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Ext JS Application Development
Blueprints

Develop robust and maintainable projects that exceed

client expectations using Ext JS

Colin Ramsay

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Ext JS Application Development Blueprints

Copyright © 2015 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: April 2015

Production reference: 1170415

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78439-530-8
www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Author Project Coordinators

Colin Ramsay Danuta Jones
Purav Motiwalla
Reviewers
Govinda Sambamurthy Proofreaders
Vincent Stanislaus Simran Bhogal
Stephen Copestake
Acquisition Editor Safis Editing
Kevin Colaco

Indexer
Content Development Editor Hemangini Bari
Arwa Manasawala

Graphics
Technical Editor Disha Haria
Shashank Desai

Production Coordinator
Copy Editor Melwyn D'sa
Relin Hedly

Cover Work
Melwyn D'sa
 About the Author

Colin Ramsay is a software developer and writer with 15 years of coding

experience. From .NET to Ruby, JavaScript, and CSS, he has worked with a range
of technologies and local and international clients. His company, Go Tripod Ltd.,
is based in Cornwall, UK. This company works with multinational clients to
implement exciting JavaScript products and ideas. He has coauthored Learning Ext JS
and Learning Ext JS 3.2, both by Packt Publishing. Colin also writes on various topics
on his personal blog at http://colinramsay.co.uk/.

His main hobby is to make mischief.

I'd like to thank all the people who listened to the ideas, updates,
and complaints while I was writing this book; you have the patience
of saints and I love you for it.
 About the Reviewers

Govinda Sambamurthy is a software development manager in the Oracle Fusion

Applications team at Bangalore. He is responsible for building highly available and
highly scalable enterprise products. Govinda has more than 13 years of experience
in the IT industry and has played the roles of a developer, consultant, technical lead,
and manager. He has extensive experience in software development for banking,
financial, retail, and telecom verticals as well as product development and in
building enterprise solutions that are deployed in high-availability architectures.
He was part of various development teams in Oracle, including Enterprise Manager,
Enterprise Content Management, WebCenter, and Fusion Applications. His areas
of interest include data modeling, middleware diagnostics, cloud computing, the
Semantic Web, analytics, and next generation UI.

He is the coauthor of Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control 11g R1: Business Service
Management, Packt Publishing.

I would like to thank the author and Packt Publishing for giving
me this opportunity to be a reviewer. I would also like to thank my
mother, Padma, my wife, Nithya, and my toddler, Anirudh, for
letting me spend precious family time in the review process. I would
also like to thank my managers, Huan Tran and Reza Bfar, at Oracle
for approving my request to be a formal reviewer of this book.
Vincent Stanislaus is an ICT professional with more than 18 years of industry
experience; since the past 10 years, he has been working with a global wealth
management investment banking firm; his other areas of Industry expertise include
Superannuation, Banking, Insurance, Student Management, and Government
Divisions (Education/Housing).

Vincent's current areas of focus is Information Security, Technology Risk, and

Change/Release Management. He currently manages releases for core applications
that are designed using various technologies, such as Sencha GXT, GWT, Oracle
Fusion Middleware (Forms/Reports), Oracle WebLogic, and Apache/Tomcat.

Prior to this, his focus was on enforcing standards for the development team and
ensuring they were adhered to by developers. He loves reviewing code prepared
by developers, highlights any issues, and prevents them from being released to
production in order to mitigate outages.

He has reviewed the book Oracle Application Express 4.0 with Ext JS and the e-video
Oracle APEX Techniques, both by Packt Publishing.

He resides in Melbourne, Australia with his wife, Robina, and two lovely children,
Jonathan and Marilyn.
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 Table of Contents
Preface ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Humble beginnings 1
Growing up 2
The shoulders of giants 3
What is application architecture? 4
Requirement analysis 4
Data design 6
Code design 6
Technology evaluation 8
Code standards and practices 9
Documentation 9
Ext JS 10
The world that was 10
State of the art 12
Mostly very cool 13
Supporting cast 13
Getting ready 14
The specification 14
A good match 15
How we work 15
In safe hands 16
If you build it, they will come 17
Managing your time 17
You can buy fashion, but you can't buy style 18
Summary 19

[i]
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: MVC and MVVM 21

Diary of always 21
Bringing MVC to the Web 23
Ext JS and MVC 24
Examples of Ext JS MVC 25
How does it help your application 29
MVC and the illusion of choice 29
Introducing MVVM 30
How does Ext JS use MVVM? 30
Getting our MVVM started 30
Are we better off? 34
A brief interlude regarding stores 35
Inter-communication 35
The main event 35
Event domains 36
An event domain example 36
Using custom events 37
Summary 39
Chapter 3: Application Structure 41
Ideas for structure 41
Getting to know your application 44
/overrides 45
/.sencha 45
bootstrap.js, bootstrap.json, and bootstrap.css 45
/packages 45
/resources and SASS 46
index.html 46
/build and build.xml 46
app.js 46
app.json 47
Cultivating your code 47
I'm a lumberjack – let's go log in 47
Money can't buy class 51
Singletons 51
Mixins 53
The solution to pollution 57
A global solution to a local problem 57
Summary – mind your own beeswax 59

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 4: Sencha Cmd 61

What is Sencha Cmd? 62
Why is it important? 62
The act of creation 63
Setting up your application 66
The generation game 67
Develop in style 69
Here to serve – a website 69
The Bootstrap process 70
Care for the environment 71
The final product 72
Before the build 73
Code complete 75
An application for Ant 75
Version numbers 75
From release to production 77
The best of the rest 78
Packages 78
Themes 78
Compilations 79
Summary 79
Chapter 5: Practical – a CMS Application 81
A content-managed system 82
The requirements 83
Accepting the challenge 84
Starting at the bottom 84
Work your way up 86
The devil is in the detail 88
Where the wild things are 89
Spiky and hairy 89
The real deal 90
A short interlude on data binding 91
Creating a structure 91
Data-driven design 92
A model store 94
A room with a view 94
The tree panel and searching 96
Pages in detail 98
The magical page view model 99
This data is now in session 100

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

The glue controlling all 101

Selecting a page 103
Adding a page 103
Deleting a page 104
Saving a page 104
Summary 104
Chapter 6: Practical – Monitoring Dashboard 105
Application design 106
Requirements 109
Message received and understood 110
Data structure 110
Live charts 110
Historical logs 111
Log statistics 112
Model behavior 112
The view from the top 114
Flexibility and pragmatism 118
Does this hurt? 119
Onwards and upwards 121
Data first 122
Storing the data 124
With a view to a controller 125
The main view controller 126
Rootin-Tootin 127
Back to business 128
Route to nowhere 128
The dashboard 129
Constant evaluation 134
The dashboard view model 135
The dashboard view controller 136
Web logs subpage 137
A view on the Web 139
Controlling the Web 140
More and more subpages 141
Summary 145
Chapter 7: Practical – an E-mail Client 147
Form factors 148
Application design 148
I require to admire 152
Technically speaking 152

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Responding to the situation 153

Input required 155
A view to a thrill 156
Mainly harmless 157
Full steam ahead 158
Threading our way 159
Send me a message 159
Stay composed 160
Design overview 161
Application state 161
Home screen/initial load 162
New thread 162
Show thread 163
New message/reply 163
Routing overview 164
A binding agreement 164
An eventful application 165
Events and you 166
Coding – it's been a long time 167
It's under control 169
Login view 170
Main force 172
Main ViewModel 174
Main ViewController 174
The head of the family 175
Header ViewModel 178
Header ViewController 178
Unravel the thread 179
Thread ViewModel 180
Thread ViewController 181
I am the best message 182
Messages ViewModel 183
Messages ViewController 184
A composed finish 186
Deciding on a theme 189
Summary 192
Chapter 8: Practical – Questionnaire Component 193
Application design – my way 194
Data structure 196
Consider carefully 197

[v]
Table of Contents

Data flow 198

A binding trick 199
A difference of opinion 200
A means to an end 201
Sketchy sketching 202
Get set 203
The data layer 204
The payload 207
The wizard component 208
Do it yourself 211
Wizardly tools 211
One step forward 211
Making progress 212
Step by step 215
Questionnaire command and control 217
The wizard model 218
A delightful host 220
Mixin the night away 221
Summary 223
Chapter 9: A Shopping Application 225
About the app 226
The product window 228
The shopping cart 229
Login and registration 230
User account 231
Design overview 231
Back to Ext JS 232
The data layer 232
Information contemplation 234
Component interaction 235
In control 236
The simplicity of view models 238
Code, code, and more code 239
What's in store? 240
Interface in your face 242
One step ahead 244
Under the main control 246
Categorically speaking 248
Product placement 250
A basket case 256

[ vi ]
 Table of Contents

The account window 259

Summary 263
Chapter 10: Debugging and Performance 265
In-browser debugging 266
Stepping in 266
Breaking point 268
Black box and cut to the chase 270
Breaking and busting 271
Caught in the act 272
Performance in Ext JS 274
Network performance 275
Make fewer requests 276
Perceived performance 276
Load less 278
Optimistic updating 279
Quick on the draw 280
Overuse of panels 280
Overnesting 280
Deferred rendering 281
Analyzing performance 282
Summary 284
Chapter 11: Application Testing 287
Total testing 288
Unit testing 288
Assert yourself 289
Integration testing 289
Integration and differentiation 290
Testing tool time with Jasmine 290
Jasmine – installation and configuration 291
Make it happen 293
Testing with robots 296
Up and running with CasperJS 298
Testability 303
Should I or shouldn't I? 303
Faking it with mocks 304
Continuous coverage 306
Summary 307
Index 309

[ vii ]
 Preface
In times gone by, JavaScript was used to provide minor enhancements to the Web
in order to decorate pages with amusing effects or to validate user input. Slowly but
surely, as browsers implemented faster JavaScript engines and new features and
as developers and engineers came up with new techniques and ideas, JavaScript
became near-ubiquitous in providing the functionality that end users have come to
expect. With Ext JS, you have a toolset that allows you to build advanced JavaScript
applications, but with great power comes great responsibility.

An application architect is the guiding hand of a project. They help to ensure that client
expectations are met, timescales are achieved, and costs are contained. While juggling
these requirements, the architect must provide the foundations for a technically
successful project consisting of high quality, understandable code.

In Ext JS Application Development Blueprints, we'll go through the theory and practice
of designing and building Ext JS applications. Over the next 11 chapters, you'll learn
how Ext JS gives developers the key to a professionally designed software project
and how to take this knowledge and use it in a range of real-world scenarios.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Introduction, describes why software architecture is important and how this
book will help you learn it.

Chapter 2, MVC and MVVM, introduces two classic patterns in software development
and how they're implemented in Ext JS.

Chapter 3, Application Structure, shows how the various parts of an Ext JS application
can be organized into a form that eases the development process.

[ ix ]
Preface

Chapter 4, Sencha Cmd, looks at the way Sencha's command-line tools act as a
powerful companion for your developers, enabling a leaner product that is delivered
on schedule.

Chapter 5, Practical – a CMS Application, shows how to design and build a simple
CMS application and how to start employing the ideas you've learned so far.

Chapter 6, Practical – Monitoring Dashboard, involves the creation of a log viewer

dashboard using charts and grids that adapt to user input.

Chapter 7, Practical – an E-mail Client, shows off the responsive features of Ext JS 5
while continuing to demonstrate advanced use of the MVVM pattern.

Chapter 8, Practical – Questionnaire Component, uses Sencha Cmd to demonstrate code

reuse by designing and building a wizard component.

Chapter 9, A Shopping Application, brings all the techniques from previous chapters to
bear on a tablet-centric shopping app.

Chapter 10, Debugging and Performance, teaches you advanced techniques to diagnose
a range of problems in development and production.

Chapter 11, Application Testing, provides you with techniques to build automated tests
that allow for the kind of robust application expected from an application architect.

What you need for this book

The code samples in this book were developed for Ext JS 5.0.1 and the equivalent
version of Sencha Cmd. The server-side APIs for the practical chapters were written
using Node.js. For more information, refer to http://www.sencha.com/products/
sencha-cmd/download and http://nodejs.org/download/.

Who this book is for

If you're already working with Ext JS and are looking to extend your knowledge
as a team leader, or are simply looking to understand how to design and structure
your applications, this book is for you. We won't stop and explain every little facet
of Ext JS, and we'd expect that you have a good grasp of the fundamentals of the
framework. We'll encourage problem solving, rather than coding-by-numbers,
so a positive attitude and desire to learn is essential!

[x]
 Preface

Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish between different
kinds of information. Here are some examples of these styles and an explanation of
their meaning.

Code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions,
pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows:
"This should be familiar to a seasoned Ext JS developer: we use Ext.define to create
a class called MyApp.SessionManager."

A block of code is set as follows:

Ext.define('MyApp.SessionManager', {
login: function(username, password) {
User.login(username, password, {
success: Ext.bind(this.loginSuccess, this)
});
},

loginSuccess: function() {
this.isLoggedIn = true;
}
});

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

[INF] [echoproperties] app.output.js=app.js
[INF] [echoproperties] app.output.js.compress=false
[INF] [echoproperties] app.output.js.enable=true
[INF] [echoproperties] app.output.js.optimize=false

New terms and important words are shown in bold. Words that you see on
the screen, for example, in menus or dialog boxes, appear in the text like this:
"Clicking on Record again allows you to analyze the results."

Warnings or important notes appear in a box like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

[ xi ]
Preface

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Errata
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[ xii ]
 Preface

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[ xiii ]
 Introduction
Learning how to understand a single line of code, building that first "Hello World"
script, and experiencing the thrill when it works as you expect are the small steps
that draw us into the world of programming. This book is about the projects we
can build in this world using Sencha's Ext JS 5 and how to ensure you're building
on a strong foundation.

In this chapter, we're going to examine why strong application architecture is

important from a theoretical and practical point of view. We'll introduce the
rest of the book and answer the following questions:

• What is application architecture?

• How is it important?
• How does Ext JS help with application design?
• How will this book help your software architecture?

Let's start with talking about what we mean by software architecture and why it's
important for a successful project.

Humble beginnings
As coders, many of us would have started our development career by writing
scripts or code that we found helpful, which helped out with a hobby. That buzz,
the insight that you can create something practical and useful, that's where the
passion starts. It's from these hastily assembled first few lines on which many
of us have built a career.

[1]
Introduction

In those early days, we found ourselves writing code that spanned hundreds of
lines, but with no regard for how it might look if we came back to it in six months.
Would it be understandable? Can a feature be added without breaking something
else? Also, what if we want to share it with a friend or on the Internet? Trying to
work out the cause of a bug is going to rapidly become a nightmare.

In fact, the Internet is littered with such code. Why is this a problem? Let's say you
got roped into building a simple shopping cart for a friend. You knew enough to
get it working, but also enough to be dangerous. A shopping cart is responsible
for taking payment for goods, and a single security hole could result in someone
being out of pocket. Suddenly, your favor for a friend has become something that
has caused them to lose face and money.

Fortunately, in my case, there were no drastic ramifications for my lack of

development expertise as a newcomer to coding. I created a PHP script. This script
generated a photo gallery for a website. It started off as a list of photos and expanded
to include thumbnail generation, pagination, and an administration/upload facility.
It was an example of traditionally bad PHP with HTML mixed in with logic code and
spaghetti loops to try and make the thing work the way I wanted.

With time, the solution comes organically; we start to break our work into smaller
chunks that make sense for the application. It will slowly become clear that there are
sensible ways of working, which make life easier, as your codebase grows. In the
photo gallery example, I could start to extract very simple aspects (such as headers,
footers, and pagination links) in order to focus on the core functionality.

Of course, not everyone starts this way. Developing a hobby into a career is just
one path by which the coding community develops its skillset. University or online
courses, books, and forums contribute to our learning process. The important thing
to bear in mind is that neither coder nor architect was born into the world knowing
everything and it's okay, even essential, to admit when there's a gap in your
knowledge. From a senior consultant to hobbyist hacker, we're going to try
and fill some of these gaps, as you build larger and more complex applications.

Growing up
Rather than writing code that is for a hobby or side project, we're now writing
applications that help run businesses. Someone is paying for this development time,
and someone's livelihood is relying on it. As professional software developers, we
need to adopt a professional mindset and skillset to match. Rather than coming up
with an idea and sitting down to code it immediately, we need to carefully consider
how our application is constructed. We need to ensure that it will work as expected
when real-world users get their hands on it; this will provide a strong platform for
future developers to build on.

[2]
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
including Erasmus In Praise of Folly. In 1685 he became vicar of
Ambrosden, Oxfordshire. A few years afterwards he returned to Oxford
as tutor and vice-principal of St Edmund’s Hall, where he gave
considerable impetus to the study of antiquities. George Hickes gave
him lessons in Old English. In 1695 he published Parochial Antiquities.
In 1700 he became rector of St Botolph’s, Aldgate, London, and in 1701
archdeacon of Huntingdon. For a eulogistic sermon on the first duke of
Devonshire he was in 1707 recommended to the deanery of
Peterborough. He afterwards joined the Low Church party, strenuously
opposed the Sacheverel movement, and in the Bangorian controversy
supported with great zeal and considerable bitterness the side of
Bishop Hoadly. His intimacy with Charles Trimnell, bishop of Norwich,
who was high in favour with the king, secured for him in 1718 the
bishopric of Peterborough. He died at Westminster in December 1728.

Kennett published in 1698 an edition of Sir Henry Spelman’s

History of Sacrilege, and he was the author of fifty-seven printed
works, chiefly tracts and sermons. He wrote the third volume
(Charles I.-Anne) of the composite Compleat History of England
(1706), and a more detailed and valuable Register and Chronicle of
the Restoration. He was much interested in the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel.

The Life of Bishop White Kennett, by the Rev. William Newton

(anonymous), appeared in 1730. See also Nichols’s Literary
Anecdotes, and I. Disraeli’s Calamities of Authors.
 KENNEY, JAMES (1780-1849), English dramatist, was the son
of James Kenney, one of the founders of Boodles’ Club in London. His
first play, a farce called Raising the Wind (1803), was a success owing
to the popularity of the character of “Jeremy Diddler.” Kenney produced
more than forty dramas and operas between 1803 and 1845, and many
of his pieces, in which Mrs Siddons, Madame Vestris, Foote, Lewis,
Liston and other leading players appeared from time to time, enjoyed a
considerable vogue. His most popular play was Sweethearts and Wives,
produced at the Haymarket theatre in 1823, and several times
afterwards revived; and among the most successful of his other works
were: False Alarms (1807), a comic opera with music by Braham; Love,
Law and Physic (1812); Spring and Autumn (1827); The Illustrious
Stranger, or Married and Buried (1827); Masaniello (1829); The Sicilian
Vespers, a tragedy (1840). Kenney, who numbered Charles Lamb and
Samuel Rogers among his friends, died in London on the 25th of July
1849. He married the widow of the dramatist Thomas Holcroft, by
whom he had two sons and two daughters.

His second son, Charles Lamb Kenney (1823-1881), made a name as a

journalist, dramatist and miscellaneous writer. Commencing life as a
clerk in the General Post Office in London, he joined the staff of The
Times, to which paper he contributed dramatic criticism. In 1856,
having been called to the bar, he became secretary to Ferdinand de
Lesseps, and in 1857 he published The Gates of the East in support of
the projected construction of the Suez Canal. Kenney wrote the words
for a number of light operas, and was the author of several popular
songs, the best known of which were “Soft and Low” (1865) and “The
Vagabond” (1871). He also published a Memoir of M. W. Balfe (1875),
and translated the Correspondence of Balzac. He included Thackeray
and Dickens among his friends in a literary coterie in which he enjoyed
the reputation of a wit and an accomplished writer of vers de société.
He died in London on the 25th of August 1881.
 See John Genest, Some Account of the English Stage, 1660-
1830, vols. vii. and viii. (10 vols., London, 1832); P. W. Clayden,
Rogers and his Contemporaries (2 vols., London, 1889); Dict.
National Biog.

KENNGOTT, GUSTAV ADOLPH (1818-1897), German

mineralogist, was born at Breslau on the 6th of January 1818. After
being employed in the Hofmineralien Cabinet at Vienna, he became
professor of mineralogy in the university of Zürich. He was
distinguished for his researches on mineralogy, crystallography and
petrology. He died at Lugano, on the 7th of March 1897.

Publications.—Lehrbuch der reinen Krystallographie (1846);

Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1852 and 1857; 5th ed., 1880);
Übersicht der Resultate mineralogischer Forschungen in den Jahren
1844-1865 (7 vols., 1852-1868); Die Minerale der Schweiz (1866);
Elemente der Petrographie (1868).
 KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN (1718-1783), English divine and
Hebrew scholar, was born at Totnes, Devonshire, on the 4th of April
1718. He succeeded his father as master of a charity school, but by the
liberality of friends he was enabled to go to Wadham College, Oxford,
in 1744, where he distinguished himself in Hebrew and divinity. While
an undergraduate he published two dissertations, On the Tree of Life in
Paradise, with some Observations on the Fall of Man, and On the
Oblations of Cain and Abel (2nd ed., 1747), which procured him the
honour of a bachelor’s degree before the statutory time. In 1747 he
was elected fellow of Exeter College, and in 1750 he took his degree of
M.A. In 1764 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1767
keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He was also canon of Christ Church
(1770) and rector of Culham (1753), in Oxfordshire, and was
subsequently presented to the living of Menheniot, Cornwall, which he
was unable to visit and resigned two years before his death. He died at
Oxford, on the 18th of September 1783.

His chief work is the Vetus Testamentum hebraicum cum variis

lectionibus (2 vols. fol., Oxford, 1776-1780). Before this appeared
he had written two dissertations entitled The State of the Printed
Hebrew Text of the Old Testament considered, published
respectively in 1753 and 1759, which were designed to combat the
then current ideas as to the “absolute integrity” of the received
Hebrew text. The first contains “a comparison of 1 Chron. xi. with 2
Sam. v. and xxiii. and observations on seventy MSS., with an
extract of mistakes and various readings”; the second defends the
claims of the Samaritan Pentateuch, assails the correctness of the
printed copies of the Chaldee paraphrase, gives an account of
Hebrew MSS. of the Bible known to be extant, and catalogues one
hundred MSS. preserved in the British Museum and in the libraries
of Oxford and Cambridge. In 1760 he issued his proposals for
collating all Hebrew MSS. of date prior to the invention of printing.
Subscriptions to the amount of nearly £10,000 were obtained, and
many learned men addressed themselves to the work of collation,
Bruns of Helmstadt making himself specially useful as regarded
MSS. in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Between 1760 and 1769
ten “annual accounts” of the progress of the work were given; in
its course 615 Hebrew MSS. and 52 printed editions of the Bible
were either wholly or partially collated, and use was also made
(but often very perfunctorily) of the quotations in the Talmud. The
materials thus collected, when properly arranged and made ready
for the press, extended to 30 vols. fol. The text finally followed in
printing was that of Van der Hooght—unpointed however, the
points having been disregarded in collation—and the various
readings were printed at the foot of the page. The Samaritan
Pentateuch stands alongside the Hebrew in parallel columns. The
Dissertatio generalis, appended to the second volume, contains an
account of the MSS. and other authorities collated, and also a
review of the Hebrew text, divided into periods, and beginning with
the formation of the Hebrew canon after the return of the Jews
from the exile. Kennicott’s great work was in one sense a failure. It
yielded no materials of value for the emendation of the received
text, and by disregarding the vowel points overlooked the one
thing in which some result (grammatical if not critical) might have
been derived from collation of Massoretic MSS. But the negative
result of the publication and of the Variæ lectiones of De Rossi,
published some years later, was important. It showed that the
Hebrew text can be emended only by the use of the versions aided
by conjecture.

Kennicott’s work was perpetuated by his widow, who founded

two university scholarships at Oxford for the study of Hebrew. The
fund yields an income of £200 per annum.
 KENNINGTON, a district in the south of London, England, within
the municipal borough of Lambeth. There was a royal palace here until
the reign of Henry VII. Kennington Common, now represented by
Kennington Park, was the site of a gallows until the end of the 18th
century, and was the meeting-place appointed for the great Chartist
demonstration of the 10th of April 1848. Kennington Oval is the ground
of the Surrey County Cricket Club. (See Lambeth.)

KENORA (formerly Rat Portage), a town and port of entry in

Ontario, Canada, and the chief town of Rainy River district, situated at
an altitude of 1087 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1891), 1806; (1901) 5222.
It is 133 m. by rail east of Winnipeg, on the Canadian Pacific railway,
and at the outlet of the Lake of the Woods. The Winnipeg river has at
this point a fall of 16 ft., which, with the lake as a reservoir, furnishes
an abundant and unfailing water-power. The industrial establishments
comprise reduction works, saw-mills and flour-mills, one of the latter
being the largest in Canada. It is the distributing point for the gold
mines of the district, and during the summer months steamboat
communication is maintained on the lake. There is important sturgeon
fishing.

KENOSHA, a city and the county-seat of Kenosha county,

Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, 35 m. S. of
Milwaukee and 50 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 11,606, of whom
3333 were foreign-born; (1910), 21,371. It is served by the Chicago &
North-Western railway, by interurban electric lines connecting with
Chicago and Milwaukee, and by freight and passenger steamship lines
on Lake Michigan. It has a good harbour and a considerable lake
commerce. The city is finely situated on high bluffs above the lake, and
is widely known for its healthiness. At Kenosha is the Gilbert M.
Simmons library, with 19,300 volumes in 1908. Just south of the city is
Kemper Hall, a Protestant Episcopal school for girls, under the charge
of the Sisters of St Mary, opened in 1870 as a memorial to Jackson
Kemper (1789-1870), the first missionary bishop (1835-1859), and the
first bishop of Wisconsin (1854-1870) of the Protestant Episcopal
Church. Among Kenosha’s manufactures are brass and iron beds (the
Simmons Manufacturing Co.), mattresses, typewriters, leather and
brass goods, wagons, and automobiles—the “Rambler” automobile
being made at Kenosha by Thomas B. Jeffery and Co. There is an
extensive sole-leather tannery. The total value of the factory product in
1905 was $12,362,600, the city ranking third in product value among
the cities of the state. Kenosha, originally known as Southport, was
settled about 1832, organized as the village of Southport in 1842, and
chartered in 1850 as a city under its present name.

KENSETT, JOHN FREDERICK (1818-1872), American artist,

was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 22nd of March 1818. After
studying engraving he went abroad, took up painting, and exhibited at
the Royal Academy, London, in 1845. In 1849 he was elected to the
National Academy of Design, New York, and in 1859 he was appointed
a member of the committee to superintend the decoration of the United
States Capitol at Washington, D.C. After his death the contents of his
studio realized at public auction over $150,000. He painted landscapes
more or less in the manner of the Hudson River School.

KENSINGTON, a western metropolitan borough of London,

England, bounded N.E. by Paddington, and the city of Westminster, S.E.
by Chelsea, S.W. by Fulham, N.W. by Hammersmith, and extending N.
to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 176,628. It
includes the districts of Kensal Green (partly) in the north, Notting Hill
in the north-central portion, Earl’s Court in the south-west, and
Brompton in the south-east. A considerable but indefinite area
adjoining Brompton is commonly called South Kensington; but the area
known as West Kensington is within the borough of Fulham.

The name appears in early forms as Chenesitun and Kenesitune. Its

origin is obscure, and has been variously connected with a Saxon royal
residence (King’s town), a family of the name of Chenesi, and the word
caen, meaning wood, from the forest which originally covered the
district and was still traceable in Tudor times. The most probable
derivation, however, finds in the name a connection with the Saxon
tribe or family of Kensings. The history of the manor is traceable from
the time of Edward the Confessor, and after the Conquest it was held of
the Bishop of Coutances by Aubrey de Vere. Soon after this it became
the absolute property of the de Veres, who were subsequently created
Earls of Oxford. The place of the manorial courts is preserved in the
name of the modern district of Earl’s Court. With a few short intervals
the manor continued in the direct line until Tudor times. There were
also three sub-manors, one given by the first Aubrey de Vere early in
the 12th century to the Abbot of Abingdon, whence the present parish
church is called St Mary Abbots; while in another, Knotting Barnes, the
origin of the name Notting Hill is found.

The brilliant period of history for which Kensington is famous may be

dated from the settlement of the Court here by William III. The village,
as it was then, had a reputation for healthiness through its gravel soil
and pure atmosphere. A mansion standing on the western flank of the
present Kensington Gardens had been the seat of Heneage Finch, Lord
Chancellor and afterwards Earl of Nottingham. It was known as
Nottingham House, but when bought from the second earl by William,
who was desirous of avoiding residence in London as he suffered from
asthma, it became known as Kensington Palace. The extensive
additions and alterations made by Wren according to the taste of the
King resulted in a severely plain edifice of brick; the orangery, added in
Queen Anne’s time, is a better example of the same architect’s work. In
the palace died Mary, William’s consort, William himself, Anne and
George II., whose wife Caroline did much to beautify Kensington
Gardens, and formed the beautiful lake called the Serpentine (1733).
But a higher interest attaches to the palace as the birthplace of Queen
Victoria in 1819; and here her accession was announced to her. By her
order, towards the close of her life, the palace became open to the
public.

Modern influences, one of the most marked of which is the

widespread erection of vast blocks of residential flats, have swept away
much that was reminiscent of the historical connexions of the “old court
suburb.” Kensington Square, however, lying south of High Street in the
vicinity of St Mary Abbots church, still preserves some of its picturesque
houses, nearly all of which were formerly inhabited by those attached
to the court; it numbered among its residents Addison, Talleyrand, John
Stuart Mill, and Green the historian. In Young Street, opening from the
Square, Thackeray lived for many years. His house here, still standing,
is most commonly associated with his work, though he subsequently
moved to Onslow Square and to Palace Green. Another link with the
past is found in Holland House, hidden in its beautiful park north of
Kensington Road. It was built by Sir Walter Cope, lord of the manor, in
1607, and obtained its present name on coming into the possession of
Henry Rich, earl of Holland, through his marriage with Cope’s daughter.
He extended and beautified the mansion. General Fairfax and General
Lambert are mentioned as occupants after his death, and later the
property was let, William Penn of Pennsylvania being among those who
leased it. Addison, marrying the widow of the 6th earl, lived here until
his death in 1719. During the tenancy of Henry Fox, third Lord Holland
(1773-1840), the house gained a European reputation as a meeting-
place of statesmen and men of letters. The formal gardens of Holland
House are finely laid out, and the rooms of the house are both beautiful
in themselves and enriched with collections of pictures, china and
tapestries. Famous houses no longer standing were Campden House, in
the district north-west of the parish church, formerly known as the
Gravel Pits; and Gore House, on the site of the present Albert Hall, the
residence of William Wilberforce, and later of the countess of
Blessington.

The parish church of St Mary Abbots, High Street, occupies an

ancient site, but was built from the designs of Sir Gilbert Scott in 1869.
It is in Decorated style, and has one of the loftiest spires in England. In
the north the borough includes the cemetery of Kensal Green (with the
exception of the Roman Catholic portion, which is in the borough of
Hammersmith); it was opened in 1838, and great numbers of eminent
persons are buried here. The Roman Catholic church of Our Lady of
Victories lies close to Kensington Road, and in Brompton Road is the
Oratory of St Philip Neri, a fine building with richly decorated interior,
noted for the beauty of its musical services, as is the Carmelite Church
in Church Street. St Charles’s Roman Catholic College (for boys), near
the north end of Ladbroke Grove, was founded by Cardinal Manning in
1863; the buildings are now used as a training centre for Catholic
school mistresses. Of secular institutions the principal are the museums
in South Kensington. The Victoria and Albert, commonly called the
South Kensington, Museum contains various exhibits divided into
sections, and includes the buildings of the Royal College of Science.
Close by is the Natural History Museum, in a great building by Alfred
Waterhouse, opened as a branch of the British Museum in 1880. Near
this stood Cromwell House, erroneously considered to have been the
residence of Oliver Cromwell, the name of which survives in the
adjacent Cromwell Road. In Kensington Gardens, near the upper end of
Exhibition Road, which separates the two museums, was held the Great
Exhibition of 1851, the hall of which is preserved as the Crystal Palace
at Sydenham. The greater part of the gardens, however, with the Albert
Memorial, erected by Queen Victoria in memory of Albert, prince
consort, the Albert Hall, opposite to it, one of the principal concert-halls
in London, and the Imperial Institute to the south, are actually within
the city of Westminster, though commonly connected with Kensington.
The gardens (275 acres) were laid out in the time of Queen Anne, and
have always been a popular and fashionable place of recreation.
Extensive grounds at Earl’s Court are open from time to time for various
exhibitions. Further notable buildings in Kensington are the town-hall
and free library in High Street, which is also much frequented for its
excellent shops, and the Brompton Consumption Hospital, Fulham
Road. In Holland Park Road is the house of Lord Leighton (d. 1896),
given to the nation, and open, with its art collection, to the public.

Kensington is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of London. The

parliamentary borough of Kensington has north and south divisions,
each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor,
10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 2291.1 acres.

KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The first holder of the

English earldom of Kent was probably Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and the
second a certain William de Ypres (d. 1162), both of whom were
deprived of the dignity. The regent Hubert de Burgh obtained this
honour in 1227, and in 1321 it was granted to Edmund Plantagenet, the
youngest brother of Edward II. Edmund (1301-1330), who was born at
Woodstock on the 5th of August 1301, received many marks of favour
from his brother the king, whom he steadily supported until the last act
in Edward’s life opened in 1326. He fought in Scotland and then in
France, and was a member of the council when Edward III. became
king in 1327. Soon at variance with Queen Isabella and her lover, Roger
Mortimer, Edmund was involved in a conspiracy to restore Edward II.,
who he was led to believe was still alive; he was arrested, and
beheaded on the 19th of March 1330. Although he had been
condemned as a traitor his elder son Edmund (c. 1327-1333) was
recognized as earl of Kent, the title passing on his death to his brother
John (c. 1330-1352).

After John’s childless death the earldom appears to have been held
by his sister Joan, “the fair maid of Kent,” and in 1360 Joan’s husband,
Sir Thomas de Holand, or Holland, was summoned to parliament as
earl of Kent. Holand, who was a soldier of some repute, died in
Normandy on the 28th of December 1360, and his widow married
Edward the Black Prince, by whom she was the mother of Richard II.
The next earl was Holand’s eldest son Thomas (1350-1397), who was
marshal of England from 1380 to 1385, and was in high favour with his
half-brother, Richard II. The 3rd earl of Kent of the Holand family was
his son Thomas (1374-1400). In September 1397, a few months after
becoming earl of Kent, Thomas was made duke of Surrey as a reward
for assisting Richard II. against the lords appellant; but he was
degraded from his dukedom in 1399, and was beheaded in January of
the following year for conspiring against Henry IV. However, his brother
Edmund (1384-1408) was allowed to succeed to the earldom, which
became extinct on his death in Brittany in September 1408.

In the same century the title was revived in favour of William, a

younger son of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of Westmorland, and through his
mother Joan Beaufort a grandson of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster.
William (c. 1405-1463), who held the barony of Fauconberg in right of
his wife, Joan, gained fame during the wars in France and fought for
the Yorkists during the Wars of the Roses. His prowess is said to have
been chiefly responsible for the victory of Edward IV. at Towton in
March 1461, and soon after this event he was created earl of Kent and
admiral of England. He died in January 1463, and, as his only legitimate
issue were three daughters, the title of earl of Kent again became
extinct. Neville’s natural son Thomas, “the bastard of Fauconberg” (d.
1471), was a follower of Warwick, the “Kingmaker.”

The long connexion of the family of Grey with this title began in
1465, when Edmund, Lord Grey of Ruthin, was created earl of Kent.
Edmund (c. 1420-1489) was the eldest son of Sir John Grey, while his
mother, Constance, was a daughter of John Holand, duke of Exeter.
During the earlier part of the Wars of the Roses Grey fought for Henry
VI.; but by deserting the Lancastrians during the battle of Northampton
in 1460 he gave the victory to the Yorkists. He was treasurer of
England and held other high offices under Edward IV. and Richard III.
His son and successor, George, 2nd earl of Kent (c. 1455-1503), also a
soldier, married Anne Woodville, a sister of Edward IV.’s queen,
Elizabeth, and was succeeded by his son Richard (1481-1524). After
Richard’s death without issue, his half-brother and heir, Henry (c. 1495-
1562), did not assume the title of earl of Kent on account of his
poverty; but in 1572 Henry’s grandson Reginald (d. 1573), who had
been member of parliament for Weymouth, was recognized as earl; he
was followed by his brother Henry (1541-1615), and then by another
brother, Charles (c. 1545-1623). Charles’s son, Henry, the 8th earl (c.
1583-1639), married Elizabeth (1581-1651), daughter of Gilbert Talbot,
7th earl of Shrewsbury. This lady, who was an authoress, took for her
second husband the jurist John Selden. Henry died without children in
November 1639, when the earldom of Kent, separated from the barony
of Ruthin, passed to his cousin Anthony (1557-1643), a clergyman, who
was succeeded by his son Henry (1594-1651), Lord Grey of Ruthin.
Henry had been a member of parliament from 1640 to 1643, and as a
supporter of the popular party was speaker of the House of Lords until
its abolition. The 11th earl was his son Anthony (1645-1702), whose
son Henry became 12th earl in August 1702, lord chamberlain of the
royal household from 1704 to 1710, and in 1706 was created earl of
Harold and marquess of Kent, becoming duke of Kent four years later.
All his sons predeceased their father, and when the duke died in June
1740, his titles of earl, marquess and duke of Kent became extinct.

In 1799 Edward Augustus, fourth son of George III., was created

duke of Kent and Strathearn by his father. Born on the 2nd of
November 1767, Edward served in the British army in North America
and elsewhere, becoming a field marshal in 1805. To quote Sir Spencer
Walpole, Kent, a stern disciplinarian, “was unpopular among his troops;
and the storm which was created by his well-intentioned effort at
Gibraltar to check the licentiousness and drunkenness of the garrison
compelled him finally to retire from the governorship of this colony.”
Owing to pecuniary difficulties his later years were mainly passed on
the continent of Europe. He died at Sidmouth on the 23rd of January
1820. In 1818 the duke married Maria Louisa Victoria (1786-1861),
widow of Emich Charles, prince of Leiningen (d. 1814), and sister of
Leopold I., king of the Belgians; and his only child was Queen Victoria
(q.v.).

KENT, JAMES (1763-1847), American jurist, was born at Philippi

in New York State on the 31st of July 1763. He graduated at Yale
College in 1781, and began to practise law at Poughkeepsie, in 1785 as
an attorney, and in 1787 at the bar. In 1791 and 1702-93 Kent was a
representative of Dutchess county in the state Assembly. In 1793 he
removed to New York, where Governor Jay, to whom the young
lawyer’s Federalist sympathies were a strong recommendation,
appointed him a master in chancery for the city. He was professor of
law in Columbia College in 1793-98 and again served in the Assembly
in 1796-97. In 1797 he became recorder of New York, in 1798 judge of
the supreme court of the state, in 1804 chief justice, and in 1814
chancellor of New York. In 1822 he became a member of the
convention to revise the state constitution. Next year, Chancellor Kent
resigned his office and was re-elected to his former chair. Out of the
lectures he now delivered grew the Commentaries on American Law (4
vols., 1826-1830), which by their learning, range and lucidity of style
won for him a high and permanent place in the estimation of both
English and American jurists. Kent rendered most essential service to
American jurisprudence while serving as chancellor. Chancery law had
been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received little
development, and no decisions had been published. His judgments of
this class (see Johnson’s Chancery Reports, 7 vols., 1816-1824) cover a
wide range of topics, and are so thoroughly considered and developed
as unquestionably to form the basis of American equity jurisprudence.
Kent was a man of great purity of character and of singular simplicity
and guilelessness. He died in New York on the 12th of December 1847.

To Kent we owe several other works (including a Commentary on

International Law) of less importance than the Commentaries. See
J. Duer’s Discourse on the Life, Character and Public Services of
James Kent (1848); The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished
Americans, vol. ii. (1852); W. Kent, Memoirs and Letters of
Chancellor Kent (Boston, 1898).
 KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748), English “painter, architect, and
the father of modern gardening,” as Horace Walpole in his Anecdotes of
Painting describes him, was born in Yorkshire in 1685. Apprenticed to a
coach-painter, his ambition soon led him to London, where he began
life as a portrait and historical painter. He found patrons, who sent him
in 1710 to study in Italy; and at Rome he made other friends, among
them Lord Burlington, with whom he returned to England in 1719.
Under that nobleman’s roof Kent chiefly resided till his death on the
12th of April 1748—obtaining abundant commissions in all departments
of his art, as well as various court appointments which brought him an
income of £600 a year. Walpole says that Kent was below mediocrity in
painting. He had some little taste and skill in architecture, of which
Holkham palace is perhaps the most favourable example. The mediocre
statue of Shakespeare in Westminster Abbey sufficiently stamps his
powers as a sculptor. His merit in landscape gardening is greater. In
Walpole’s language, Kent “was painter enough to taste the charms of
landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and to dictate, and
born with a genius to strike out a great system from the twilight of
imperfect essays.” In short, he was the first in English gardening to
vindicate the natural against the artificial. Banishing all the clipped
monstrosities of the topiary art in yew, box or holly, releasing the
streams from the conventional canal and marble basin, and rejecting
the mathematical symmetry of ground plan then in vogue for gardens,
Kent endeavoured to imitate the variety of nature, with due regard to
the principles of light and shade and perspective. Sometimes he carried
his imitation too far, as when he planted dead trees in Kensington
gardens to give a greater air of truth to the scene, though he himself
was one of the first to detect the folly of such an extreme. Kent’s plans
were designed rather with a view to immediate effect over a
comparatively small area than with regard to any broader or
subsequent results.

KENT, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the dimensions

of which seem to have corresponded with those of the present county
(see below). According to tradition it was the first part of the country
occupied by the invaders, its founders, Hengest and Horsa, having
been employed by the British king Vortigern against the Picts and
Scots. Their landing, according to English tradition, took place between
450-455, though in the Welsh accounts the Saxons are said to have
arrived in 428 (cf. Hist. Britt. 66). According to The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, which probably used some lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest
reigned 455-488, and was succeeded by his son Aesc (Oisc), who
reigned till 512; but little value can be attached to these dates.
Documentary history begins with Aethelberht, the great-grandson of
Aesc, who reigned probably 560-616. He married Berhta, daughter of
the Frankish king Haribert, or Charibert, an event which no doubt was
partly responsible for the success of the mission of Augustine, who
landed in 597. Aethelberht was at this time supreme over all the English
kings south of the Humber. On his death in 616 he was succeeded by
his son Eadbald, who renounced Christianity and married his
stepmother, but was shortly afterwards converted by Laurentius, the
successor of Augustine. Eadbald was succeeded in 640 by his son
Erconberht, who enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout his
kingdom, and was succeeded in 664 by his son Ecgbert, the latter
again by his brother Hlothhere in 673. The early part of Hlothhere’s
reign was disturbed by an invasion of Aethelred of Mercia. He issued a
code of laws, which is still extant, together with his nephew Eadric, the
son of Ecgbert, but in 685 a quarrel broke out between them in which
Eadric called in the South Saxons. Hlothhere died of his wounds, and
was succeeded by Eadric, who, however, reigned under two years.

The death of Eadric was followed by a disturbed period, in which

Kent was under kings whom Bede calls “dubii vel externi.” An
unsuccessful attempt at conquest seems to have been made by the
West Saxons, one of whose princes, Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, is said
to have been killed in 687. There is some evidence for a successful
invasion by the East Saxon king Sigehere during the same year. A king
named Oswine, who apparently belonged to the native dynasty, seems
to have obtained part of the kingdom in 688. The other part came in
689 into the hands of Swefheard, probably a son of the East Saxon king
Sebbe. Wihtred, a son of Ecgbert, succeeded Oswine about 690, and
obtained possession of the whole kingdom before 694. From him also
we have a code of laws. At Wihtred’s death in 725 the kingdom was
divided between his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht and Alric, the last of
whom appears to have died soon afterwards. Aethelberht reigned till
762; Eadberht, according to the Chronicle, died in 748, but some
doubtful charters speak of him as alive in 761-762. Eadberht was
succeeded by his son Eardwulf, and he again by Eanmund, while
Aethelberht was succeeded by a king named Sigered. From 764-779 we
find a king named Ecgbert, who in the early part of his reign had a
colleague named Heaberht. At this period Kentish history is very
obscure. Another king named Aethelberht appears in 781, and a king
Ealhmund in 784, but there is some reason for suspecting that Offa
annexed Kent about this time. On his death (796) Eadberht Praen made
himself king, but in 798 he was defeated and captured by Coenwulf,
who made his own brother Cuthred king in his place. On Cuthred’s
death in 807 Coenwulf seems to have kept Kent in his own possession.
His successors Ceolwulf and Beornwulf likewise appear to have held
Kent, but in 825 we hear of a king Baldred who was expelled by
Ecgbert king of Wessex. Under the West Saxon dynasty Kent, together
with Essex, Sussex and Surrey, was sometimes given as a dependent
kingdom to one of the royal family. During Ecgbert’s reign it was
entrusted to his son Aethelwulf, on whose accession to the throne of
Wessex, in 839, it was given to Aethelstan, probably his son, who lived
at least till 851. From 855 to 860 it was governed by Aethelberht son of
Aethelwulf. During the last years of Alfred’s reign it seems to have been
entrusted by him to his son Edward. Throughout the 9th century we
hear also of two earls, whose spheres of authority may have
corresponded to those of the two kings whom we find in the 8th
century. The last earls of whom we have any record were the two
brothers Sigehelm and Sigewulf, who fell at the Holm in 905 when the
Kentish army was cut off by the Danes, on Edward the Elder’s return
from his expedition into East Anglia. At a later period Kent appears to
have been held, together with Sussex, by a single earl.

The internal organization of the kingdom of Kent seems to have

been somewhat peculiar. Besides the division into West Kent and
East Kent, which probably corresponds with the kingdoms of the
8th century, we find a number of lathes, apparently administrative
districts under reeves, attached to royal villages. In East Kent there
were four of these, namely, Canterbury, Eastry, Wye and Lymne,
which can be traced back to the 9th century or earlier. In the 11th
century we hear of two lathes in West Kent, those of Sutton and
Aylesford.
 The social organization of the Kentish nation was wholly different
from that of Mercia and Wessex. Instead of two “noble” classes we
find only one, called at first eorlcund, later as in Wessex,
gesithcund. Again below the ordinary freeman we find three
varieties of persons called laetas, probably freedmen, to whom we
have nothing analogous in the other kingdoms. Moreover the
wergeld of the ceorl, or ordinary freeman, was two or three times
as great as that of the same class in Wessex and Mercia, and the
same difference of treatment is found in all the compensations and
fines relating to them. It is not unlikely that the peculiarities of
Kentish custom observable in later times, especially with reference
to the tenure of land, are connected with these characteristics. An
explanation is probably to be obtained from a statement of Bede—
that the settlers in Kent belonged to a different nationality from
those who founded the other kingdoms, namely the Jutes (q.v.).

See Bede, Historiae ecclesiasticae, edited by C. Plummer

(Oxford, 1896); Two of the Saxon Chronicles, edited by J. Earle and
C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium
Saxonicum (London, 1885-1889); B. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in
Anglo-Saxon Law (London, 1902); H. M. Chadwick, Studies on
Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cambridge, 1905); and T. W. Shore,
Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race (London, 1906). (F. G. M. B.)

KENT, a south-eastern county of England, bounded N. by the

Thames estuary, E. and S.E. by the English Channel, S.W. by Sussex,
and W. by Surrey. In the north-west the administrative county of
London encroaches upon the ancient county of Kent, the area of which
is 1554.7 sq. m. The county is roughly triangular in form, London lying
at the apex of the western angle, the North Foreland at that of the
eastern and Dungeness at that of the southern. The county is divided
centrally, from west to east, by the well-marked range of hills known as
the North Downs, entering Kent from Surrey. In the west above
Westerham these hills exceed 800 ft.; to the east the height is much
less, but even in Kent (for in Surrey they are higher) the North Downs
form a more striking physical feature than their height would indicate.
They are intersected, especially on the north, by many deep valleys,
well wooded. At three points such valleys cut completely through the
main line of the hills. In the west the Darent, flowing north to the
Thames below Dartford, pierces the hills north of Sevenoaks, but its
waters are collected chiefly from a subsidiary ridge of the Downs
running parallel to the main line and south of it, and known as the
Ragstone Ridge, from 600 to 800 ft. in height. The Medway, however,
cuts through the entire hill system, rising in the Forest Ridges of
Sussex, flowing N.E. and E. past Tonbridge, collecting feeders from
south and east (the Teise, Beult and others) near Yalding, and then
flowing N.E. and N. through the hills, past Maidstone, joining the
Thames at its mouth through a broad estuary. The rich lowlands,
between the Downs and the Forest Ridges to the south (which
themselves extend into Kent), watered by the upper Medway and its
feeders, are called the Vale of Kent, and fall within the district well
known under the name of the Weald. The easternmost penetration of
the Downs is that effected by the Stour (Great Stour) which rises on
their southern face, flows S.E. to Ashford, where it receives the East
Stour, then turns N.E. past Wye and Canterbury, to meander through
the lowlands representing the former channel which isolated the Isle of
Thanet from the mainland. The channel was called the Wantsume, and
its extent may be gathered from the position of the village of Fordwich
near Canterbury, which had formerly a tidal harbour, and is a member
of the Cinque Port of Sandwich. The Little Stour joins the Great Stour in
these lowlands from a deep vale among the Downs.

About two-thirds of the boundary line of Kent is formed by tidal

water. The estuary of the Thames may be said to stretch from London
Bridge to Sheerness in the Isle of Sheppey, which is divided from the
mainland by the narrow channel (bridged at Queensbridge) of the
Swale. Sheerness lies at the mouth of the Medway, a narrow branch of
which cuts off a tongue of land termed the Isle of Grain lying opposite
Sheerness. Along the banks of the Thames the coast is generally low
and marshy, embankments being in several places necessary to prevent
inundation. At a few points, however, as at Gravesend, spurs of the
North Downs descend directly upon the shore. In the estuary of the
Medway there are a number of low marshy islands, but Sheppey
presents to the sea a range of slight cliffs from 80 to 90 ft. in height.
The marshes extend along the Swale to Whitstable, whence stretches a
low line of clay and sandstone cliffs towards the Isle of Thanet, when
they become lofty and grand, extending round the Foreland southward
to Pegwell Bay. The coast from Sheppey round to the South Foreland is
skirted by numerous flats and sands, the most extensive of which are
the Goodwin Sands off Deal. From Pegwell Bay south to a point near
Deal the coast is flat, and the drained marshes or levels of the lower
Stour extend to the west; but thence the coast rises again into chalk
cliffs, the eastward termination of the North Downs, the famous white
cliffs which form the nearest point of England to continental Europe,
overlooking the Strait of Dover. These cliffs continue round the South
Foreland to Folkestone, where they fall away, and are succeeded west
of Sandgate by a flat shingly shore. To the south of Hythe this shore
borders the wide expanse of Romney Marsh, which, immediately west
of Hythe, is overlooked by a line of abrupt hills, but for the rest is
divided on the north from the drainage system of the Stour only by a
slight uplift. The marsh, drained by many channels, seldom rises over a
dozen feet above sea-level. At its south-eastern extremity, and at the
extreme south of the county, is the shingly promontory of Dungeness.
Within historic times much of this marsh was covered by the sea, and
the valley of the river Rother, which forms part of the boundary of Kent
with Sussex, entering the sea at Rye harbour, was represented by a
tidal estuary for a considerable distance inland.

Geology.—The northern part of the county lies on the southern

rim of the London basin; here the beds are dipping northwards.
The southern part of the county is occupied by a portion of the
Wealden anticline. The London Clay occupies the tongue of land
between the estuaries of the Thames and Medway, as well as
Sheppey and a district about 8 m. wide stretching southwards from
Whitstable to Canterbury, and extending eastwards to the Isle of
Thanet. It reappears at Pegwell Bay, and in the neighbourhood of
London it rises above the plastic clay into the elevation of Shooter’s
Hill, with a height of about 450 ft. and a number of smaller
eminences. The thickness of the formation near London is about
400 ft., and at Sheppey it reaches 480 ft. At Sheppey it is rich in
various kinds of fossil fish and shells. The plastic clay, which rests
chiefly on chalk, occupies the remainder of the estuary of the
Thames, but at several places it is broken through by outcrops of
chalk, which in some instances run northwards to the banks of the
river. The Lower Tertiaries are represented by three different
formations known as the Thanet beds, the Woolwich and Reading
beds, and the Oldhaven and Blackheath beds. The Thanet beds
resting on chalk form a narrow outcrop rising into cliffs at Pegwell
Bay and Reculver, and consist (1) of a constant base bed of clayey
greenish sand, seldom more than 5 ft. in thickness; (2) of a thin
and local bed composed of alternations of brown clay and loam;
(3) of a bed of fine light buff sand, which in west Kent attains a
thickness of more than 60 ft.; (4) of bluish grey sandy marl
containing fossils, and almost entirely confined to east Kent, the
thickness of the formation being more than 60 ft.; and (5) of fine
light grey sand of an equal thickness, also fossiliferous. The middle
series of the Lower Tertiaries, known as the Woolwich and Reading
beds, rests either on the Thanet beds or on chalk, and consists
chiefly of irregular alternations of clay and sand of very various
colours, the former often containing estuarine and oyster shells
and the latter flint pebbles. The thickness of the formation varies
from 15 to 80 ft., but most commonly it is from 25 to 40 ft. The
highest and most local series of the Lower Tertiaries is the
Oldhaven and Blackheath beds lying between the London Clay and
the Woolwich beds. They consist chiefly of flint pebbles or of light-
coloured quartzose sand, the thickness being from 20 to 30 ft, and,
are best seen at Oldhaven and Blackheath. To the south the
London basin is succeeded by the North Downs, an elevated ridge
of country consisting of an outcrop of chalk which extends from
Westerham to Folkestone with an irregular breadth generally of 3
to 6 miles, but expanding to nearly 12 miles at Dartford and
Gravesend and also to the north of Folkestone. After dipping below
the London Clay at Canterbury, it sends out an outcrop which
forms the greater part of Thanet. Below the chalk is a thin crop of
Upper Greensand between Otford and Westerham. To the south of
the Downs there is a narrow valley formed by the Gault, a
fossiliferous blue clay. This is succeeded by an outcrop of the
Lower Greensand—including the Folkestone, Sandgate and Hythe
beds with the thin Atherfield Clay at the base—which extends
across the country from west to east with a breadth of from 2 to 7
m., and rises into the picturesque elevations of the Ragstone hills.
The remains of Iguanodon occur in the Hythe beds. The valley,
which extends from the borders of Sussex to Hythe, is occupied
chiefly by the Weald clays, which contain a considerable number of
marine and freshwater fossils. Along the borders of Sussex there is
a narrow strip of country consisting of picturesque sandy hills,
formed by the Hastings beds, whose highest elevation is nearly 400
ft. and the south-west corner of the county is occupied by Romney
Marsh, which within a comparatively recent period has been
recovered from the sea. Valley gravels border the Thames, and
Pleistocene mammalia have been found in fissures in the Hythe
beds at Ightham, where ancient stone implements are common.
Remains of crag deposits lie in pipes in the chalk near Lenham.
Coal-measures, as will be seen, have been found near Dover.

The London Clay is much used for bricks, coarse pottery and
Roman cement. Lime is obtained from the Chalk and Greensand
formations. Ironstone is found in the Wadhurst Clay, a subdivision
of the Hastings beds, clays and calcareous ironstone in the
Ashdown sand, but the industry has long been discontinued. The
last Wealden furnace was put out in 1828.

Climate and Agriculture.—The unhealthiness of certain portions

of the county caused by the marshes is practically removed by
draining. In the north-eastern districts the climate is somewhat
uncertain, and damage is often done to early fruit-blossoms and
vegetation by cold easterly winds and late frosts. In the large
portion of the county sheltered by the Downs the climate is milder
and more equable, and vegetation is somewhat earlier. The
average temperature for January is 37.9° F. at Canterbury, and
39.8° at Dover; for July 63.3° and 61.6° respectively, and the
mean annual 50° and 50.2° respectively. Rainfall is light, the mean
annual being 27.72 in. at Dover, and 23.31 at Margate, compared
with 23.16 at Greenwich. The soil is varied in character, but on the
whole rich and under high cultivation. The methods of culture and
the kinds of crop produced are perhaps more widely diversified
than those of any other county in England. Upon the London Clay
the land is generally heavy and stiff, but very fruitful when properly
manured and cultivated. The marsh lands along the banks of the
Thames, Medway, Stour and Swale consist chiefly of rich chalk
alluvium. In the Isle of Thanet a light mould predominates, which
has been much enriched by fish manure. The valley of the Medway,
especially the district round Maidstone, is the most fertile part of
the county, the soil being a deep loam with a subsoil of brick-earth.
On the ragstone the soil is occasionally thin and much mixed with
small portions of sand and stone; but in some situations the
ragstone has a thick covering of clay loam, which is most suitable
for the production of hops and fruits. In the district of the Weald
marl prevails, with a substratum of clay. The soil of Romney Marsh
is a clay alluvium.

No part of England surpasses the more fertile portions of this

county in the peculiar richness of its rural scenery. About three-
quarters of the total area is under cultivation. Oats and wheat are
grown in almost equal quantities, barley being of rather less
importance. A considerable acreage is under beans, and in Thanet
mustard, spinach, canary seed and a variety of other seeds are
raised. But the county is specially noted for the cultivation of fruit
and hops. Market gardens are very numerous in the neighbourhood
of London. The principal orchard districts are the valleys of the
Darent and Medway, and the tertiary soils overlying the chalk,
between Rochester and Canterbury. The county is specially famed
for cherries and filberts, but apples, pears, plums, gooseberries,
strawberries, raspberries and currants are also largely cultivated. In
some cases apples, cherries, filberts and hops are grown in
alternate rows. The principal hop districts are the country between
Canterbury and Faversham, the valley of the Medway in mid Kent,
and the district of the Weald. Much of the Weald, which originally
was occupied by a forest, is still densely wooded, and woods are
specially extensive in the valley of the Medway. Fine oaks and
beeches are numerous, and yew trees of great size and age are
seen in some Kentish churchyards, as at Stansted, while the fine
oak at Headcorn is also famous. A large extent of woodland
consists of ash and chestnut plantations, maintained for the growth
of hop poles. Cattle are grazed in considerable numbers on the
marsh lands, and dairy farms are numerous in the neighbourhood
of London. For the rearing of sheep Kent is one of the chief
counties in England. A breed peculiar to the district, known as
Kents, is grazed on Romney Marsh, but Southdowns are the
principal breed raised on the uplands. Bee-keeping is extensively
practised. Dairy schools are maintained by the technical education
committee of the county council. The South-eastern Agricultural
College at Wye is under the control of the county councils of Kent
and Surrey.

Other Industries.—There were formerly extensive iron-works in

the Weald. Another industry now practically extinct was the
manufacture of woollen cloth. The neighbourhood of Lamberhurst
and Cranbrook was the special seat of these trades. Among the
principal modern industries are paper-making, carried on on the
banks of the Darent, Medway, Cray and neighbouring streams;
engineering, chemical and other works along the Thames;
manufactures of bricks, tiles, pottery and cement, especially by the
lower Medway and the Swale. A variety of industries is connected
with the Government establishments at Chatham and Sheerness.
Ship-building is prosecuted here and at Gravesend, Dover and
other ports. Gunpowder is manufactured near Erith and Faversham
and elsewhere.

Deep-sea fishing is largely prosecuted all round the coast.

Shrimps, soles and flounders are taken in great numbers in the
estuaries of the Thames and Medway, along the north coast and
off Ramsgate. The history of the Kentish oyster fisheries goes back
to the time of the Roman occupation, when the fame of the oyster
beds off Rutupiae (Richborough) extended even to Rome. The
principal beds are near Whitstable, Faversham, Milton,
Queenborough and Rochester, some being worked by ancient
companies or gilds of fishermen.

After the cessation in 1882 of works in connexion with the

Channel tunnel, to connect England and France, coal-boring was
attempted in the disused shaft, west of the Shakespeare Cliff
railway tunnel near Dover. In 1890 coal was struck at a depth of
1190 ft., and further seams were discovered later. The company
which took up the mining was unsuccessful, and boring ceased in
1901, but the work was resumed by the Consolidated Kent
Collieries Corporation, and an extension of borings revealed in
1905 the probability of a successful development of the mining
industry in Kent.

Communications.—Railway communications are practically

monopolized by the South Eastern & Chatham Company, a
monopoly which has not infrequently been the cause of complaint
on the part of farmers, traders and others. This system includes
some of the principal channels of communication with the
continent, through the ports of Dover, Folkestone and
Queenborough. The county contains four of the Cinque Ports,
namely, Dover, Hythe, New Romney and Sandwich. Seaside resorts
are numerous and populous—on the north coast are Minster
(Sheppey), Whitstable and Herne Bay; there is a ring of watering-
places round the Isle of Thanet—Birchington, Westgate, Margate,
Broadstairs, Ramsgate; while to the south are Sandwich, Deal,
Walmer, St Margaret’s-at-Cliffe, Dover, Folkestone, Sandgate and
Hythe. Tunbridge Wells is a favourite inland watering-place. The
influence of London in converting villages into outer residential
 suburbs is to be observed at many points, whether seaside, along
the Thames or inland. The county is practically without inland
water communications, excluding the Thames. The Royal military
canal which runs along the inland border of Romney Marsh, and
connects the Rother with Hythe, was constructed in 1807 as part of
a scheme of defence in connexion with the martello towers or
small forts along the coast.

Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is

995,014 acres, with a population in 1901 of 1,348,841. In 1801 the
population was 308,667. Excluding the portion which falls within the
administrative county of London the area is 974,950 acres, with a
population in 1891 of 807,269 and in 1901 of 935,855. The area of the
administrative county is 976,881 acres. The county contains 5 lathes, a
partition peculiar to the county. The municipal boroughs are Bromley
(pop. 27,354), Canterbury, a city and county borough (24,889),
Chatham (37,057), Deal (10,581), Dover (41,794), Faversham (11,290),
Folkestone (30,650), Gillingham (42,530), Gravesend (27,196), Hythe
(5557), Lydd (2675), Maidstone (33,516), Margate (23,118), New
Romney (1328), Queenborough (1544), Ramsgate (27,733), Rochester,
a city (30,590), Sandwich (3170), Tenterden (3243), Tunbridge Wells
(33,373). The urban districts are Ashford (12,808), Beckenham
(26,331), Bexley (12,918), Broadstairs and St Peter’s (6466), Cheriton
(7091), Chislehurst (7429), Dartford (18,644), Erith (25,296), Foots
Cray (5817), Herne Bay (6726), Milton (7086), Northfleet (12,906),
Penge (22,465), Sandgate (2294), Sevenoaks (8106), Sheerness
(18,179), Sittingbourne (8943), Southborough (6977), Tonbridge
(12,736), Walmer (5614), Whitstable (7086), Wrotham (3571). Other
small towns are Rainham (3693) near Chatham, Aylesford (2678), East
Mailing (2391) and West Mailing (2312) in the Maidstone district;
Edenbridge (2546) and Westerham (2905) on the western border of
the county; Cranbrook (3949), Goudhurst (2725) and Hawkhurst
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