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FRANCOPHONE BELGIAN CINEMA
Traditions in World Cinema

General Editors International Noir

Linda Badley (Middle Tennessee State Homer B. Pettey and R. Barton Palmer
University) (eds)
R. Barton Palmer (Clemson University)
Films on Ice
Scott MacKenzie and Anna Westerståhl
Founding Editor
Stenport (eds)
Steven Jay Schneider (New York
University) Nordic Genre Film
Tommy Gustafsson and Pietari Kääpä
Titles in the series include: (eds)
Contemporary Japanese Cinema Since
Traditions in World Cinema
Hana-Bi
Linda Badley, R. Barton Palmer and
Adam Bingham
Steven Jay Schneider (eds)
Chinese Martial Arts Cinema (2nd edition)
Japanese Horror Cinema
Stephen Teo
Jay McRoy (ed.)
Slow Cinema
New Punk Cinema
Tiago de Luca and Nuno Barradas Jorge
Nicholas Rombes (ed.)
Expressionism in Cinema
African Filmmaking
Olaf Brill and Gary D. Rhodes (eds)
Roy Armes
French Language Road Cinema: Borders,
Palestinian Cinema
Diasporas, Migration and ‘New Europe’
Nurith Gertz and George Khleifi
Michael Gott
Czech and Slovak Cinema
Transnational Film Remakes
Peter Hames
Iain Robert Smith and Constantine
The New Neapolitan Cinema Verevis
Alex Marlow-Mann
Coming-of-age Cinema in New Zealand
American Smart Cinema Alistair Fox
Claire Perkins
New Transnationalisms in Contemporary
The International Film Musical Latin American Cinemas
Corey Creekmur and Linda Mokdad (eds) Dolores Tierney
Italian Neorealist Cinema Celluloid Cinema: Cinema, Performance
Torunn Haaland and the National
Edna Lim
Magic Realist Cinema in East Central
Europe Short Films from a Small Nation: Danish
Aga Skrodzka Informational Cinema 1935–1965
C. Claire Thomson
Italian Post-Neorealist Cinema
Luca Barattoni B-Movie Gothic: International
Perspectives
Spanish Horror Film
Justin D. Edwards and Johan Höglund
Antonio Lázaro-Reboll
(eds)
Post-beur Cinema
Francophone Belgian Cinema
Will Higbee
Jamie Steele
New Taiwanese Cinema in Focus
Flannery Wilson

edinburghuniversitypress.com/series/tiwc
FRANCOPHONE BELGIAN
CINEMA

Jamie Steele
Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK.
We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the
humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial
and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more
information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com

© Jamie Steele, 2019

Edinburgh University Press Ltd

The Tun – Holyrood Road
12 (2f) Jackson’s Entry
Edinburgh EH8 8PJ

Typeset in 10/12.5 pt Sabon by

Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire
and printed and bound in Great Britain

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 1 4744 2076 1 (hardback)

ISBN 978 1 4744 2077 8 (webready PDF)
ISBN 978 1 4744 2078 5 (epub)

The right of Jamie Steele to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and
Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498).
 CONTENTS

List of Figures vii

Acknowledgements ix
Traditions in World Cinema x

Introduction: Regional/National/Transnational Debates in

Francophone Belgian Cinema 1
1. The (Francophone) Belgian Film Ecosystem: Trends in Production,
Distribution and Exhibition 26
2. ‘No Future’: Social Marginalisation, Social Precariousness and
Depictions of Seraing in Le gamin au vélo (Jean-Pierre and Luc
Dardenne, 2011) and Deux jours, une nuit (Jean-Pierre and Luc
Dardenne, 2014) 51
3. ‘Stills’ and Fragmented Families: Contemplating the Private Sphere
in Joachim Lafosse’s Wallonia 82
4. From Slag Heaps to Cliffs: The ‘Marked’ Regional Landscape in
Cages (Olivier Masset-Depasse, 2006) 105
5. The Francophone Belgian Road Movie: Eldorado (Bouli Lanners,
2008) and Ultranova (Bouli Lanners, 2005) 130
francophone belgian cinema

6. Lucas Belvaux’s Return: The Thriller Genre and Heists in Liège 155
Conclusion 178

Works Cited 186

Films Cited 207
Index 213

vi
 

FIGURES

2.1 Fabrice and Céline embrace along with their son, dressed as
a Gille (a traditional costume) during the local carnival at the
conclusion of Je pense à vous 52
2.2 In Le silence de Lorna, Lorna and Sokol dance in a Liégeois bar,
with an image of Seraing in its pomp, hidden in the background 65
2.3 Sandra meets with Mireille in the reception area of her apartment
block in Deux jours, une nuit 71
2.4 In Deux jours, une nuit, Sandra takes her Xanax pills as she
travels to her next meeting on the bus, with the Meuse glimpsed in
the background 72
2.5 Cyril looks on as a group of children from the Val-Potet estate
play a game of five-a-side football 74
2.6 Cyril and Samantha ride along the banks of the Meuse, with the
lateral movement of the camera running by their side 78
3.1 The camera retreats backwards, revealing the farmhouse before
unrolling through a country lane and a series of fields 89
3.2 The concluding image of Le grand paysage d’Alexis Droeven is
the sole farmhouse in the Fourons 90
3.3 Lafosse opts to break free from the focus on the character,
adopting a figurative frame as the father (Jan) suffocates his son
(Thomas) 93
3.4 Pascale and her two sons François and Thierry sit around the table 96
francophone belgian cinema

4.1 In Chambre froide, Rita stands atop a slag heap on the fringes of
the city of Charleroi 114
4.2 In Déjà s’envole la fleur maigre, Domenico introduces the young
Luigi to the Borinage and its issues of unemployment 115
4.3 The opening image of Chambre froide reveals Rita and her
mother visiting the grave of her deceased father, with the steel
plants in the background   117
4.4 Cages’ title sequence unrolls on the majestic cliffs of Nord-Pas-de-
Calais 120
4.5 Before Eve walks on stage to confront her inability to speak,
Masset-Depasse focuses on Eve’s eyes through a noirish vertical
pattern of lighting 124
4.6 Eve confronts Damien, after realising that he is having an affair
with Léa. Rainwater operates as a key motif in the sequence 127
5.1 Dimitri caresses a pair of tights, as he sits alone on the periphery
of the city of Liège 135
5.2 In Ultranova, the camera dollies forward through the mundane
warehouse, full of boxes, but with a limited number of workers 138
5.3 The opening sequence of Ultranova ends with an image of Dimitri
standing alone next to his upturned car 140
5.4 In Eldorado, Lanners fixes the camera on the agricultural fields
of Wallonia for twenty-three seconds, leaving the spectator to
notice the slight movement of the clouds and the flickering of the
wheatgrass in the wind 143
5.5 Yvan finds Elie still standing at the crossroads on the outskirts of
the city of Liège 149
6.1 Patrick’s family, alongside Marc, Robert and Jean-Pierre, sing ‘La
p’tite gayole’ 162
6.2 Carole’s broken-down mobylette is walked back by Patrick 167
6.3 Marc and Robert have a heated discussion against the backdrop
of the abstract lights that evoke the recycling and breaking-down
of the former steel plant 168

viii
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to place on record my thanks to the Society of

French Studies and their very valuable Small Research Support bursary, which
significantly helped research at the Cinémathèque Royale in Brussels during
the summer of 2015. I’d also like to thank the archivists and staff at the
Cinémathèque Royale for their help and support during my research trips from
2011 to 2017 for this project (and no doubt during research trips to come).
A further thank-you to Professor Will Higbee for his guidance, comments
and advice on this project throughout my PhD. Thanks are also due to the
University of Exeter, University of Bristol and Bath Spa University for employ-
ing me over the years (2014–present) during which this book was researched
and written. Their employment certainly helped with the continuation of this
cinematic journey through Belgium. And last, but not least, a special thanks to
my family and partner, Nicole Needham, for all of their unwavering support
over the many years it took to eventually realise this project.

ix
francophone belgian cinema

TRADITIONS IN WORLD CINEMA

General editors: Linda Badley and R. Barton Palmer

Founding editor: Steven Jay Schneider

Traditions in World Cinema is a series of textbooks and monographs devoted

to the analysis of currently popular and previously underexamined or under-
valued film movements from around the globe. Also intended for general inter-
est readers, the textbooks in this series offer undergraduate- and graduate-­level
film students accessible and comprehensive introductions to diverse traditions
in world cinema. The monographs open up for advanced academic study more
specialised groups of films, including those that require theoretically oriented
approaches. Both textbooks and monographs provide thorough examina-
tions of the industrial, cultural and socio-­historical conditions of production
and reception.
The flagship textbook for the series includes chapters by noted scholars
on traditions of acknowledged importance (the French New Wave, German
Expressionism), recent and emergent traditions (New Iranian, post-­Cinema
Novo), and those whose rightful claim to recognition has yet to be established
(the Israeli persecution film, global found footage cinema). Other volumes
concentrate on individual national, regional or global cinema traditions. As the
introductory chapter to each volume makes clear, the films under discussion
form a coherent group on the basis of substantive and relatively transparent,
if not always obvious, commonalities. These commonalities may be formal,

x
 traditions in world cinema

s­tylistic or thematic, and the groupings may, although they need not, be
popularly identified as genres, cycles or movements (Japanese horror, Chinese
martial arts cinema, Italian Neorealism). Indeed, in cases in which a group
of films is not already commonly identified as a tradition, one purpose of the
volume is to establish its claim to importance and make it visible (East Central
European Magical Realist cinema, Palestinian cinema).
Textbooks and monographs include:

• An introduction that clarifies the rationale for the grouping of films

under examination
• A concise history of the regional, national or transnational cinema
in question
• A summary of previous published work on the tradition
• Contextual analysis of industrial, cultural and socio-­historical condi-
tions of production and reception
• Textual analysis of specific and notable films, with clear and judicious
application of relevant film theoretical approaches
• Bibliograph(ies)/filmograph(ies)

Monographs may additionally include:

• Discussion of the dynamics of cross-­ cultural exchange in light of

current research and thinking about cultural imperialism and globalisa-
tion, as well as issues of regional/national cinema or political/aesthetic
­movements (such as new waves, postmodernism or ­identity politics)
• Interview(s) with key filmmakers working within the tradition.

xi
 introduction

INTRODUCTION: REGIONAL/NATIONAL/
TRANSNATIONAL DEBATES IN
FRANCOPHONE BELGIAN CINEMA

‘Good evening everyone. It is a critical hour, please excuse us for this

­interruption [. . .] Flanders is going to unilaterally proclaim its independence’
is the epiphanic and irruptive opening line from the feature-length docudrama
Tout ça (ne nous rendra pas la Belgique/Bye Bye Belgium (2006).1 On 13
December 2006, the pre-recorded Bye Bye Belgium was broadcast by the
television company RTBF (Radio et Télévision Belge Francophone) across
Belgium. The programme posited the end of Belgium as a sovereign and politi-
cal entity, drawing on a pervading sense of ‘national trauma’ (Collard 2014:
544). In the French-language newspaper La Libre Belgique, film critic Hubert
Heyrendt diachronically noted that, even six years after its initial release, the
made-for-television film remained ‘in the Belgian collective memory’ (Heyrendt
2012).2 As Frédéric Martel observes, the docudrama was based ‘on the model
offered by Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds [radio play]’ in which ‘program-
ming on RTBF was cut short and interrupted [. . . by] interviews with real
politicians and falsified reports’ (Martel 2010: 400). The programme becomes
even more prescient given the discourse around the notion of ‘fake news’, a
byword of 2016.3
Bye Bye Belgium comprises news bulletins and interviews with promi-
nent figures in politics and the media, examining the political issues (such as
national debts, the proposed national border, the new currency, the territorial-
ity of Brussels and the naming of Mechelen/Malines as the Flemish capital)
and socio-economic issues (the loss of jobs and the movement of businesses

1
francophone belgian cinema

between Belgium’s regions). Collard interprets these events as examples of

‘subversive remediation’, proposing that ‘RTBF’s spoof newscast effectively
staged multiple communicative texts simultaneously, and in so doing, stimu-
lated in the minds of interpreting agents the very type of cognitive procedure as
when presented with an adaptation’ (2014: 550). In essence, it offers another
version of ‘ethnic tensions’ (ibid.) between francophone and Flemish Belgian
speakers. The false presentation of these political concerns and issues on La
Une (a RTBF-run television channel) contrasts dramatically with Mosley’s
(2001: 11) analysis of public service broadcasting in Belgium. Mosley posits
that ‘in times of national crisis [. . .] informational programming (news bul-
letins, interviews, panel discussions, etc.) offers itself as a preferred source
of identification and reassurance’ (ibid.). Rather than providing reassurance,
the programme foreshadowed (by a period of six months) Belgium’s ‘political
crisis between 2007 and 2011’ (Hooghe 2012).4 In this case, the docudrama
articulates and represents a potential ‘hot nationalism’ (Billig 1995) in Belgium,
where issues of political independence and sovereignty for Flanders rise explic-
itly to the surface, to a point when they lead, in the programme’s terms, to the
‘implosion-explosion of a country’.
In 2017, francophone Belgian film institutions began to place a greater
emphasis on celebrating and valorising francophone Belgian cinema as unique
and distinct within the nation-state, through two film events. Organised by the
Cinémathèque Royale and the Centre du Cinéma et de l’Audiovisuel respec-
tively, they affirm the need to draw lines between the competing ‘national’
or ‘regional’ cinemas of Flanders and francophone Belgium (Brussels and
Wallonia). Mosley conceives this notion as part of a ‘“split screen” between
French- and Dutch-language cultures [which] largely determines the evolution
of Belgian cinema’ (Mosley 2001: 2). Firstly, the Cinémathèque Royale, in col-
laboration with the SCC (Service de Culture Cinématographique), launched an
event connected to the emergence of a key publication celebrating ‘40 years of
small studio or production company filmmaking’. The event’s abstract neatly
summarises the key debates and premises within francophone Belgian cinema,
noting

the importance of ateliers [studios] in the Belgian audiovisual landscape

[. . .] and [of] (re-)discovering the little gems that they have created.
These films were, at the time of their release, often political, marked by
discernible social themes and audacious cinematography. It is possible
to identify that the main common element between these small studios is
surely the ability to be the home of and to support emerging auteurs. This
is irrespective of the filmmakers’ form and approach, and this, as a result,
produces a rich cinema. (Cinémathèque Royale 2017)

2
 introduction

Whilst the event focuses on small studios and emerging and peripheral film-
making talents in French-speaking Belgium, such as Rachel Lang, Pablo Munoz
Gomez, Benoît Dervaux, Olivier Smolders and Danis Tanović, the abstract and
the curated film selection indicate an inherent sociopolitical film culture, as well
as a vibrant transnational, national and regional film industry in the French-
speaking community. The second – and more prominent – event celebrated
‘fifty years of Belgian cinema’ (1967–2017); what is revealed is an ‘auteurist’,
French-speaking cinema that does little to dispel elitist connotations of franco-
phone Belgian cinema, in contrast to its genre-based and popular cinema sister
in Flanders. The films selected for the anniversary do not reveal the initial con-
cerns pertaining to the loss of potential international co-productions. Although
the selection is organised by year, key names reverberate throughout, such as
André Delvaux, the Dardenne brothers, Jean-Jacques Andrien, Thierry Michel,
Marion Hänsel and Chantal Akerman, amongst others. This speaks to some of
the historical trends of francophone Belgian film production and necessitates an
industrial analysis (as discussed in Chapter One). The anniversary serves as a
diachronic reconsideration and re-evaluation of what constitutes francophone
Belgian cinema. The schedule celebrates the openness and diversity of cultural
representations produced within the linguistic community and/or the regions of
Bruxelles-Capitale and Wallonia. In essence, the schedule is inclusive, incorpo-
rating classical narratives, pornography, social realism, magical realism, genres
such as the road movie and the thriller, and diasporic filmmaking.
As a result, this book represents a timely consideration of francophone
Belgian cinema as policy-makers and curators attempt to redefine the ‘national’
and/or regional cinema at the point of its fiftieth anniversary. The canonical
line is peculiarly drawn in 1967, at the installation of a new French language
policy, seemingly – or selectively – forgetting the preceding formation of a
Flemish–Dutch language cinema and policy three years earlier. The enshrining
of the support of cinema in policy, and according to language, was a subject of
much debate. As Mosley presciently observes,

(s)omewhat disingenuously, given the historical construction of ‘Belgian’

culture in the French language, the francophones felt that the Flemish
initiative worked against both the external perception of a developing
national cinema in Belgium and the likelihood of international co-pro-
duction projects. (2001: 104)

This was even though the francophone Ministry for Culture had been support-
ing film production discreetly since 1964 (ibid.).
This study of francophone Belgian cinema is structured through a series
of flashpoints, acknowledging short bursts where filmmakers from the two
French-speaking regions of Belgium were recognised and valorised internally

3
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Figures 26 and 27 represent, in the same way, the primary and
secondary oscillations obtainable over the centre of, or parallel to the
needle.
Figures 28 and 29 represent the motions displayed by the
odometer, when it is held above various points in the interval
between two sovereigns, placed upon the table an inch and a half
asunder. Compound effects follow, produced by the joint influence of
the two bodies.

VI. I will finally describe the phenomena elicited by the odometer

from the living human frame, including those which are dependent
on difference of sex.
Parties to experiments with the odometer may be in the position
either of Od-subjects, or of reversers of its effects in the hands of
others, or they may be themselves components of the odometer.
I can discover absolutely no difference in the results obtained by
the odometer on men and women, when treated as Od-subjects.
The following results appear to me equally obtainable with persons
of both sexes.
With the exception of the arms below the elbows, the wrists and
hands, and of the legs below the knees, the ankles and feet, the two
sides of the person display the polar differences already noticed. If
the odometer be held over the right side of the head, (either front or
back,) over the right side of the face, over the right shoulder or
elbow, or right knee, it exhibits clock-rotation. Held over the same
parts on the left side, it exhibits versed-rotation. On touching the
odometer-finger with the thumb, these effects are of course
reversed.
If the odometer be held over the middle and outside of either
arm, or over the middle and back of either fore-arm or hand, it
oscillates longitudinally and towards the hand or foot. On reapplying
the thumb, these longitudinal oscillations are replaced by transverse
oscillations, having a direction outwards—i. e., away from the mesial
plane of the frame.
The phenomena last described show that the primary idea of a
transverse polarity for the whole frame is still verifiable, even in the
extreme parts of either limb. But below the elbows and knees a
second polarity is superinduced upon the former. Below the elbows
and knees, one side of each limb repeats the phenomena of the
right side of the body, the other those of the left. The odometer held
over the tips of the fingers of either hand exhibits clock-rotation,
over the thumb of either hand versed-rotation; and with these, as I
have mentioned, all the other effects that can be elicited out of the
two limbs of a horse-shoe magnet. The same rotatory movements
may likewise be obtained by holding the odometer near the two
edges of the hand, wrist, fore-arm. The latter singularity, which
contrasts with the simpler effects on the upper arm, must result
from the combination of the two polarities—the systemic and the
submembral one.
The odometer, held over the back of the neck or throat, oscillates
transversely. When versed, longitudinally.
It appears to me now that women generally are incapable of
eliciting the movements of the odometer when held by themselves,
without touching a second party.
I have already, in the introductory part of this letter, given a
summary of all the modes I am acquainted with of reversing the
motions of the odometer.
Perhaps I have presumed too much in heading this letter with the
title of “The Solution.” But what is the solution of physical
phenomena but the displaying of the forces which compel their
sequence? As an inquiry progresses, a few general expressions take
the place of the first imperfect and complicated explanation. But the
first step made was still a solution; and the highest solution ever yet
obtained has probably still to be merged in some expression yet
more general. So the attraction of gravitation is probably connected
with, or balanced by, a corresponding repulsive force, coming into
operation at some enormous distance from the centre of each
planetary sphere, and the two may eventually prove to form one
law.
But I had hoped that I was not presuming in asserting that the
present inquiry has immediate practical applications, such as seldom
fall to the lot of so young an investigation. The odometer may prove
a useful test of the presence and qualities of electric, chemical, and
magnetic actions; it will probably help to determine the
electrochemical qualities of bodies; and in large or small crystalline
masses—in the diamond, for instance—will serve to show the axes
and distinguish the opposite poles. In reference to biology, it will
probably furnish the long-wanted criterion between death and
apparent death; for I observe that, with an egg long kept, but still
alive, though no longer likely to be very palatable, the odometer
freely moves in the way described in the fourth section. But it treats
the freshest egg, when boiled, as if it were a lump of zinc.
Nevertheless I am not without certain misgivings. I suspect that
the divining-ring will be found to manifest genuine Od-motions in the
hands of as small a number as succeed with the divining-rod. And I
fear that overhasty confidence in results only seemingly sound, may
lead many astray into a wide field of self-deception.

POSTSCRIPT.
An accident has given me the opportunity of making further
additions to this little volume, of which I proceed to avail myself;
and, first, by communicating my latest experiments with the
divining-ring, July 24.
 I. I have stated that, if a fresh egg be placed upon the table, with
the small end directed from me—or a crystal, with one definite pole
so turned from me—or a bar-magnet, with its northward pole so
disposed—and I then suspend the divining-ring half an inch above
either of the three so averted ends, and half an inch further off from
me, the ring exhibits clock-rotation in each instance. Held in a
parallel manner over the opposite ends—that is, half an inch from,
and half an inch higher than, the same—the ring exhibits versed-
rotation. If the three Od-subjects be moved round, so that their
hitherto distal ends point to the right, or if they be further turned, so
as to bring the previously distal ends now to point directly towards
me, the ring continues to exhibit exactly the same motions as in the
first instance.
If, these objects being removed, I lay a horse-shoe magnet on the
table before me, with its poles turned directly from me, the
northward limb being on my left hand, the southward limb-pole on
my right, and experiments parallel to those just described are made,
the results remain the same. If, near one side of the horse-shoe
magnet, I lay my left hand on the table, the palm downwards, the
thumb held wide of the fingers, the ring, if suspended half an inch
from and above either of the finger-points, displays clock-rotation;
suspended similarly before and above the point of the thumb,
versed-rotation. Or the fingers of the left hand, so disposed, may be
compared, in reference to Od, to the northward pole of a horse-shoe
magnet, while the thumb corresponds with its southward pole.
If, removing my left hand, I turn the horse-shoe magnet, without
altering the side on which it rests, half round, so that the poles point
directly towards me, the northward pole being now, of course, on
my right, the southward pole on my left, the ring held as before over
either of the two poles, displays the same results. If I now move the
magnet still nearer to me, so that its two poles are an inch beyond
the edge of the table, I can obtain results which furnish a more
precise explanation of the two rotatory movements already
described, than I had before arrived at.
 If I now suspend the ring, with its lowest part on a level with the
magnet, and half an inch from its northward pole—that is, half an
inch nearer me—it begins to oscillate longitudinally, with a bias
towards me, as if it were repelled from the pole of the magnet. If I
then suspend the ring an inch vertically above the first point of
suspension, it begins to oscillate transversely, with a bias towards
the right, or as if impelled by a dextrad current. If I then lower the
ring half an inch, the first effect observed is, that it oscillates
obliquely, being evidently impelled at once to the right and towards
me—that is, in the diagonal of the two forces, of each of which I had
before obtained the separate influence. In this third variation of the
experiments, I have brought the ring to the limit of the two currents,
where both tell upon it. This oblique oscillation soon, however,
undergoes a change: it changes into clock-rotation, showing that the
transverse or dextrad current is stronger than the longitudinal or
proximad current.
If parallel experiments be made at levels below that of the pole of
the magnet, corresponding but opposite results ensue. If the whole
series be repeated upon the south pole of the magnet, opposite but
perfectly corresponding results are again obtained: and similar
results may be obtained with the two poles of an egg.
II. The mode in which I have latterly educed the rotatory
movements depending upon galvanism, has been this. I have laid
two discs, one of zinc, the other of copper, one on the other, having
previously moistened their surfaces with salt and water. Then, as I
mentioned, the ring held over the middle of the zinc disc (that being
uppermost) exhibits clock-rotation. Held over the middle of the
copper disc, when that is laid uppermost, versed-rotation. I
mentioned, too, that if held beyond, but near the circumference of
the same discs, the direction of the motion of the ring is reversed.
The discs which I employ are circular, an inch and a half in
diameter, and about as thick as a sovereign. Upon these I do not fail
to obtain, when dried and used singly, the first series of phenomena
described in the preceding letter. But it occurred to me to try what
would be the result of suspending the ring over the two together,
and alternately laid uppermost, when they had been well cleaned
and dried. This is evidently a still simpler voltaic arrangement than
when the salt and water is additionally used. The result was in the
highest degree interesting. When I suspend the ring half an inch
above the centre of the copper disc, (that being laid uppermost,) the
first motion observed is transverse; but after a few oscillations it
becomes oblique—dextrad and proximad combined, in the diagonal
between the primary influences of the zinc and of the copper. This
change does not last long; the transverse force again carries it, in
this instance, and clock-rotation is permanently established. When
the zinc is uppermost, the corresponding opposite phenomena
manifest themselves; and in either case a reversed movement
occurs, if the ring is held extra-marginally to the discs.
III. I may say that I have now obtained positive evidence that
these motions of the odometer do not depend upon my own will, or
the sympathy of my will with existing conceptions in my mind; for
they succeed nearly equally well when the discs are covered with
half a sheet of writing-paper. In nine cases out of ten, when I thus
manage to be in perfect ignorance which disc, or what combination
of the two, is submitted to the odometer, the right results manifest
themselves, and the cause of the occasional failures is generally
obvious. Let me add upon this topic, that one day, the weather
being cold and wet, and myself suffering severely with rheumatism,
the odometer would not move at all in my hand. On another day,
late in the evening it was, when I happened to be much fatigued
and exhausted, the ring moved, indeed, but every motion was
exactly reversed; thus my left hand I found now obtained exactly the
results which, on other occasions, I got with the right.

IV. But by what cause, then—through what mechanism, so to

speak, are the movements of the odometer immediately produced?
Early in the inquiry I made this experiment. Instead of winding the
free end of the silk round my finger, I wound it round a cedar-pencil,
and laid the latter upon the backs of two books, which were made to
stand on their edges, four inches apart, with the Od-subject on the
table between them, the ring being suspended half an inch above it.
The ring, of course, remained stationary. Then I took hold of the
pencil with my finger and thumb, at the point where the silk was
wound round it; my finger and thumb rested on the silk; but no
motion of the odometer ensued. Hence it follows, that the odometer
is, after all, always set in motion by the play of my own muscles. I
venture then to suppose that my sentient nerves, unknown to me,
detect on these occasions certain relations of matter—let me call
them currents of force—which determine in me reflexly certain
sympathetic motions of the very lightest, and even of an
unconscious character. This idea, which I am sure affords the just
solution of the matter, is highly consistent with some observations
which I have before recounted. It explains how the primary delicate
impression should yield to the coarser influence of a strong
conception in the mind, that this or that other motion of the ring is
about to follow, or even to that of a vivid and, so to say, abstract
conception of another motion. It explains what I have several times
verified, that on certain days a person standing behind me with his
hand on my ear, or on my shoulder, can, by an effort of his will
(mine not resisting,) make the odometer which I am holding move
whichever way he happens strongly to image to himself, without
communicating the same to me. It explains to me on what the
difference consists between those who can set the divining-ring in
motion, without a conscious effort, and those who cannot. The
former, it will be found, are persons of so great nervous mobility,
that any such motions, if their occurrence be forcibly anticipated by
them, will certainly be realized by their sympathetic frames. Among
this class should be sought, and would still remain to be detected by
experiment, those whose impressionability by Od should prove
commensurate with their nervous mobility. Finally, I cannot doubt
that the view which I have thus arrived at respecting the mechanism
of the motions of the odometer, is equally applicable to the
explanation of those of the divining-rod. I see that, through its
means, many before anomalous facts, with the narrative of which I
have not bored the reader, which emerged in my former trials of the
divining rod, made by the hands of others, lose their obscurity and
contradictoriness, and leave the whole subject in the condition of an
intelligible and luminous conception.
N. B.—It is a pity that of the inquirers who now amuse themselves
with investigating these subjects, very few realize in their minds the
idea of Von Reichenbach, that Od, though often exhibiting the same
relations with electricity and magnetism, is yet an utterly different
principle.
 LETTER XIV.
Hypnotism. Trance-Umbra.—Mr. Braid’s discovery—Trance-faculties
manifested in the waking state—Self-induced waking
clairvoyance—Conclusion.

It is an advantage attending a long and patient analysis of, and

cautious theorizing upon, a new subject of inquiry, that when fresh
facts and principles emerge in it, instead of disturbing such solid
work as I have supposed, they but enrich and strengthen it, and
find, as it were, prepared for them appropriate niches. Something of
this satisfaction I experience, when I have to render tardy justice to
Mr. Braid’s discovery, and to give an account of the wonders realized
by Dr. Darling, Mr. Lewis, and others.
Or, I have observed, that trance, considered in reference to its
production, has a twofold character. It presents itself either as a
spontaneous seizure brought on unexpectedly by a continuance of
mental or physical excitement or exhaustion; or as intentionally
induced through the systematic direction by some second person,
more or less cognisant what definite effects he can produce, of
certain moral and physical influences upon the party intended to be
wrought on. Mr. Braid has added a third causal difference to the
theory of trance. He has shown that trance can be induced by the
subject of it himself voluntarily, by the use of certain means, which
call into operation a special principle. The effects which he obtained
by these means, but which he perhaps studied too much to separate
from the effects of mesmerism—these and their principle he
denominated Hypnotism.
Again, I have shown that all the forms of trance may be, and
require to be, arranged under five types—viz., death-trance, trance-
coma, initial trance, half-waking trance, full-waking trance. I
mentioned, besides, that in the manifestation of Zschokke’s seer-gift,
and in the accounts which we receive of the performances called
second-sight, the extended exoneural perception was introduced by
a brief period, in which the performer was in a degree absorbed and
lost, yet did not pass on into a second and separate phase of
consciousness. He was still always himself, and observed and
remembered as parts of his natural order of recollections the
impressions which then occurred to him. This same state must be
that which I have seen described as one peculiarly suited to the
exhibition of phreno-mesmerism. Mr. Braid appears likewise often to
have brought it on in his curative applications of hypnotism. But now
it has new importance and distinctness conferred upon it, as being
the state in which the wonderful phenomena of “mental suggestion”
are best displayed, and in which conscious clairvoyance is
manifested. As this state does not amount to complete trance, but
as it is a fore-shadowing of it, as it were, I venture to propose for it
the name of trance-umbra.

I. Hypnotism.—Mr. Braid discovered that if certain sensitive

persons fix their sight steadily upon a small bright object, held near
and above the forehead, or their sight becoming fatigued, and the
eyelids fall, if they keep their attention strained as if they were still
observing the same object, both in the upward direction of the eye
and in their thought, they lose themselves and go off into a state
which, in its full development, is, in fact, initial trance, bordering
often on trance-coma. The party thus fixed sometimes exhibited
many of the humbler performances of ordinarily mesmerised
persons. But Mr. Braid shall speak for himself; I quote from his
Neurhypnology, published in London in 1843. “I requested,” narrates
Mr. Braid, “a young gentleman present to sit down, and maintain a
fixed stare at the top of a wine-bottle, placed so much above him as
to produce a considerable strain on the eyes and eyelids, to enable
him to maintain a steady view of the object. In three minutes his
eyelids closed, a gush of tears ran down his cheeks, his head
drooped, his face was slightly convulsed, he gave a groan, and
instantly fell into profound sleep—the respiration becoming slow,
deep, and sibilant, the right hand and arm being agitated by slight
convulsive movements,” (p. 17.) Again, (p. 18,) “I called up,”
continues Mr. Braid, “one of my men-servants, who knew nothing of
mesmerism, and gave him such directions as were calculated to
impress his mind with the idea, that his fixed attention was merely
for the purpose of watching a chemical experiment in the
preparation of some medicine; and being familiar with such he could
feel no alarm. In two minutes and a half his eyelids closed slowly
with a vibrating motion, his chin fell on his breast, he gave a deep
sigh, and instantly was in a deep sleep, breathing loudly. In about
one minute after his profound sleep, I roused him, and pretended to
chide him for being so careless, said he ought to be ashamed of
himself for not being able to attend to my instructions for three
minutes without falling asleep, and ordered him down stairs. In a
short time I recalled this young man and desired him to sit down
once more, but to be careful not to fall asleep again, as on the
former occasion. He sat down with this intention; but at the
expiration of two minutes and a half, his eyelids closed, and exactly
the same phenomena as in the former experiment ensued.” Mr. Braid
adds, “I again tried the experiment of causing the first person
spoken of to gaze on a different object to that used in the first
experiment, but still, as I anticipated, the phenomena were the
same. I also tried on him M. Lafontaine’s mode of mesmerising with
the thumbs and eyes, and likewise by gazing on my eyes without
contact; and still the effects were the same.”
It is indeed perfectly obvious that Mr. Braid succeeded in
producing a heavy form of initial trance in these cases. Nor is it easy
to get rid of the impression that the effect was not partly at least
owing to his personal Od-influence. But, remembering what I
witnessed of his performances, and construing candidly all his
statements, I am disposed to believe that his method, adopted by
the patient when in a room alone, upon himself, would throw
susceptible persons into trance. Mr. Braid appears to me to have the
double merit, first of having discovered the means of self-
mesmerising—of so disturbing by very simple and harmless means
the nervous system, that trance would appear without the influence
of a second party to aid its supervention—and secondly, of having,
at an early period, when prejudice ran very high in England against
these practices, availed himself of this disguised mesmerism to do
much good in the treatment of disease. Mr. Braid does not appear to
have fallen on any instances of clairvoyance, but he narrates many
observations relating to phreno-mesmerism.

II. Trance-Umbra.—This is the best title I can hit on to designate

the peculiar condition, the study of which promises to exceed in
interest that of any of the phases of perfect trance; inasmuch as in
this state the same extraordinary powers are manifested as in
trance, without the condition of an abstracted state of
consciousness, which rendered the possession of those powers
useless, at least, directly, to the person who manifested them. It is
true that this law could be broken; the mesmeriser can desire an
entranced clairvoyante to remember, when she awakes, any
particular event or communication made by her. But for this
exceptional power a special injunction or permit is necessary. In
trance-umbra, on the contrary, the subject is throughout himself.
When exhibiting the wildest phenomena he is conscious of what he
is doing, and preserves afterwards as accurate a recollection of it as
any of the spectators.
Then, how is trance-umbra induced? How is it known that the
shadow of trance has enveloped the patient, and that, though quite
himself to all appearance, he is in a state to manifest the highest
trance-faculties?
The way to induce trance-umbra, is to administer a little dose of
mesmerism. One operator, like Dr. Darling, (I quote from Dr.
Gregory’s most instructive and interesting Letters on Animal
Magnetism,) directs his patient to sit still with his eyes fixed, and his
attention concentrated on a coin held in his hand, or on a double-
convex bit of zinc with a central portion of copper so held. This is, in
truth, a gentle dose of hypnotism. The patient looks in quiet repose
at a small object held in his hand or his lap, instead of fatiguing his
sensations by straining the eye-balls upwards. Suppose a group of a
dozen persons sitting thus in a half-darkened, still room, preserving
a studied quietude, and concentrating their attention on one point of
easy vision; in from fifteen to twenty minutes one or more is found
to be in the state of trance-umbra. Mr. Lewis (I quote again the
same authority) employs a different process. He eyes his patients
intently as they sit in a row before him, still and composed, with a
concentrated will, and its full outward expression by him, to
influence their psychical condition. In five minutes it often happens
that the state of trance-umbra supervenes.
In the mean time, what has marked its arrival? The Rev. R. S. F.
writes me, that he had been three times the subject of the first of
the two methods: the operator was Mr. Stone, Lecturer at the
Marylebone Scientific Institution. The first two experiments were
successful, the third failed. Then Mr. F. writes, “The only
circumstance which I noticed (bearing upon the above question) in
myself, and which I afterwards found tallied with the experience of
others, was this: On the two occasions when I was affected, after
about ten minutes the coin began to disappear from my sight, and
to reappear a confused, brilliant substance, similar to those
appearances which remain on the retina after one has been looking
towards the sun for a few minutes, and I seemed for the moment to
have fallen into a half-dreamy state; but in the subsequent part of
the experiments, I appeared to myself to be in my ordinary state. On
the third occasion, when the experiment failed with myself and with
all the others, (which I think might be accounted for by the
accidental irregularity of the proceedings,) I did not experience the
sensations mentioned above.” This account tallies with other
evidence upon the point; a brief period of disturbed sensation, or
threatening confusion, or loss of consciousness, passes over the
patient. The wing of the unseen power, to speak figuratively, has
cast its shadow upon him. It is evident that this transient psychical
disturbance is the same phenomenon with that which Zschokke
experienced whenever his seer-gift was manifested. The agency
which thus can at pleasure be used to call forth trance-umbra, is the
same which employed longer, or more intensely, produces perfect
trance. The little dose thrilling through the system, without driving
sense and apprehension from their usual seats, seems, as it were, to
remove their fastenings; to throw up, as it were, the sashes of the
body, so that the soul can now look forth and see, not as through a
glass, darkly, but free to grasp directly things out of its corporeal
tenement, whether of the nature of matter or mind.
But, at the same time, this same loosening of physical bonds
renders the mind correspondingly denuded to aggressions from
without. We have seen how strangely the entranced mind becomes
sympathetically subject to the will, and the subject of the sensations
of the person with whom it has been brought into mesmeric relation.
But now a new feature, or one feebly manifested as yet in trance,
but parallel to the influence of sympathy, displays itself. The person
in trance-umbra is an absolute slave to the spoken, or even to the
unexpressed “mental suggestions” of the operator. Sense, memory,
judgment, give way at his word. The patient believes whatever he is
told to believe,—that an apple is an orange,—that he himself is the
Duke of Wellington,—that the operator standing before him is
invisible to him,—and makes fruitless efforts to execute any
voluntary movement the moment he is told he cannot. I will quote a
passage, in illustration of the above, again from Mr. F.’s letter:—“After
a quarter of an hour Mr. Stone came to us, and looked in our eyes
for a few seconds, and desired us to close them. He then placed his
thumb lightly on my forehead, and said, peremptorily, ‘You cannot
open your eyes.’ I had great difficulty in doing so, but at last
succeeded, with a violent struggle. After Mr. Stone had repeated the
order or suggestion once or twice more, I was quite unable to open
my eyes. Five out of the number, (about a dozen,) who sat down
were affected, all more than myself. On a succeeding evening,
however, Mr. Stone was able to proceed so far as to make me forget
my name and address, by the simple assertion, ‘You cannot
remember your name,’ &c., though he had before this just asked for
them, and the answer was scarcely out of my mouth when he made
me forget it. I think I never exerted my will more strongly than in
trying to open my eyelids when they had been thus closed; but it
appeared simply impossible to do this till the operator’s magic ‘All
right,’ immediately set them free. On several, who were highly
susceptible, Mr. Stone proceeded with other experiments. A stick
was said to be a rattlesnake, and believed to be so. The room
became a garden at his command, with wild beasts in it. One was
set a-fishing and snow-balling; another taken up in a balloon. A still
more curious instance was when the subject was told that he was in
the dark, and a candle was passed before his eyes, almost close
enough to singe the eyebrows, without producing any visual
impression on the eye, though the party operated on said he felt the
warmth of it.”
I have preferred giving additional and unpublished evidence of the
wonderful control which can thus be “suggestively” exercised over
the belief of a person in trance-umbra, to quoting Professor
Gregory’s most interesting cases, for which the reader must consult
his recent valuable work. In the sixth letter in the present volume,
(that on Somnambulism,) I have exemplified the manifestation of
the same phenomena in the case of the sleep-walker Negretti. As a
large number of persons can be thrown easily into the state of
trance-umbra; and as then they are totally in the power of the
operator, it is surely most desirable that this and the parallel easily
induced conditions of the frame should be made subjects of careful
observation and study by many competent persons, in order that the
conditions necessary to their induction may be exactly ascertained,
and made public, for the protection of society.
Of equal interest is the discovery that clairvoyance may be
manifested in the state of trance-umbra. Major Buckley is spoken of
by Professor Gregory as a gentleman possessing mesmerising force
of a remarkable quality and degree. It appears that he had been
long in the habit of producing magnetic sleep, and clairvoyance in
the sleep, before he discovered that, in his subjects, the sleep might
be dispensed with. Dr. Gregory gives the following account of his
present method:—
“Major B. first ascertains whether his subjects are susceptible, by
making, with his hand, passes above and below their hands, from
the wrist downwards. If certain sensations, such as tingling,
numbness, &c., are strongly felt, he knows that he will be able to
produce the magnetic sleep. But to ascertain whether he can obtain
conscious clairvoyance, he makes slow passes from his own
forehead to his own chest. If this produce a blue light in his face,
strongly visible, the subject will probably acquire conscious
clairvoyance. If not, or if the light be pale, the subject will only
become clairvoyant in the sleep, (that is, when in perfect trance.)
Taking those subjects who see a very deep blue light, he continues
to make passes over his own face, and also over the object—a box
or a nut, for instance—in which written or printed words are
enclosed, which the clairvoyante is to read. Some subjects only
require a pass or two to be made: others require many. They
describe the blue light as rendering the box or nut transparent, so
that they can read what is inside. This reminds us of the curious fact
mentioned by Von Reichenbach, that bars of iron or steel, seen by
conscious sensitives, without any passes, shining in the dark with
the Od glow, appeared to them transparent like glass. If too many
passes are made by Major B., the blue light becomes so deep that
they cannot read, and some reverse passes must be made to render
the colour of the light less deep. Major Buckley has thus produced
conscious clairvoyance in eighty-nine persons, forty-four of whom
have been able to read mottoes contained in nutshells purchased by
other parties for the experiments. The longest motto thus read
contained ninety-eight words.” “A lady, one of Major Buckley’s
waking clairvoyantes, read one hundred and three mottoes
contained in nuts in one day, without a pass being made on that
occasion. In this and in many other cases, the power of reading
through nuts, boxes, and envelopes, remained, when once induced,
for about a month, and then disappeared. The same lady, after three
months, could no longer read without passes; and it took five trials
fully to restore the power. This may be done, however, immediately
by inducing the mesmeric sleep and clairvoyance in that state, when
the subjects, in the hands of Major Buckley, soon acquire the power
of waking clairvoyance.”
But stranger things remain behind—corollaries, however, of the
preceding, yet which eclipse these wonders, if possible. For a
knowledge of these, I am exclusively indebted to Professor Gregory’s
recent publication, and I give them on his authority.
If the looking intently upon a piece of metal will produce trance
and trance-umbra, why should not the account of the Egyptian boy-
seers be correct? If their performance be often a trick, may not the
protracted gaze on the black spot in their hand sometimes render
them waking clairvoyantes? and why, on the same showing, might
not the gazing upon magic crystals or mirrors of jet occasionally
have thrown the already awe-struck and fitly disposed lookers on
them into the state in which either the magician at their side might
compel suggestively images into their fancy, or they, acting for
themselves, have exercised independent ultravision, retrovision,
prevision? Why, again, should not simple concentration of thought
upon one uninteresting idea convert a susceptible subject into a
soothsayer? Then read the following facts recorded by Dr. Gregory; I
at least do not question their fidelity.
“Mr. Lewis possesses at times the power of spontaneous
clairvoyance, by simple concentration of thought. He finds, however,
that gazing into a crystal substance produces the state of waking
clairvoyance in him much sooner and more easily. On one occasion,
being in a house in Edinburgh with a party, he looked into a crystal,
and saw in it the inhabitants of another house at a considerable
distance. Along with them he saw two strangers, entire strangers to
him. These he described to the company. He then proceeded to the
other house, and there found the two strangers whom he had
described.”
 “On another occasion he was asked to inspect a house and family,
quite unknown to him, in Sloane Street, Chelsea, he being in
Edinburgh with a party. He saw in the crystal the family in London;
described the house, and also an old gentleman very ill or dying,
and wearing a peculiar cap. All was found to be correct, and the cap
was one which had lately been sent to the old gentleman. On the
same occasion Mr. Lewis told a gentleman present that he had lost
or mislaid a key of a very particular shape, which he, Mr. L., saw in
the crystal. This was confirmed by the gentleman, a total stranger to
Mr. Lewis.”
“Sistimus hic tandem.”
I think that I have tolerably succeeded in establishing the thesis
with which these Letters started, that every superstition is based on
a truth; and I am in hopes that the mass of evidence which I have
adduced—the very variety of the phenomena described, joined to
their mutual coherence—the theoretical consistency of the whole, as
if it were truly a vast body of living science, and not the “disjecta
membra” of a dream—will remove every remaining shade of doubt
among candid readers, that these inquiries are not less sound than
they are curious.
 CONCLUSION.
An acquaintance with the facts which it has been the object of the
foregoing pages to assemble, and to render into philosophy,
suggests one or two serious reflections.
We have seen the different results which have ensued when these
facts have emerged into day in times of ignorance and in times of
enlightenment. On the first occasion they were viewed with terror—
became instruments of superstition—were used for bad designs—
and even originated new forms of crime, before which common
sense fled, and justice became blind and iniquitous. On the latter—I
speak of the reception of these facts towards and in the present
century—they were recognised by one after another of the most
sagacious observers of nature; by Jussieu, for instance, and by
Cuvier, to begin with; and gradually by an increasing host of candid,
well-informed, and able followers, as forming a part of natural
science, and as susceptible of important applications.
He is ranked among the wisest of mankind, who announced that
“knowledge is power.” Divine Wisdom goes further, and reveals to us
that knowledge is a good and virtuous thing, while ignorance is
stamped by the same seal as sinful; or how otherwise can we
interpret the course of history and human experience, which proves
that, by the very constitution of our being, and the laws impressed
upon the moral and physical world, increase of knowledge
contributes to promote general and individual well-doing and
happiness, while ignorance never fails to be followed by the contrary
penal consequences? Therefore it is that those who unite good
intentions and good principles, with sound and well-cultivated
abilities—in other words the truly wise—humbly deem, that among
the most acceptable offerings to our common Maker must be
diligence in exploring all the sources of knowledge which he has
placed within our reach, (which were hidden only that we might
seek for them,) so as to unveil more and more of the forces and
powers of nature, in publishing the same abroad, that all may profit
by them, and in striving to bend their agencies towards good, and
high, and useful purposes.
THE END.

FOOTNOTES
1 I cannot deny that another principle, afterwards to be
explained, may have been additionally in operation in this
interesting case.
2 Zschokke told a friend of mine at Frankfort, in 1847, shortly
before his death, which took place at an advanced age, that in
the latter years of his life his seer-gift had never manifested itself.
3 The following anecdote has no conceivable right to be
introduced on the present occasion; but I had it on the same
authority, and it is a pity it should be lost. As our fleet was
bearing down upon the enemies’ line at Trafalgar, Nelson paced
the quarter-deck of the Victory with Sir Thomas Hardy. After a
short silence, touching his left thigh with his remaining hand;
Nelson said, “I’d give that, Hardy, to come out of this."
4 The reader who wishes to pursue this subject farther, will find
it expounded, in connexion with a large body of collateral facts, in
my work entitled The Nervous System and its Functions. Parker,
West Strand: 1842.
5 Many writers employ the term somnambulism to denote
indiscriminately several forms of trance, or trance in general. I
prefer restricting it to the peculiar class of cases commonly known
as sleep-walking.
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