................................................................... 111
5.6 Double-Refraction Polarizers ................................................ 112
5.7 Intensity Control of Laser Beams Using Polarization ........... 114
5.8 Polarization Rotators ............................................................. 115
5.8.1 Birefringent Polarization Rotators ........................... 116
5.8.1.1 Example .................................................... 117
5.8.2 Broadband Prismatic Polarization Rotators ............. 117
5.8.2.1 Example .................................................... 119
Problems ........................................................................................... 120

Chapter 6 Laser Beam Propagation Matrices ................................................... 123

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 123
6.2 Abcd Propagation Matrices ................................................. 123
6.2.1 Properties of Abcd Matrices .................................. 125
6.2.2 Survey of Abcd Matrices........................................ 126
6.2.3 The Astronomical Telescope .................................... 132
6.2.4 A Single Prism in Space ........................................... 132
6.2.5 Multiple-Prism Beam Expanders ............................. 133
6.2.6 Telescopes in Series.................................................. 135
6.2.7 Single Return-Pass Beam Divergence ...................... 136
6.2.8 Multiple Return-Pass Beam Divergence .................. 138
6.2.9 Unstable Resonators ................................................. 140
6.3 Higher Order Matrices .......................................................... 140
Problems ........................................................................................... 143

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Chapter 7 Narrow-Linewidth Tunable Laser Oscillators .................................. 145

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 145
7.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Modes ..................................... 145
7.2.1 Transverse Mode Structure ...................................... 145
7.2.2 Longitudinal Mode Emission ................................... 148
7.3 Tunable Laser Oscillator Architectures................................. 151
7.3.1 Tunable Laser Oscillators without Intracavity
Beam Expansion ....................................................... 151
7.3.2 Tunable Laser Oscillators with Intracavity
Beam Expansion ....................................................... 155
7.3.3 Widely Tunable Narrow-Linewidth
External Cavity Semiconductor Lasers ................163
7.3.4 Distributed Feedback Lasers .................................... 165
7.4 Wavelength Tuning Techniques ............................................. 167
7.4.1 Prismatic Tuning Techniques ................................... 167
7.4.2 Diffractive Tuning Techniques ................................. 168
7.4.2.1 Example .................................................... 170
7.4.3 Synchronous Tuning Techniques ............................. 171
7.4.4 Bragg Gratings ......................................................... 172
7.4.5 Interferometric Tuning Techniques .......................... 173
7.4.6 Longitudinal Tuning Techniques for Laser
Microcavities ............................................................ 175
7.4.6.1 Example .................................................... 177
7.4.7 Birefringent Filters ................................................... 177
7.5 Polarization Matching ........................................................... 178
7.6 Design of Efficient Narrow-Linewidth Tunable Laser
Oscillators.............................................................................. 180
7.6.1 Useful Axioms for the Design of
Narrow-Linewidth Tunable Laser Oscillators .......... 181
7.7 Narrow-Linewidth Oscillator-Amplifiers .............................. 182
7.7.1 Laser-Pumped Narrow-Linewidth
Oscillator- Amplifiers ............................................... 182
7.7.2 Narrow-Linewidth MO Forced Oscillators .............. 183
7.8 Discussion .............................................................................. 185
Problems ........................................................................................... 185

Chapter 8 Nonlinear Optics .............................................................................. 187

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 187
8.1.1 Introduction to Nonlinear Polarization .................... 187
8.2 Generation of Frequency Harmonics .................................... 189
8.2.1 Second Harmonic and Sum-Frequency
Generation ............................................................189

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Contents xi

8.2.2 Difference-Frequency Generation and Optical

Parametric Oscillation.............................................. 192
8.2.3 The Refractive Index as a Function of Intensity ...... 196
8.3 Optical Phase Conjugation .................................................... 197
8.4 Raman Shifting .....................................................................200
8.5 Optical Clockwork.................................................................202
Problems ...........................................................................................204

Chapter 9 Lasers and Their Emission Characteristics ......................................205

9.1 Introduction ...........................................................................205
9.2 Gas Lasers .............................................................................206
9.2.1 Pulsed Molecular Gas Lasers ...................................206
9.2.2 Pulsed Atomic Metal Vapor Lasers .........................209
9.2.3 CW Gas Lasers.........................................................209
9.3 Organic Dye Lasers ............................................................... 212
9.3.1 Pulsed Organic Dye Lasers ...................................... 212
9.3.1.1 Solid-State Tunable Organic Lasers ......... 215
9.3.2 CW Organic Dye Lasers .......................................... 216
9.4 Solid-State Lasers .................................................................. 217
9.4.1 Ionic Solid-State Lasers ........................................... 218
9.4.2 Transition Metal Solid-State Lasers ......................... 218
9.4.3 Color Center Lasers .................................................. 219
9.4.4 Diode Laser-Pumped Fiber Lasers ........................... 219
9.4.5 Optical Parametric Oscillators ................................. 220
9.5 Semiconductor Lasers ........................................................... 222
9.5.1 Tunable Quantum Cascade Lasers ........................... 223
9.5.2 Tunable Quantum Dot Lasers...................................224
9.6 Additional Lasers .................................................................. 225
Problems ........................................................................................... 226

Chapter 10 The N-Slit Laser Interferometer: Optical Architecture

and Applications ............................................................................... 229
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 229
10.2 Optical Architecture of the NSLI .......................................... 229
10.2.1 Beam Propagation in the NSLI ................................ 231
10.2.1.1 Example .................................................... 234
10.3 An Interferometric Computer ................................................ 234
10.4 Secure Interferometric Communications in Free Space ....... 236
10.4.1 Very Large NSLIs for Secure Interferometric
Communications in Free Space................................ 242
10.5 Applications of the NSLI .......................................................246
10.5.1 Digital Laser Micromeasurements ...........................246
10.5.2 Light Modulation Measurements ............................. 249

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xii Contents

10.5.3 Wavelength Meter and Broadband Interferograms .... 249

10.5.4 Imaging Laser Printers ............................................. 251
Problems ........................................................................................... 253

Chapter 11 Interferometry .................................................................................. 255

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 255
11.2 Two-Beam Interferometers .................................................... 255
11.2.1 The Sagnac Interferometer ....................................... 255
11.2.2 The Mach–Zehnder Interferometer .......................... 257
11.2.3 The Michelson Interferometer.................................. 259
11.3 Multiple-Beam Interferometers .............................................260
11.3.1 The Hanbury Brown–Twiss Interferometer ............. 261
11.3.2 The Fabry–Pérot Interferometer............................... 262
11.3.3 Design of Fabry–Pérot Etalons ................................266
11.3.3.1 Example .................................................... 268
11.4 Coherent and Semicoherent Interferograms.......................... 268
11.4.1 Example .................................................................... 269
11.5 Interferometric Wavelength Meters ....................................... 270
11.5.1 Fabry–Pérot Wavelength Meters .............................. 273
Problems ........................................................................................... 275

Chapter 12 Spectrometry .................................................................................... 277

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 277
12.2 Spectrometry ......................................................................... 277
12.2.1 Prism Spectrometers ................................................ 277
12.2.2 Diffraction Grating Spectrometers...........................280
12.2.2.1 Example .................................................... 282
12.3 Dispersive Wavelength Meters .............................................. 283
Problems ........................................................................................... 285

Chapter 13 Physical Constants and Optical Quantities ...................................... 287

13.1 Fundamental Physical Constants ........................................... 287
13.2 Conversion Quantities ........................................................... 287
13.3 Units of Optical Quantities .................................................... 289
13.4 Dispersion Constants of Optical Materials ........................... 289
13.5 ∂n/∂T of Laser and Optical Materials .................................... 292
Problems ........................................................................................... 292

References ............................................................................................................. 293

Index ...................................................................................................................... 317

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Figures
1.1 Basic laser resonator. It is composed of an atomic, or molecular, gain
medium and two mirrors aligned along the optical axis. The length of
the cavity is L, and the diameter of the beam is 2w. The gain medium
can be excited optically or electrically............................................................3
1.2 Approximate emission ranges for three classes of laser dyes: the
coumarins, the xanthenes, and the cyanines. The rhodamines belong
to the xanthenes. The cyanines reach up to 1100 nm. The wavelength
range shown is covered using several laser dyes .........................................5
1.3 Molecular structure of C545T. This laser dye has a molecular
weight of 430.56 mu ........................................................................................6
1.4 Wavelength tuning range of a grating mirror laser cavity using C545T
as gain medium ...............................................................................................6
1.5 Simple two-level energy system including a ground level and
an upper level ............................................................................................... 6
1.6 Energy-level diagram corresponding to a laser dye molecule,
which includes three electronic levels (S0, S1, and S2) and two triplet
levels (T1 and T2). Each electronic level contains a large number of
vibrational and rotational levels. Laser emission takes place due to
S1 → S0 transitions ...........................................................................................8
1.7 Approximate wavelength range covered by various types of
semiconductors used in tunable lasers. This is only an approximate
depiction and some of the ranges might not be continuous. Not
shown are the InGaAs/InP semiconductors that emit between 1600
and 2100 nm or the quantum cascade lasers that emit deep into the
infrared (see Chapter 9) ................................................................................ 17
1.8 Conduction and valence bands according to EK = ±(k 2 2 /2 m)....................21
1.9 Emission due to recombination transitions from the bottom of the
conduction band to the top of the valence band ........................................... 21
1.10 Potential well V(x) = 0 for 0 < x < L and V(x) = ∞ for x = 0 or x = L ........ 22
1.11 Simplified illustration of a multiple-quantum well structure relevant
to quantum cascade lasers. An electron is injected from the injector
region into the active region at n2 = 3. Thus, a photon is emitted via
the 3 → 2 transition. The electron continues to the next region where
the process is repeated. By configuring a series of such stages, one
electron can generate the emission of numerous photons ............................24
1.12 (a) Transverse laser excitation. (b) Transverse double-laser excitation.
(c) Longitudinal laser excitation ...................................................................26
1.13 (a) Grating mirror resonator and (b) grating mirror resonator
incorporating an intracavity etalon...............................................................26

xiii

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xiv List of Figures

1.14 Cross section of a TEM00 laser beam from a high-power narrow-

linewidth dispersive laser oscillator. The spatial intensity profile of
this beam is near-Gaussian ........................................................................... 27
1.15 Basic unstable resonator laser cavity ............................................................28
1.16 (a) Linear and (b) unidirectional eight-shaped ring dye laser cavities..........28
1.17 (a) Linear femtosecond laser cavity. (b) Ring femtosecond laser
resonator. Both laser configurations include a saturable absorber
and a multiple-prism pulse compressor ........................................................ 29
2.1 Propagation from s to x is expressed as x s ............................................... 32
2.2 Propagation from s to x via an intermediate plane j is
expressed as x j j s ................................................................................. 32
2.3 Propagation from s to x via two intermediate planes j and k is
expressed as x k k j j s ........................................................................ 32
2.4 (a) Propagation from s to x via an array of N slits positioned at the
intermediate plane j. (b) Propagation from s to x via an array of N slits
positioned at the intermediate plane j and via an additional array of
N slits positioned at k .................................................................................... 33
2.5 Optical architecture of the N-slit laser interferometer. Light from
a TEM00 narrow-linewidth laser is transformed into an extremely
elongated near-Gaussian source (s) to illuminate an array of N slits
at j. Interaction of the coherent emission with the slit array produces
interference at x. The j-to-x intra-interferometric distance is D x j .
This class of interferometric architecture was first introduced by
Duarte (1991, 1993) ............................................................................................... 34
2.6 A two-dimensional representation of the x j j s geometry ................... 36
2.7 A detailed representation of the x j j s geometry depicting
the difference in path length and the angles of incidence
and diffraction ...................................................................................... 38
2.8 (a) Measured interferogram resulting from the interaction of coherent
laser emission at λ = 632.82 nm and two (N = 2) slits 50 μm
wide, separated by 50 μm. The j-to-x distance is D x j = 10 cm.
(b) Corresponding theoretical interferogram from Equation 2.13.
Note that the screen axial distance refers to the distance at
the interferometric plane that defines the spatial width of the
interferogram and that is perpendicular to the propagation axis..................40
2.9 (a) Measured interferogram resulting from the interaction of
coherent laser emission at λ = 632.82 nm and N = 100 slits 30 μm
wide, separated by 30 μm. The j-to-x distance is D x j = 75 cm.
(b) Corresponding theoretical interferogram from Equation 2.13................ 41
2.10 Theoretical interferometric/diffraction distribution using a ≤2%
uncertainty in the dimensions of the 30-μm slits. In this calculation,
N = 100 and the j-to-x distance is D x j = 75 cm. A slight deterioration
in the spatial symmetry of the distribution is evident .................................. 42
2.11 Theoretical near-field diffraction distribution produced by a 4-mm
aperture illuminated at λ = 632.82 nm. The j-to-x distance is
D x j = 10 cm ................................................................................................ 43

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List of Figures xv

2.12 Theoretical interferometric distribution illustrating a cascade

calculation. It incorporates diffraction-edge effects in the
illumination. In this calculation, the width of the slits in the array
is 30 μm separated by 30 μm, N = 100, and the j-to-x distance is
D x j = 75 cm. The aperture-to-grating distance is 10 cm .......................... 44
2.13 Emergence of secondary diffraction (±1) orders as the j-to-x
distance is increased. (a) At a grating-to-screen distance of
D x j = 5 cm, the interferometric distribution is mainly part of a
single order. At the boundaries, there is an incipient indication of
emerging orders. (b) As the distance is increased to D x j = 10 cm,
the presence of the emerging (±1) orders is more visible. (c) At
a distance of D x j = 25 cm, the emerging (±1) orders give rise
to an overall distribution with clear shoulders. (d) At a distance
of D x j = 75 cm, the −1, 0, and +1 diffraction orders are clearly
established. Notice the increase in the width of the distribution as
the intra-interferometric distance D x j increases from 5 to 75 cm.
The width of the slits is 30 μm separated by 30 μm, N = 100, and
λ = 632.82 nm .........................................................................................45
2.14 Incidence below the normal (−) and diffraction above the normal (+) ........ 47
2.15 Incidence above the normal (+) and diffraction above the normal (+) ........ 47
2.16 Incidence below the normal (−) followed by diffraction below
the normal (−) ............................................................................................... 48
2.17 Incidence above the normal (+) followed by diffraction below
the normal (−) ............................................................................................... 48
2.18 A reflection diffraction grating is formed by approaching a reflection
surface at an infinitesimal distance to the array of N-slits ........................... 52
2.19 Single prism depicting refraction at minimum deviation ............................. 55
3.1 Boundary at a transmission grating depicting corresponding path
differences. Further details on the geometry of the transmission
grating are given in Chapter 2 ...................................................................... 61
3.2 Path differences in a diffraction grating of the reflective class in
Littrow configuration. From the geometry, sin Θ = (Δx/l)........................... 62
3.3 Beam divergence for two different apertures at wavelength λ.
(a) An expanded laser beam is incident on a microhole of diameter 2w.
(b) The same laser beam is incident on a microhole of diameter 4w ........... 65
3.4 Beam divergence for (a) λ = 450 nm and (b) λ = 650 nm. In both
cases, an expanded laser beam is incident on identical microholes
of diameter 2w .............................................................................................. 65
3.5 Beam divergence determined from the generalized interference
equation. (a) Beam profile following propagation through a distance
of 0.5 m. (b) Beam profile following propagation through a distance
of 5 m. Here, w0 = 100 µm and λ = 632.82 nm. Using the difference
in beam waist w over the propagation distance, the beam divergence is
determined to be Δθ ≈ 1.9 mrad ................................................................... 67
3.6 Reflection telescopes used in astronomical observations:
(a) Newtonian telescope; (b) Cassegranian telescope ................................... 68

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xvi List of Figures

3.7 Generic experimental configuration of a source emitting two

indistinguishable quanta traveling in opposite directions with
entangled polarizations. This experimental arrangement is a simplified
rendition of the original configuration introduced by Pryce and Ward........ 72
3.8 Experimental configuration of a source emitting two pairs (n = 4) of
indistinguishable quanta traveling in four different directions (N = 4)
with entangled polarizations. In the theoretical development, it is
assumed that all detectors are identical (d1 = d2 = d3 = d4 = d ) ................... 74
4.1 Generalized multiple-prism arrays: (a) Additive configuration;
(b) compensating configuration. Depiction of these generalized
prismatic configurations was introduced by Duarte and Piper .................... 78
4.2 Multiple-prism beam expander geometry in additive configuration
and its mirror image. A dispersive analysis through the multiple-
prism array and its mirror image is equivalent to a double-pass, or
return-pass, analysis. This type of description for multiple-prism
grating assemblies was first introduced by Duarte and Piper ...................... 82
4.3 Additional perspective on the multiple-prism grating assembly used
to perform the dispersive multiple-return pass analysis as explained
by Duarte and Piper. The multiple-prism configuration can be either
additive or compensating and can be composed of any number of prisms..... 83
4.4 (a) MPL grating semiconductor laser oscillators incorporating a
( + , + , + , −) compensating multiple-prism configuration (a) and a
( + , − , + , −) compensating multiple-prism configuration (b)......................... 87
4.5 HMPGI grating solid-state organic laser oscillator incorporating a
compensating ( + , −) double-prism configuration ......................................... 88
4.6 Optimized multiple-prism grating tunable organic laser oscillator
incorporating a compensating ( + , −) double-prism configuration.
This oscillator demonstrated single-transverse-mode beam
characteristics and single-longitudinal-mode emission at
Δν ≈ 350 MHz and Δt ≈ 3 ns .......................................................................90
4.7 Single dispersive prism, made of fused silica, with a negative
dispersion of ∇ λ φ2,1 ≈ −0.0386 for the D2 line of sodium at
λ = 588.9963 nm. The calculations indicate a severe beam deviation. ........ 91
4.8 Double-prism Amici configuration comprising a fused silica
prism and a higher diffractive index Schott SF10 prism. Here,
∇ λ φ2,2 ≈ −0.0330 at λ = 588.9963 nm and the exit beam is in
the same direction, albeit still displaced, as the incident beam.
(Drawing not to scale.) ..................................................................................92
4.9 Three-prism Amici, direct-vision, configuration. The first and third
prisms are made of fused silica (n1 = n3 = 1.458413), whereas the
second prism, positioned at the center of the configuration, is made of
Schott SF10 (n2 = 1.728093). As explained in the text, this compound
prism is formed by unfolding the double-prism configuration shown
in Figure 4.8. Here, the overall dispersion is ∇ λ φ2,3 ≈ +0.0720 at
λ = 588.9963 nm, and the exit beam is collinear with the incident
beam as discussed in the text. (Drawing not to scale.) .................................92

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Figures xvii

4.10 Double-prism pulse compressor ...................................................................94

4.11 Four-prism pulse compressor obtained by symmetrically unfolding
the double-prism configuration ..................................................................... 95
5.1 Reflection boundary defining the plane of incidence. Sometimes,
the plane of incidence is also referred to as the plane of propagation ........ 103
5.2 Reflection intensity as a function of angle of incidence. The angle at
which the reflection vanishes is known as the Brewster angle ................... 105
5.3 Various forms of polarization and their vector representation in
Jones calculus ............................................................................................. 108
5.4 Generalized multiple-prism array in additive configuration (a) and
compensating configuration (b). Depiction of multiple-prism arrays in
this form was introduced by Duarte and Piper ........................................... 110
5.5 Double-prism expander as described in the text......................................... 111
5.6 Generic Glan–Thompson polarizer. The beam polarized parallel to the
plane of incidence is transmitted while the complementary component
is deviated (drawing not to scale)................................................................ 113
5.7 Solid-state MPL grating dye laser oscillator, yielding single-
longitudinal-mode emission, incorporating a Glan–Thompson
polarizer output coupler. The reflective coating is applied to the outer
surface of the polarizer ............................................................................... 114
5.8 Generic Wollaston prism. The lines and circle represent the
direction of the crystalline optical axis of the prism components
(drawing not to scale) .................................................................................. 114
5.9 Attenuation of polarized laser beams using a Glan–Thompson
polarizer: (a) polarizer set for ~100% transmission; (b) clockwise
rotation of the polarizer, about the axis of propagation by π/2, yielding
~0% transmission. The amount of transmitted light can be varied
continuously by rotating the polarizer in the 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 range ................ 115
5.10 Side view of double Fresnel rhomb. Linearly polarized light
is rotated by π/2 and exits with polarized orthogonally to the
original polarization ........................................................................................116
5.11 Basic prism operator for polarization rotation using two reflections.
This can be composed of two 45° prisms adjoined π/2 to each
other (note that it is also manufactured as one piece). (a) Side
view of the rotator illustrating the basic rotation operation due to
one reflection. The beam with the rotated polarization exists the
prism into the plane of the figure. (b) The prism rotator is itself
rotated anticlockwise by π/2 about the rotation axis (as indicated),
thus providing an alternative perspective of the operation: the
beam is now incident into the plane of the figure and it is reflected
downward with its polarization rotated by π/2 relative to the
original orientation................................................................................ 118
5.12 Broadband collinear prism polarization rotator ......................................... 119
5.13 Transmission fidelity of the broadband collinear polarization rotator:
(a) intensity profile of incident beam, prior to rotation, and (b) intensity
profile of transmitted beam with rotated polarization ................................ 120

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xviii List of Figures

6.1 Geometry for propagation through distance l in free space.

The displacement l is along the z-axis that is perpendicular to x ............... 124
6.2 Thin convex lens ......................................................................................... 124
6.3 N optical elements in series ........................................................................ 126
6.4 Geometry for propagation through distance l in region with
refractive index n ........................................................................................ 128
6.5 Slab of material with refractive index n such as an optical plate ............... 128
6.6 Concave lens ............................................................................................... 128
6.7 Galilean telescope....................................................................................... 129
6.8 Astronomical telescope............................................................................... 129
6.9 Flat mirror .................................................................................................. 129
6.10 Curved mirror ............................................................................................. 130
6.11 Reflective telescope of the Cassegrainian class. These reflective
configurations are widely applied to unstable resonators, which in the
far field can yield a near-TEM00 laser beam profile .................................... 130
6.12 Generalized flat reflection grating .............................................................. 130
6.13 Flat reflection grating in Littrow configuration .......................................... 131
6.14 Single prism ................................................................................................ 131
6.15 Multiple-prism beam expander ................................................................... 131
6.16 Single prism preceded by a distance L1 and followed by a distance L2 ...... 133
6.17 Generalized multiple-prism array (a) Describes an additive
configuration and (b) a compensating configuration .................................. 134
6.18 Series of telescopes separated by a distance Lm ......................................... 135
6.19 MPL grating laser oscillator ..................................................................136
6.20 Unfolded laser cavity for multiple-return-pass analysis. L1 is
the intracavity distance between the polarizer output coupler
and the gain medium, L2 is the intracavity distance between the
gain medium and the multiple-prism expander, and L3 is the
intracavity distance between the multiple-prism expander and the
diffraction grating .................................................................................137
7.1 Mirror–mirror laser cavity. The physical dimensions of the intracavity
aperture relative to the cavity length determine the number of
transverse modes......................................................................................... 146
7.2 Cross section of diffraction distribution corresponding to a large
number of transverse modes. Here, w = 1.5 mm, L = 10 cm,
λ = 632.82 nm, and the Fresnel number becomes NF ≈ 35.56 ................... 147
7.3 Cross section of diffraction distribution corresponding to a near-
TEM00 corresponding to w = 250 μm, L = 40 cm, and λ = 632.82 nm,
so that NF ≈ 0.25 ......................................................................................... 147
7.4 Mode beating resulting from DLM oscillation. (a) Measured temporal
pulse. (b) Calculated temporal pulse assuming interference between
the two longitudinal modes......................................................................... 149
7.5 Fabry–Pérot interferogram corresponding to SLM emission at
Δν ≈ 350 MHz ............................................................................................ 150
7.6 Near-Gaussian temporal pulse corresponding to SLM emission.
The temporal scale is 1 ns/div ........................................................................150

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Figures xix

7.7 Grating-mirror tunable laser cavity ............................................................ 151

7.8 Grating-mirror laser cavity incorporating intracavity etalons.................... 151
7.9 Grazing-incidence grating cavities: (a) open cavity; (b) closed cavity ....... 152
7.10 Grating efficiency curve as a function of angle of incidence at
λ = 632.82 nm ............................................................................................ 153
7.11 Two-dimensional transmission telescope Littrow grating laser cavity.
This class of telescopic cavity was first introduced by Hänsch .................. 156
7.12 Long pulse MPL grating solid-state organic dye laser oscillator
incorporating a ( + , + , + , −) compensating multiple-prism
configuration. Laser linewidth is Δν ≈ 650 MHz at a pulse length
of Δt ≈ 105 ns ............................................................................................. 157
7.13 Optimized compact MPL grating solid-state organic dye
laser oscillator. Laser linewidth is Δν ≈ 350 MHz at a pulse
length of Δt ≈ 3 ns ...................................................................................... 158
7.14 Solid-state HMPGI grating organic dye laser oscillator. Laser
linewidth is Δν ≈ 375 MHz at a pulse length of Δt ≈ 7 ns ......................... 158
7.15 (a) MPL and (b) HMPGI grating high-power pulsed CO2 laser
oscillators. The prisms are made of ZnSe and the output couplers
are made of Ge ............................................................................................159
7.16 MPL (a) and HMPGI (b) grating semiconductor laser oscillators ............. 164
7.17 (a) MPL transmission grating semiconductor laser oscillator designed
to produce circular TEM00 emission. The semiconductor is oriented
to emit its elongated beam with the long axis perpendicular to the
plane of propagation. Intracavity prismatic beam expansion (parallel
to the plane of propagation) renders a nearly circular output beam.
(b) MPL grating semiconductor laser oscillator configuration
designed to produce circular TEM00 emission. The same expansion
strategy is used as in (a) while using a reflection grating in Littrow
configuration and beam expansion at both ends of the cavity. The
multiple-prism beam expansion illuminating the grating can be as
large as necessary to yield very narrow linewidths...................................165
7.18 Generic DFB laser configuration ................................................................ 166
7.19 Multiple-prism tuning ................................................................................. 169
7.20 Diffraction grating deployed in near-grazing-incidence
configuration .................................................................................... 169
7.21 Diffraction grating deployed in Littrow configuration. Here, the angle
of incidence equals the angle of diffraction (Θ = Φ) ................................. 170
7.22 A synchronous wavelength tuning configuration ....................................... 171
7.23 Solid etalon depicting incidence and refraction angles .............................. 174
7.24 Longitudinal tuning applicable to laser microcavities. The cavity
length L is changed by a minute amount ΔL (see text) ............................... 175
7.25 Dispersive cavity linewidth at two slightly different frequencies.
It is assumed that ∆λ1 ≈ ∆λ 2 , while the intracavity FSR changes .............. 176
7.26 Polarization preference as explained by Duarte (1990b): (a) An
excitation beam polarized perpendicular to the plane of propagation
yields emission also polarized perpendicular to the plane of

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xx List of Figures

propagation; (b) the same excitation emission polarized parallel to the

plane of propagation yields emission, in the same molecular active
medium, partially polarized in both directions (see text)...........................178
7.27 Multiple-stage single-pass laser amplification............................................ 183
7.28 Master oscillator Forced oscillator laser configuration .............................. 184
8.1 Optical configuration for frequency doubling generation .......................... 190
8.2 Optical configuration for sum-frequency generation.................................. 192
8.3 Optical configuration for difference-frequency generation ........................ 192
8.4 Basic OPO configuration ............................................................................ 193
8.5 Dispersive OPO using a HMPGI grating configuration as
described by Duarte .................................................................................... 195
8.6 Simplified representation of self-focusing, due to n = n0 + n2 I,
in an optical medium due to propagation of a laser beam with a
near- Gaussian intensity profile ................................................................... 197
8.7 The concept of optical phase conjugation................................................... 198
8.8 Basic phase-conjugated laser cavity ........................................................... 199
8.9 Optical configuration for H2 Raman shifter. The output window
and the dispersing prism are made of CaF2 ................................................200
8.10 Stokes and anti-Stokes emission in H2 for λ P = 500 nm ............................ 201
8.11 Schematics for determining the frequency difference (2ν − ν) in
the optical clockwork approach. This is a simplified version of the
intensity versus frequency diagram considered by Diddams et al. ........203
10.1 NSLI depicting the Galilean telescope, the focusing lens, the
multiple-prism beam expander, the position of the N-slit array (j),
or transmission surface of interest, and the interferometric
plane (x). The intra-interferometric distance from j to x is
D x j . A depiction of approximate beam profiles, at various
propagation stages, is included on top. This drawing is not to scale ......230
10.2 Intensity profile of an extremely elongated, approximately 1:1000
(height:width), near-Gaussian laser beam .................................................. 230
10.3 Measured interferogram (a) and calculated interferogram (b).
Slits are 30 μm wide, separated by 30 μm, and N = 100. The
intra-interferometric distance is D x j = 75 cm and λ = 632.82 nm.
This calculation assumes uniform illumination (see Chapter 2) ................ 235
10.4 Computational time, in a universal computer, as a function
of the number of slits. For these calculations, the slit width is 30 μm,
the interslit width 30 μm, the j-to-x distance is D x j = 75 cm, and
λ = 632.28 nm ........................................................................................ 236
10.5 Very large NSLI configured without the focusing lens. In this
class of interferometer, the intra-interferometric path is in the
7 ≤ D x j ≤ 527 m range, although larger configurations are possible.
In these NSLIs, the TEM00 beam from the He–Ne laser is transmitted
via a spatial filter......................................................................................... 237
10.6 Interferometric alphabet: (a) a (N = 2); (b) b (N = 3); (c) c (N = 4);
(d) z (N = 26). For these calculations, the slits are 50 μm, separated by
50 μm, D x j = 50 cm, and λ = 632.82 nm ................................................. 238

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List of Figures xxi

10.7 Interception sequence for the interferometric character a (N = 2)

the slits are 50 μm, separated by 50 μm, D x j = 10 cm, and
λ = 632.82 nm. (a) Original interferometric character. (b–d)
Show the distortion sequence of the interferometric character
due to the insertion of a thin beam splitter into the optical path.
(e) Interferometric character a showing slight distortion and
displacement due to the stationary beam splitter .........................................239
10.8 The interferometric character c (N = 4). Here, the slits are 570 μm,
separated by 570 μm, D x j = 7.235 m, and λ = 632.82 nm....................... 242
10.9 The interferometric character c (N = 4), as described in Figure 10.8,
destroyed by optical interception. See text for further details .................... 243
10.10 The interferometric character c (N = 4), as described in Figure 10.8,
distorted due to turbulence generated by a thermal source. See text for
further details ............................................................................................. 243
10.11 The interferometric character c (N = 4) showing a slight unevenness
due to incipient atmospheric turbulence. Here, the slits are 1000 μm,
separated by 1000 μm, D x j = 35 m, and λ = 632.82 nm .........................244
10.12 The interferometric character b (N = 3) used as a control. Here,
the slits are 570 μm, separated by 570 μm, D x j = 7.235 m, and
λ = 632.82 nm ............................................................................................244
10.13 The interferometric character b (N = 3) intercepted by a spider web
silk fiber positioned at D x j = 7.235 − 0.150 m. The slits are 570 μm,
separated by 570 μm; the interferogram is recorded at D x j = 7.235 m
and λ = 632.82 nm...................................................................................... 245
10.14 Theoretical interferometric character b (N = 3) assuming interception by
a spider web silk fiber positioned at D x j = 7.235 − 0.150 m (see text).
The slits are 570 μm, separated by 570 μm; the interferometric plane is
positioned at D x j = 7.235 m and λ = 632.82 nm ........................................ 245
10.15 Transmission signal showing no interference from an optical
homogeneous imaging surface (a) and interferogram from an imaging
surface including relatively fine particles (b).............................................. 247
10.16 NSLI configured in the reflection mode ..................................................... 249
10.17 Near-field modulation signal in a weak interferometric domain arising
from the interaction of laser illumination, at λ = 632.82 nm, and a
grating composed of N = 23 slits 100 μm wide separated by 100 μm.
The intra-interferometric distance is D x j = 1.5 cm. Measured
modulation signal (a) and calculated signal (b). Each pixel is 25 μm wide .... 250
10.18 Measured double-slit interferogram generated using a broadband
visible light source. The slits are 50 μm wide separated by 50 μm
and the intra-interferometric distance is D x j = 10 cm .............................. 251
10.19 Three-color industrial PMPML printer used to expose a scale of
images at various laser intensities for sensitometric measurements.
The telescope expands the beam in two dimensions, whereas the
multiple-prism beam expander magnifies in only one dimension
parallel to the plane of propagation ............................................................ 252
10.20 Diffraction profile of the illumination line at λ = 532 nm ......................... 253

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xxii List of Figures

11.1 Sagnac interferometer. All three mirrors M1, M2, and M3 are assumed
to be identical.............................................................................................. 256
11.2 Triangular Sagnac interferometer ............................................................... 257
11.3 Mach–Zehnder interferometer .................................................................... 257
11.4 Prismatic Mach–Zehnder interferometer ................................................... 258
11.5 Michelson interferometer............................................................................ 259
11.6 N-slit interferometer. CMOS, complementary metal–oxide–
semiconductor; TEM00, single transverse mode .........................................260
11.7 The Hanbury Brown and Twiss interferometer. The light, from an
astronomical source, is collected at mirrors M1 and M2 and focused
onto detectors d1 and d2. The current generated at these detectors,
i1 and i2, interfere at the electronics to produce an interference signal
characterized by an equation of the form of Equation 11.18 with N = 2.... 261
11.8 Fabry–Pérot interferometer (a) and Fabry–Pérot etalon (b). Dark lines
represent coated surfaces. Focusing optics is often used with these
interferometers when used in linewidth measurements ............................. 263
11.9 Multiple-beam interferometer: (a) Multiple internal reflection diagram;
(b) detailed view depicting the angles of incidence and refraction ............ 263
11.10 Fabry–Pérot interferogram depicting single-longitudinal-mode
oscillation, at Δν ≈ 700 MHz, from a tunable multiple-prism grating
solid-state oscillator ....................................................................................266
11.11 Measured double-slit (N = 2) interferogram generated with a
broadband light source. The slits are 50 μm wide separated
by 50 μm and D x j = 10 cm. Comparison with other two-slit
interferograms generated with coherent sources (see Figures 11.12
and 11.13) reveals lack of spatial definition and low visibility as
defined by Equation 11.50 ....................................................................... 269
11.12 Double-slit interferogram from the narrow-linewidth emission from
the 3s2 − 2 p10 transition of a He–Ne laser, at λ ≈ 543.3 nm. The
visibility of this interferogram is V ≈ 0.95. Here, N = 2, the slits are
50 μm wide separated by 50 μm, and D x j = 5 cm ................................... 270
11.13 Double-slit interferogram from an electrically excited organic
semiconductor interferometric emitter at λ ≈ 540 nm. The visibility
of this interferogram is less than V ≈ 0.90. Here, N = 2, the slits are
50 μm wide separated by 50 μm, and D x j = 5 cm .................................... 270
11.14 Interferograms at λ1 = 580 nm (a), λ 2 = 585 nm (b), λ 3 = 590 nm (c),
and λ 4 = 591 nm (d). These calculations are for slits 100 μm wide,
separated by 100 μm, and N = 50. The j-to-x distance is D x j = 100 cm .....271
11.15 Multiple-etalon wavelength meter .............................................................. 273
11.16 (a) Fizeau wavelength meter. (b) Geometrical details of a Fizeau
interferometer ............................................................................................. 274
12.1 Simple optical configuration for absorption measurements using
a spectrometer............................................................................................. 278
12.2 Simplified optical configuration for fluorescence and emission
measurements, in an optically pumped laser system, using
spectrophotometers. A narrow-linewidth tunable laser excites

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Figures xxiii

longitudinally a molecular medium, such as I2, and the emission is

detected by spectrometer 1 via a filter F used to stop residual emission
from the pump tunable laser. In addition, the emission can also be
detected via the reflection of the Brewster window of the optical cell in
spectrometer 2. The fluorescence and emission are detected orthogonally
to the optical axis in spectrometer 3 as described by Duarte.......................... 278
12.3 Fluorescence spectrum of the I2 molecule generated using
pulsed narrow-linewidth tunable laser excitation in the vicinity
of λ = 589.586 nm. The tuning range is 30 GHz or ~1 cm−1 as
described by Duarte .................................................................................... 279
12.4 Long-optical path double-prism spectrometer............................................280
12.5 Dispersive assembly of multiple-prism spectrometer. The angle
of incidence φ1,m and the angle of emergence φ2,m are identical for
all prisms. In addition to the cumulative dispersion, resolution
is determined by the path length toward the exit slit and the
dimensions of the slit ..................................................................................280
12.6 (a) Basic grating spectrometer. The resolution is mainly determined by
the dispersion of the grating, deployed in a non-Littrow configuration,
and by the optical path length toward the exit slit (S2). (b) A
variation on the basic grating spectrometer consists in deploying
a high-dispersion diffraction grating in conjunction with a high
spatial resolution digital detector (CCD or CMOS) to register the
diffracted light ............................................................................................ 282
12.7 Czerny–Turner spectrometer. Mirrors M1 and M2 provide the
necessary curvature to focus the diffracted beam at the exit slit ............... 283
12.8 Double-grating Czerny–Turner spectrometer. Mirrors M1 and M2
provide the necessary curvature to focus the diffracted beam
at the exit slit ............................................................................................... 283
12.9 Architecture of the prism grating wavelength meter. A reference
wavelength (λ R ) beam and the measurement wavelength (λ M ) beam
are combined at the entrance beam splitter (BS). The reference
beam is used to provide the initial reference wavelength (λ R ) and for
alignment purposes (λ M > λ R ) . A second BS sends light from (λ M )
beam to a Fabry–Pérot (F–P). The (λ M ) and (λ R ) beams are separated
at the prism. The (λ M ) beam undergoes deflection at the prism grating
assembly, whereas the (λ R ) beam returns back on its original path.
The measurement beam (λ M ) undergoes augmented angular deflection
at the prism grating system and its position is registered by a
photodiode array or CCD. Resolution is a function of the overall prism
grating dispersion, the distance between the prism and the photodiode
array detector, and the spatial resolution (pixel dimensions) of the
digital detector ............................................................................................284

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
List of Tables
1.1 Molecular Transition Cross Sections for Rhodamine 6G............................. 11
1.2 Molecular Transition Rates and Decay Times for Rhodamine 6G .............. 11
4.1 Refractive Index and Its Derivatives for Prism Materials Used in
Pulse Compression........................................................................................99
6.1 Abcd Ray Transfer Matrices ..................................................................... 126
7.1 Performance of Tunable Laser Oscillators without Intracavity
Beam Expansion ......................................................................................... 155
7.2 Performance of Tunable Laser Oscillators with Intracavity
Beam Expansion ......................................................................................... 161
7.3 Laser-Pumped Narrow-Linewidth Oscillator-Amplifiers ........................... 183
7.4 Narrow-Linewidth MOFOs ........................................................................ 184
8.1 Second-Order Nonlinear Optical Susceptibilities ...................................... 188
8.2 Tunable Raman Shifting in Hydrogen ........................................................202
8.3 Harmonics of the 4 F3/2 − 4 I11/2 Transition of the Nd:YAG Laser .................202
9.1 Molecular Ultraviolet and Visible Pulsed Gas Lasers ................................207
9.2 Narrow-Linewidth Tunable Pulsed Excimer Laser Oscillators ..................208
9.3 Narrow-Linewidth Tunable Pulsed CO2 Laser Oscillators.........................208
9.4 Atomic Pulsed Gas Lasers..........................................................................209
9.5 Transitions of CW He–Ne Laser ................................................................ 210
9.6 Ionized CW Gas Lasers .............................................................................. 211
9.7 High-Power Laser-Pumped Organic Dye Lasers ....................................... 213
9.8 Narrow Linewidth Liquid Organic Dye Lasers .......................................... 214
9.9 High-Energy Flashlamp-Pumped Organic Dye Lasers.............................. 214
9.10 Broadband Solid-State Organic Dye Lasers ............................................... 215
9.11 Narrow-Linewidth Solid-State Organic Laser Oscillators ......................... 216
9.12 Performance of High-Power CW Organic Dye Lasers .............................. 217
9.13 Femtosecond Pulse Dye Lasers .................................................................. 217
9.14 Ionic Solid-State Lasers .............................................................................. 218
9.15 Transition Metal Solid-State Lasers ........................................................... 219
9.16 Ultrashort Pulse Solid-State Lasers ............................................................ 219
9.17 Diode Laser-Pumped Yb-Doped Fiber Lasers ........................................... 220
9.18 Tunable Fiber Lasers ................................................................................... 220
9.19 Pulsed OPOs ............................................................................................... 221
9.20 Wavelength Coverage of Semiconductor Laser Materials .......................... 222
9.21 CW Diode Laser Arrays ............................................................................. 222
9.22 External Cavity Tunable Semiconductor Lasers ........................................ 223
9.23 MEMS Tunable Semiconductor Lasers ......................................................224
9.24 Ultrashort Pulse External Cavity Semiconductor Lasers ...........................224
9.25 Tunable External Cavity Quantum Cascade Lasers ................................... 225
9.26 Tunable External Cavity Quantum Dot Lasers........................................... 225
13.1 Fundamental Physical Constants ................................................................ 288

xxv

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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