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Computer Animation Algorithms and Techniques 3rd ed
Edition Rick Parent Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Rick Parent
ISBN(s): 9780124158429, 0124158420
Edition: 3rd ed
File Details: PDF, 23.85 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
Computer Animation
Intentionally left as blank
Computer Animation
Algorithms and Techniques

Third Edition

Rick Parent
Ohio State University
Acquiring Editor: Steven Elliot
Development Editor: Robyn Day
Project Manager: Paul Gottehrer
Designer: Joanne Blank

Morgan Kaufmann is an imprint of Elsevier

225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

# 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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 To Kim and John, for teaching me to keep things in perspective.
And to my wife, Arlene, for her attention-to-detail approach to life, especially
when juxtaposed to my ‘big picture’ way of doing things.
Intentionally left as blank
Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................................................. xiii
About the Author............................................................................................................................. xvii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ............................................................................. 1

1.1 Motion perception................................................................................................... 2
1.2 The heritage of animation ...................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Early devices................................................................................................. 4
1.2.2 The early days of “conventional” animation ............................................... 6
1.2.3 Disney ........................................................................................................... 7
1.2.4 Contributions of others ................................................................................. 8
1.2.5 Other media for animation ........................................................................... 8
1.3 Animation production............................................................................................. 9
1.3.1 Principles of animation............................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Principles of filmmaking ............................................................................ 12
1.3.3 Sound .......................................................................................................... 14
1.4 Computer animation production........................................................................... 15
1.4.1 Computer animation production tasks ....................................................... 16
1.4.2 Digital editing ............................................................................................. 18
1.4.3 Digital video ............................................................................................... 20
1.4.4 Digital audio ............................................................................................... 21
1.5 A brief history of computer animation ................................................................ 22
1.5.1 Early activity (pre-1980) ............................................................................ 22
1.5.2 The middle years (the 1980s)..................................................................... 25
1.5.3 Animation comes of age (the mid-1980s and beyond) ............................. 26
1.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER 2 Technical Background............................................................ 33

2.1 Spaces and transformations .................................................................................. 33
2.1.1 The display pipeline ................................................................................... 34
2.1.2 Homogeneous coordinates and the transformation matrix ........................ 38
2.1.3 Concatenating transformations: multiplying transformation matrices ...... 40
2.1.4 Basic transformations ................................................................................. 40
2.1.5 Representing an arbitrary orientation......................................................... 42
2.1.6 Extracting transformations from a matrix.................................................. 46
2.1.7 Description of transformations in the display pipeline.............................. 47
2.1.8 Error considerations.................................................................................... 48

vii
viii Contents

2.2 Orientation representation .................................................................................... 52

2.2.1 Fixed-angle representation ......................................................................... 54
2.2.2 Euler angle representation .......................................................................... 56
2.2.3 Angle and axis representation .................................................................... 57
2.2.4 Quaternion representation........................................................................... 58
2.2.5 Exponential map representation ................................................................. 60
2.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 3 Interpolating Values ............................................................... 61
3.1 Interpolation.......................................................................................................... 61
3.1.1 The appropriate function ............................................................................ 62
3.1.2 Summary ..................................................................................................... 65
3.2 Controlling the motion of a point along a curve ................................................. 65
3.2.1 Computing arc length ................................................................................. 66
3.2.2 Speed control .............................................................................................. 78
3.2.3 Ease-in/ease-out .......................................................................................... 80
3.2.4 General distance-time functions................................................................. 86
3.2.5 Curve fitting to position-time pairs............................................................ 90
3.3 Interpolation of orientations ................................................................................. 91
3.3.1 Interpolating quaternions............................................................................ 91
3.4 Working with paths .............................................................................................. 96
3.4.1 Path following............................................................................................. 96
3.4.2 Orientation along a path ............................................................................. 96
3.4.3 Smoothing a path...................................................................................... 100
3.4.4 Determining a path along a surface ......................................................... 106
3.4.5 Path finding............................................................................................... 108
3.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 108

CHAPTER 4 Interpolation-Based Animation .............................................. 111

4.1 Key-frame systems ............................................................................................. 111
4.2 Animation languages .......................................................................................... 115
4.2.1 Artist-oriented animation languages ........................................................ 116
4.2.2 Full-featured programming languages for animation .............................. 116
4.2.3 Articulation variables ............................................................................... 117
4.2.4 Graphical languages ................................................................................. 117
4.2.5 Actor-based animation languages ............................................................ 118
4.3 Deforming objects .............................................................................................. 119
4.3.1 Picking and pulling................................................................................... 119
4.3.2 Deforming an embedding space............................................................... 121
 Contents ix

4.4 Three-dimensional shape interpolation .............................................................. 135

4.4.1 Matching topology.................................................................................... 136
4.4.2 Star-shaped polyhedra .............................................................................. 137
4.4.3 Axial slices ............................................................................................... 137
4.4.4 Map to sphere ........................................................................................... 139
4.4.5 Recursive subdivision............................................................................... 145
4.5 Morphing (two-dimensional).............................................................................. 147
4.5.1 Coordinate grid approach ......................................................................... 147
4.5.2 Feature-based morphing ........................................................................... 153
4.6 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 159
CHAPTER 5 Kinematic Linkages.............................................................. 161
5.1 Hierarchical modeling ........................................................................................ 162
5.1.1 Data structure for hierarchical modeling ................................................. 164
5.1.2 Local coordinate frames ........................................................................... 170
5.2 Forward kinematics ............................................................................................ 171
5.3 Inverse kinematics .............................................................................................. 172
5.3.1 Solving a simple system by analysis........................................................ 173
5.3.2 The Jacobian ............................................................................................. 174
5.3.3 Numeric solutions to IK ........................................................................... 178
5.3.4 Summary ................................................................................................... 185
5.4 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 185
CHAPTER 6 Motion Capture .................................................................... 187
6.1 Motion capture technologies .............................................................................. 187
6.2 Processing the images ........................................................................................ 188
6.3 Camera calibration.............................................................................................. 190
6.4 Three-dimensional position reconstruction ........................................................ 191
6.4.1 Multiple markers....................................................................................... 192
6.4.2 Multiple cameras ...................................................................................... 192
6.5 Fitting to the skeleton......................................................................................... 193
6.6 Output from motion capture systems ................................................................. 195
6.7 Manipulating motion capture data ..................................................................... 196
6.7.1 Processing the signals............................................................................... 196
6.7.2 Retargeting the motion ............................................................................. 197
6.7.3 Combining motions .................................................................................. 197
6.8 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 198
CHAPTER 7 Physically Based Animation .................................................. 199
7.1 Basic physics—a review .................................................................................... 200
7.1.1 Spring-damper pair ................................................................................... 202
x Contents

7.2 Spring animation examples ................................................................................ 202

7.2.1 Flexible objects......................................................................................... 202
7.2.2 Virtual springs .......................................................................................... 205
7.3 Particle systems .................................................................................................. 205
7.3.1 Particle generation .................................................................................... 206
7.3.2 Particle attributes ...................................................................................... 207
7.3.3 Particle termination .................................................................................. 207
7.3.4 Particle animation ..................................................................................... 207
7.3.5 Particle rendering...................................................................................... 207
7.3.6 Particle system representation .................................................................. 208
7.3.7 Forces on particles.................................................................................... 208
7.3.8 Particle life span ....................................................................................... 209
7.4 Rigid body simulation ........................................................................................ 209
7.4.1 Bodies in free fall ..................................................................................... 210
7.4.2 Bodies in collision .................................................................................... 219
7.4.3 Dynamics of linked hierarchies................................................................ 232
7.5 Cloth.................................................................................................................... 235
7.5.1 Direct modeling of folds .......................................................................... 237
7.5.2 Physically based modeling ....................................................................... 240
7.6 Enforcing soft and hard constraints ................................................................... 244
7.6.1 Energy minimization ................................................................................ 244
7.6.2 Space-time constraints.............................................................................. 247
7.7 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 249
CHAPTER 8 Fluids: Liquids and Gases ..................................................... 251
8.1 Specific fluid models.......................................................................................... 251
8.1.1 Models of water........................................................................................ 251
8.1.2 Modeling and animating clouds ............................................................... 262
8.1.3 Modeling and animating fire.................................................................... 268
8.1.4 Summary ................................................................................................... 270
8.2 Computational fluid dynamics ........................................................................... 270
8.2.1 General approaches to modeling fluids.................................................... 271
8.2.2 CFD equations .......................................................................................... 272
8.2.3 Grid-based approach................................................................................. 276
8.2.4 Particle-based approaches including smoothed particle hydrodynamics 277
8.3 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 280
CHAPTER 9 Modeling and Animating Human Figures ................................ 283
9.1 Overview of virtual human representation ........................................................ 283
9.1.1 Representing body geometry.................................................................... 284
9.1.2 Geometry data acquisition........................................................................ 285
 Contents xi

9.1.3 Geometry deformation.............................................................................. 286

9.1.4 Surface detail ............................................................................................ 286
9.1.5 Layered approach to human figure modeling.......................................... 287
9.2 Reaching and grasping ....................................................................................... 290
9.2.1 Modeling the arm ..................................................................................... 290
9.2.2 The shoulder joint..................................................................................... 293
9.2.3 The hand ................................................................................................... 293
9.2.4 Coordinated movement............................................................................. 295
9.2.5 Reaching around obstacles ....................................................................... 296
9.2.6 Strength ..................................................................................................... 297
9.3 Walking............................................................................................................... 298
9.3.1 The mechanics of locomotion .................................................................. 298
9.3.2 The kinematics of the walk ...................................................................... 303
9.3.3 Using dynamics to help produce realistic motion ................................... 303
9.3.4 Forward dynamic control ......................................................................... 308
9.3.5 Summary ................................................................................................... 308
9.4 Coverings ............................................................................................................ 309
9.4.1 Clothing .................................................................................................... 309
9.4.4 Hair ........................................................................................................... 309
9.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 311
CHAPTER 10 Facial Animation .................................................................. 317
10.1 The human face .................................................................................................. 317
10.1.1 Anatomic structure ................................................................................. 317
10.1.2 The facial action coding system............................................................. 319
10.2 Facial models...................................................................................................... 320
10.2.1 Creating a continuous surface model..................................................... 322
10.2.2 Textures .................................................................................................. 325
10.3 Animating the face ............................................................................................. 327
10.3.1 Parameterized models............................................................................. 327
10.3.2 Blend shapes ........................................................................................... 327
10.3.3 Muscle models ........................................................................................ 329
10.3.4 Expressions ............................................................................................. 332
10.3.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 332
10.4 Lip-sync animation ............................................................................................. 333
10.4.1 Articulators of speech............................................................................. 333
10.4.2 Phonemes ................................................................................................ 334
10.4.3 Coarticulation.......................................................................................... 335
10.4.4 Prosody ................................................................................................... 335
10.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 335
xii Contents

CHAPTER 11 Behavioral Animation ........................................................... 339

11.1 Primitive behaviors............................................................................................. 342
11.1.1 Flocking behavior ................................................................................... 342
11.1.2 Prey–predator behavior........................................................................... 351
11.2 Knowledge of the environment .......................................................................... 352
11.2.1 Vision...................................................................................................... 352
11.2.2 Memory................................................................................................... 353
11.3 Modeling intelligent behavior ............................................................................ 354
11.3.1 Autonomous behavior............................................................................. 354
11.3.2 Expressions and gestures........................................................................ 356
11.3.3 Modeling individuality: personality and emotions ................................ 357
11.4 Crowds ................................................................................................................ 358
11.4.1 Crowd behaviors..................................................................................... 359
11.4.2 Internal structure..................................................................................... 359
11.4.3 Crowd control ......................................................................................... 360
11.4.4 Managing n-squared complexity ............................................................ 360
11.4.5 Appearance ............................................................................................. 361
11.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 361
CHAPTER 12 Special Models for Animation ............................................... 365
12.1 Implicit surfaces ................................................................................................. 365
12.1.1 Basic implicit surface formulation ......................................................... 365
12.1.2 Animation using implicitly defined objects........................................... 367
12.1.3 Collision detection.................................................................................. 368
12.1.4 Deforming the implicit surface as a result of collision ......................... 368
12.1.5 Level set methods ................................................................................... 371
12.1.6 Summary ................................................................................................. 372
12.2 Plants................................................................................................................... 372
12.2.1 A little bit of botany ............................................................................... 372
12.2.2 L-systems ................................................................................................ 374
12.2.3 Animating plant growth.......................................................................... 379
12.2.4 Summary ................................................................................................. 381
12.3 Subdivision surfaces ........................................................................................... 382
12.4 Chapter summary................................................................................................ 384
Appendix A Rendering Issues ...................................................................................................... 387
Appendix B Background Information and Techniques................................................................ 407
Index ................................................................................................................................................ 503
Preface

Overview
This book surveys computer algorithms and programming techniques for specifying and generating
motion for graphical objects, that is, computer animation. It is primarily concerned with three-
dimensional (3D) computer animation. The main audience is advanced undergraduate or beginning
graduate students in Computer Science. Computer graphics programmers who want to learn the
basics of computer animation programming and artists who use software packages to generate com-
puter animation (digital animators) who want to better understand the underlying computational
issues of animation software will also benefit from this book.
It should come as no surprise to anyone reading this book that activity in Computer Animation
has exploded in recent years - as a research area, as an academic field of study, as a career, and even
as a hobby. Feature length films are now often stored digitally and incorporate digital special effects
(often referred to as computer generated imagery and abbreviated CGI). As listed by the Internet
Movie Database (imdb.com) [1] as of March 2012, all of the top 10 U.S. films (All-Time U.S.
Box Office) depend on extensive use of CGI. Computer animated films have become top box office
attractions - according to the same movie database, 2 of the top 10 feature length films are computer
animations (Shrek 2 and Toy Story 3) with a third having a significant computer animation compo-
nent (Avatar). Recent Technical Achievement and Scientific and Engineering awards from the
Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences have been for digital image technology including render
queue management, facial motion retargeting, tools to review digital effects, and efficient rendering of
volumetric effects, just to name a few [2]. And, of course, the computer game industry has exploded.
The Entertainment Software Association estimate that, in 2010, consumers spent $25.1 billion on video
games, hardware and accessories [3].
Computer animation is more accessible that ever. Desktop, high-quality, computer animation is
now possible because of sophisticated off-the-shelf animation software, cheap CPU cycles, and
cheap storage coupled with digital video recording. Many technical programs and computer science
departments now offer courses in computer animation and the proliferating artistic programs train
digital artists in the use of off-the-shelf animation software. There are now major technical confer-
ences and journals that archive developments in computer animation and video game algorithms
and techniques.
This book addresses practical issues, provides accessible techniques, and offers straightforward
implementations. Purely theoretical discussions have been avoided except to point out avenues of cur-
rent and future research. In some cases, programming examples are complete working code
segments—in C, which can be copied, compiled, and run to produce basic examples of the algorithms
discussed; other programming examples are C-like pseudocode that can be translated into working
code. C was chosen because it forms the common basis for languages such as Cþþ and Java, and it
lends itself to illustrating the step-by-step nature of algorithms. The Appendixes cover basic material
that the reader may find useful as a refresher as well as specific algorithms for use in implementations.
This text is not intended for animators using off-the-shelf animation software (except to the
extent that it might help in understanding the underlying computations required for a particular

xiii
xiv Preface

technique). It does not attempt to cover the theory of computer animation, address the aesthetics of
computer animation, or discuss the artistic issues involved in designing animations. It does not detail
the production issues in the actual commercial enterprise of producing a finished piece of animation.
And, finally, it does not address the issue of computer-assisted animation, which, for our purposes, is
taken to mean the computerization of conventional hand-drawn techniques; for the most part, that
area has its own set of separate issues [4] [5]. The book does concentrate on full 3D computer ani-
mation and identifies the useful algorithms and techniques that animators and programmers can use
to move objects in interesting ways. While 3D techniques are the emphasis, 2D is not completely
ignored.
The fundamental objective of computer animation programming is to select techniques and
design tools that are expressive enough for animators to specify what they intend, yet at the same
time are powerful enough to relieve animators from specifying any details they are not interested in.
Obviously, no one tool is going to be right for every animator, for every animation, or even for every
scene in a single animation. The appropriateness of a particular animation tool depends on the effect
desired and the control required by the animator. An artistic piece of animation will usually require
tools different from those required by an animation that simulates reality or educates a patient. In this
spirit, alternative approaches are presented whenever possible.

Organization of the Book

This book presents background information in the first couple of chapters. Techniques that directly
specify motion (kinematic - not based on underlying forces) are presented in the next 4 chapters fol-
lowed by 2 chapters that cover force-based (dynamics) animation. Character animation is then cov-
ered in 3 chapters. The last chapter covers special geometric models. Appendices provide extensive
support material. More detail about the chapters is given below.
Chapter 1 discusses general issues related to animation, including motion perception, the heritage
of conventional animation paying particular attention to its technological innovations, overviews of
animation production and computer animation production, and a snapshot of the ever-evolving his-
tory of computer animation. These provide a broad perspective of the art and craft that is animation.
Chapter 2 presents background material and reviews the basics of computer graphics necessary
for animation. It reviews computational issues in computer graphics to ensure a solid background
in the techniques that are important in understanding the remainder of the book. This includes a
review of the rendering pipeline and a discussion of the ordering of transformations to reduce
round-off errors that can creep into a series of calculations as one builds on another. A detailed sec-
tion on quaternion representation of orientation is presented in this chapter as well. If the reader is
well versed in computer graphics, this chapter may be skimmed to pick up relevant terminology
or skipped altogether.
Chapters 3 and 4 cover interpolation. Chapter 3 presents the fundamentals. It introduces time-
space curves, arc-length parameterization of a curve, and speed control along a curve. Interpolation
of orientation with an emphasis on using quaternions is then covered. Various ways to work with
paths are then presented. Chapter 4 presents animation techniques based on interpolation including
key frame interpolation, animation languages, shape deformation, and shape interpolation including
morphing.
 Preface xv

Chapters 5 and 6 are primarily concerned with kinematic control of articulated figures. Chapter 5
is concerned with kinematics of linked appendages. It covers both forward and inverse kinematics.
Chapter 6 covers the basics of motion capture (mocap). First, the basic technology is reviewed. Then
the chapter discusses how the images are processed to reconstruct articulated figure kinematics,
including some techniques to modify the resultant mocap data.
Chapters 7 and 8 cover animation that is more concerned with simulating real-world (e.g.
physics-based) processes. Chapter 7 covers physics-based animation as well as mass-spring-damper
systems, particle systems, rigid body dynamics, and enforcing constraints. It has an additional sec-
tion on ways to model cloth. Chapter 8 covers the modeling and animation of fluids. It first covers
models that handle specific macro-features of fluids and then covers computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) as it relates to computer animation.
Chapters 9 through 11cover animation concerned with people and other critters. Chapter 9 covers
human figure animation: modeling, reaching, walking, clothing, and hair. Chapter 10 covers facial
animation: facial modeling, expressions, and lip-sync animation. Chapter 11 covers behavioral
animation including flocking, predator–prey models, intelligent behavior and crowd behavior.
Finally, Chapter 12 covers a few special models that are useful to animation: implicit surfaces,
L-systems, and subdivision surfaces.
Appendix A presents rendering issues often involved in producing images for computer animation:
double buffering, compositing, computing motion blur, drop shadows, and billboarding. It assumes a
general knowledge of the use of frame buffers, how a z-buffer display algorithm works, and aliasing.
Appendix B is a collection of relevant material from a variety of disciplines. It contains a survey
of interpolation and approximation techniques, vector algebra and matrices, quaternion conversion
code, the first principles of physics, several useful numeric techniques, optimization, and attributes
of film, video, and image formats, and a few other topics.
The Web page associated with the book, containing images, code, and figures can be found at
textbooks.elsevier.com/9780125320009.

Acknowledgments
Many people contributed in various ways to this book. First and foremost, I’d like to thank my wife,
Arlene, who both tolerated my preoccupation with this project and greatly increased the readability
of the book.
In general, I owe much to the students I have had the pleasure of knowing and/or working with
over the years and whose collective interest in, knowledge of, and enthusiasm for the field has fueled
my own. Their contribution cannot be overstated. These include Doug Roble, John Chadwick, Dave
Haumann, Dave Ebert, Matt Lewis, Karan Singh, Steve May, James Hahn, Ferdi Scheepers, Dave
Miller, Beth Hofer, Madhavi Muppala, Domin Lee, Kevin Rogers, Brent Watkins, Brad Winemiller,
Meg Geroch, Lawson Wade, Arun Somasundaram, Scott King, and Scott (Slim) Whitman (apologies
to anyone left out).
I would also like to thank the readers who, over the years, have given me feedback (both good
and bad) concerning the book. In particular, I would like to note the critical contributions of
Dr. Philip Schlup of Colorado State University, Dr. Brian Wyvill of the University of Calgary,
and Dr. Przemyslaw Kiciak of the University of Warsaw.
xvi Preface

And finally, I would like to acknowledge the support of the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering at Ohio State (Xiaodong Zhang, Chair) as well as the support of the Advanced Comput-
ing Center for Art and Design (Maria Palazzi, Director). I would also like to thank Morgan Kauf-
mann’s reviewers and multiple editors for seeing this project through.

References
[1] All Time Grossing Movies. In: The Internet Movie Database (IMDB). IMDb.com, Inc; 2012. Web. 26
March 2012. http://www.imdb.com/boxoffice/alltimegross.
[2] Scientific and Technical Awards. In: Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 2012. Web. 26 March
2012. http://www.oscars.org/awards/scitech/index.html.
[3] Industry facts. In: The Entertainment Software Association (ESA). 2012. Web. 26 March 2012. http://www.
theesa.com/facts/index.asp.
[4] Catmull E. The Problems of Computer-Assisted Animation. In: Computer Graphics. Proceedings of SIG-
GRAPH 78, vol. 12(3). August Atlanta, Ga.; 1978. p. 348–53.
[5] Levoy M. A Color Animation System Based on the Multiplane Technique. In: George J, editor. Computer
Graphics. Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 77, vol 11(2). San Jose, Calif.; July 1977. p. 65–71.
About the Author
Rick Parent is a Professor in the Computer Science and Engineering Department of Ohio State
University (OSU). As a graduate student, Rick worked at the Computer Graphics Research Group
(CGRG) at OSU under the direction of Charles Csuri. In 1977, he received his Ph.D. from the Computer
and Information Science (CIS) Department, majoring in Artificial Intelligence. For the next three years,
he worked at CGRG first as a Research Associate, and then as Associate Director. In 1980 he
co-founded and was President of The Computer Animation Company. In 1985, he joined the faculty
of the CIS Department (now the Department of Computer -Science and Engineering) at Ohio State.
Rick’s research interests include various aspects of computer animation with special focus on anima-
tion of the human figure. Currently, he is working on facial animation and on using model-based
techniques to track human figures in video.

xvii
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 CHAPTER

Introduction
1
Computer animation, for many people, is synonymous with big-screen events such as Star Wars, Toy
Story, and Avatar. But not all, or arguably even most, computer animation is done in Hollywood. It is
not unusual for Saturday morning cartoons to be entirely computer generated. Computer games take
advantage of state-of-the-art computer graphics techniques and have become a major motivating force
driving research in computer animation. Real-time performance-driven computer animation has
appeared at SIGGRAPH1 and on Sesame Street. Desktop computer animation is now possible at a rea-
sonable cost. Computer animation on the Web is routine. Digital simulators for training pilots, SWAT
teams, and nuclear reactor operators are commonplace. The distinguishing characteristics of these var-
ious venues are the cost, the image quality desired, and the amount and type of interaction allowed. This
book does not address the issues concerned with a particular venue, but it does present algorithms and
techniques used to do computer animation in all of them.
Computer animation, as used here, refers to any computer-based computation used in producing
images intended to create the perception of motion. The emphasis in this book is on algorithms and
techniques that process three-dimensional graphical data. In general, any value that can be changed
can be animated. An object’s position and orientation are obvious candidates for animation, but all
of the following can be animated as well: the object’s shape, its shading parameters, its texture coor-
dinates, the light source parameters, and the camera parameters.
This book is organized as follows. To lay a firm foundation for the rest of the book, Chapter 2 surveys
the technical background of computer graphics relevant to computer animation. This includes the fun-
damental geometric transformations and associated representations of graphical data. It can be skipped
by those well versed in the mathematics of the computer graphics display pipeline. Chapters 3–11 cover
various computer animation algorithms and techniques: Chapters 3–5 deal with directly specifying
motion (kinematics), Chapter 6 covers digitizing motion (motion capture), Chapters 7 and 8 consider
physically based animation (dynamics), and Chapters 9–11 concentrate on (mostly human) figure
animation. Finally, Chapter 12 surveys some modeling techniques that have been used in computer
animation. The appendices provide ancillary material. Appendix A covers rendering issues that are
relevant for animation, and Appendix B provides detail of the mathematics used in the text.
In considering computer animation techniques, there are basically three general approaches to
motion control. The first is artistic animation in which the animator has the prime responsibility
for crafting the motion. The foundation of artistic animation is interpolation. Various animation

1
SIGGRAPH is the Association for Computing Machinery’s (ACM) special interest group on computer graphics. The ACM
is the main professional group for computer scientists.

Computer Animation
© 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
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the lantern, which was executed under Clement VIII. Giovanni Fontana,
brother of Domenico, was also architect to St. Peter’s, and then follows
the nephew of Domenico, Carlo Maderno, who lengthened the nave, and
brought the building, internally, as well as externally, to the shape of the
Latin cross, for which he has been plentifully abused; he also erected
the front, in which he seems to have failed as much in construction as in
taste, since the foundations gave way before the work was completed;
and though they were strengthened in consequence, yet they were not
at last firm enough to support the bell towers, which were to have
terminated the extremities of the elevation. Bernini was indeed engaged
by Urban VIII. to erect these bell towers, and one of them was actually
built; but though of a very light style of architecture, it was too heavy
for the edifice, and immediately taken down again. At this time St.
Peter’s may be said to have been finished. Bernini added the galleries
and colonnades in front, and adorned or encumbered the interior, with
the chair, and the confessional of St. Peter. Carlo Fontana in later times
drew up a description of the building by the command of Innocent XI.,
and a loose estimate of its value, not from the sums which it had
actually cost, because many of the accounts had been lost, but from the
quantity of materials employed. These he reckons at 111,122,000 cubic
Roman palms;
Scudi.
And this, at 32½ bajocchi per palm cube amounts to 36,114,650
For 128 marble columns, each 40 palms high, he adds 236,800
And allows for the other extras 10,800,000
without publishing the details of his calculations: and he adds up these
to make a total of 46,800,498, which is an arithmetic that I do not well
understand, as it seems to me that it ought to be 47,151,450. This
estimate is independent of the tower erected and taken down, and of all
other alterations which took place in the progress of the work; it is also
independent of the paintings; and if I understand rightly, it does not
include the chair of St. Peter, or the bronze confessional erected by
Bernini.
The Chair of St. Peter is also of bronze, and gilt, and cost 107,501
scudi, 44 scudi being equal to 10l. sterling.
Scudi.
 Bernini had for his superintendence 8,000
The founder (John Artusius) 28,000
The smoothing and polishing 4,000
Gold laid on 6,000
Labour of gilding 3,000
The bronze weighed 219,061 lbs.; of this the bronze of the statue of
St. Andrew weighed 34,023, of St. Augustin, 30,791, of St. Athanasius,
23,652, of St. Chrysostom, 27,791.
The bronze of the Confessional weighs 186,392 lbs. Bernini had for his
superintendence 10,000 crowns and a pension: no architect seems ever
to have been so well paid for his labours as Bernini.
About the end of the seventeenth century an alarm was excited that
the dome was about to give way. Fontana in consequence examined it,
and found that there were indeed some cracks, but none of any
consequence, or such as to excite the least reasonable apprehension for
the safety of the building. In 1742, however, the report again prevailed,
and many mathematicians and architects were called upon for their
opinions, and gave, as is frequently the case, very discordant ones: the
architects not dividing against the mathematicians, but both classes
disagreeing among themselves. There is in the Vatican a model of half
the cupola, which is believed to be that made under the direction of
Michael Angelo previous to carrying it into execution. It is carried down
cylindrically to the floor, so that it does not exhibit the mode of
construction in pendentive. The appearance is that of a triple dome, but
perhaps with connecting ribs between the two outer. The chief strength
seems to be placed in the middle dome, the weight of which is brought
down to the internal face of the drum. Three iron bands are marked in
the construction, one entirely buried in the united base of the domes;
the other two on the outer surface of the middle dome. The cracks
which took place in the drum are painted on this model, and on a
comparison with those whose vestiges are still visible on the building,
apparently with considerable care and attention. They occurred all round
the drum, and denote some enlargement in that part from the
expansion of the dome, but in spite of all these iron ties, the cracks in
the buttresses are the most numerous and important, and from their
direction, almost uniformly outwards and downwards, indicate a
settlement of the whole drum upon the pendentives, while the columns,
resting upon the direct arches of the nave, have retained or nearly
retained their position. The great piers have therefore probably gone
outward, and when in the building, by bringing my eye carefully so as to
compare the angle of a pilaster not affected by this operation, with
those of the central cupola, I think I can perceive that such an effect has
taken place. Nor has the movement entirely ceased, since a dovetailed
piece of marble, inserted to ascertain the fact in 1810 was found broken
in 1825. Perhaps there never was any just ground of alarm; yet as one
of the iron circles intended to contain the thrust had given way, there
probably had been a considerable settlement, but not more than might
have been expected from the different periods in which the work had
been carried up, and the repeated strengthenings which the solids had
received. Nevertheless it was determined to insert five bands of iron,
which were all let into the masonry, and made tight and sound, under
the direction of Vanvitelli. The broken chain was restored, but another
chain had been originally inserted in the thickness of the wall: this there
was no opportunity of examining: in order to be perfectly secure, a sixth
band was inserted in its neighbourhood, so that in all probability the
dome and its drum are now secured by eight iron bands, five of which
are in the drum: one at the springing of the arch, and two on the
surface of the dome itself. It is doubted among the Italian architects
whether the insertion of all these bands did not do more harm than any
strength they could afford to the building can compensate.
The Sacristy was added in 1780 by Pius VI. under the direction of
Carlo Marchionni. It is a vast building, enriched with the most beautiful
marbles; and cost above 900,000 crowns; but I shall despatch it with
this short notice, as it is neither beautiful in itself, nor does it form an
appropriate addition to the edifice to which it is attached. And now,
putting an end to the history of the building, let us proceed to the result
of all these efforts.
There is no distant point of view in which this church gives the
impression of great magnificence, or from which it has the appearance
of being such an immense building as it really is. This is owing to the
situation; and perhaps no building of great consequence was ever so
badly placed. It stands in a hollow between the Janicular and Vatican
hills, which are connected by a neck behind it; so that on three sides it
is surrounded by slopes rising almost immediately from it, and about
equalling the height of the nave, and in front, in spite of the large space
before it, it seems encumbered by houses, which prevent the view down
to the base. These houses only occupy a slip extending from the church
down to the river, and it is said the French intended to have cleared
them away, and to have continued an open portico across, about at the
extremity of the present colonnades. From the bridge of St. Angelo, and
from the road beyond it, you would then have had a very noble view of
the whole edifice, of which the dome would be the principal feature; till,
as you approached more nearly, the increasing apparent magnitude of
the colonnade for a short space would have excluded, or nearly so, the
principal object: after passing through this, the church would have
presented itself under another aspect, the dome being nearly lost, but
the façade opening upon the spectator in all its magnitude, with its
accompanying galleries and colonnades. The great advantage of such an
arrangement would be this, that as the dome and front do not well
correspond together, their union would be masked just at the point
where it is most disagreeable; and as the columns of the portico could
not be seen as objects of any consequence, in comparison with the
church, till we were fairly among them; the false estimate usually
formed of their magnitude would be avoided, and they would serve to
correct our notions of the magnitude of the building, instead of helping
to mislead, as they do at present. This scheme is, I apprehend,
abandoned; and we now from the bridge of St. Angelo see little but the
dome itself, and after passing it, proceed along a dirty narrow street,
whence we see nothing; at last we catch a glimpse of part of the front,
and at the same time, of the extremity of the circular colonnade. Lest
you should not have a plan at hand, I give you a little sketch of one:
(Fig. 1.) a is the church, b b the galleries leading to it from the
colonnades, c c the circular colonnades, d the obelisk, ee the two
fountains, f the point which first catches your eye on your approach.
Fig 1.
 Fig 2.

On my first visit to St. Peter’s, the appearance of this point puzzled me

extremely; it appeared to be close against the church, while on the
other hand, it seemed so near to the houses at the end of the street,
that I could not imagine any considerable space between them: I did not
doubt that I had taken the wrong road, and expected to find myself
close to the church, missing the celebrated place and colonnades, in
front of it; at last, however, it opened upon me, and with great
magnificence. I should have been more impressed if I had not heard so
much of it; yet still it is a scene not to be forgotten; and perhaps it is
not the less strongly fixed in the memory, because the overwhelming
deformity of the façade, half destroys its power of pleasing. Yet here,
with the whole before me, I should have formed a very false estimate of
its magnitude; the columns of the colonnade are nearly five feet in
diameter: had I been asked at that moment how large they were, I
should have replied, not merely from the first feeling, but on
considering, and comparing what was within view from the one point,
that they fell short of four. There are indeed generally figures about,
which would enable one to judge more nearly; but they look like
children. The half columns in front of the church are nine feet in
diameter, I should not have guessed them at more than six, and in both
instances I should have thought that I made an allowance for optical
deception. What is the reason of this? I shall begin with the colonnade.
In the first place, the colonnade looks small, because it is so palpably
a thing of mere ornament, not connected with, or forming any part of
the building, or applied to any useful purpose; and the understanding is
not easily reconciled to such great masses thus employed: I do not
mean here to restrict the term useful to the narrow sense to which we
often find it limited in England. Magnificence is use. When well
displayed, it is calculated to produce respect and awe, or at least a
frame of mind which readily admits those sentiments, and therefore it
ought to be found in public edifices, and still more in, and about the
temples of the Deity; I mean to give you, by and by, the reasons why
this colonnade does not completely come within this rule. I admit that it
does so in some degree, but not so as fully to satisfy the mind.
In the second place, the colonnade looks smaller than it is, because
the church seems to be much nearer to the spectator than is the fact;
thus the apparent space is diminished, and with the space, all the
objects it contains.
The church looks nearer than it really is, first, from its enormous size;
secondly, from all those causes hereafter to be explained, which make it
appear smaller: the angle at the eye of the spectator being given, to
appear smaller, it must also appear nearer: and thirdly, from the position
of the galleries at b. These galleries recede as they approach the church,
but they do not appear to do so, and the spectator imagines them of
course perpendicular to the façade. He may know the contrary from
reading, or from plans; but this consideration does not enter into those
rapid judgments on which the impressive effect of a building principally
depends. Let us then suppose the eye to be at e, Fig. 2. Although the
line a c, from its inclined position, be really longer than a b, yet it will
not appear longer than from a to d, and the space from d to b is entirely
lost. This gallery ascends towards the church, and the leading line,
which is the cornice, instead of sinking, as the perspective requires, from
a to c, if as usual it were horizontal, appears to sink no more than if the
line were carried only to f. The spectator does not precisely imagine
this: the lines look confused, and out of drawing; but it aids in reducing
the idea of length, and deprives him of the means of correcting the
former impression. Thirdly, the colonnade looks small, because the
church looks small, and the eye in some degree measures one by the
other.
The church looks smaller, First, from all the causes which make the
colonnade look smaller; they act, as I have just said, mutually upon
each other; if there were only this reciprocal action, the effect would
perhaps vanish, but each contains also independent sources of this
deception.
Secondly, from all those circumstances already explained, which make
it appear near.
Thirdly, from its own composition. The breaks of the entablature have
very much the effect of reducing the columns and pilasters into
ornaments, and one cannot imagine mere ornaments of such gigantic
proportions. Another circumstance is, the division of the height of the
order into three stories; it looks therefore more like a palace than a
church. An enormous palace I grant, but still the imagination is
conducted towards the usual appearances of human life. Now we know
that 26 or 28 feet are sufficient for the loftiest story; that 10 or 12 feet
form an immense mezzanine; and that 20 feet for the upper story is
magnificent; and this gives a height of 60 feet, instead of 90. I merely
put these dimensions down, to exemplify the principle on which the
apparent size is reduced. We certainly do not make all these guesses on
considering the building, nor perhaps any of them; the comparison is
probably never put distinctly into words, but is rather felt than
expressed; yet I have no doubt of its existence. The stories form a scale
by which we measure the whole height; our judgment is therefore the
result of proportion, but of proportion misapplied. Then the Attics form
another story, and who wants garrets thirty feet high? Another cause of
misapprehension arises from the Vatican Palace just by, which stands on
higher ground, and absolutely appears to overtop the cathedral.
So much for its magnitude; in other respects the front of the building
is hardly worth a single observation, and the galleries connecting it with
the colonnade may be dismissed as readily, but the colonnade itself
requires some further remarks. It is said to be the masterpiece of
Bernini, and is certainly a very fine thing; but in estimating the merit of
the architect, we must consider, not merely the effect produced, but the
means employed to produce it: here are two hundred and fifty-six
columns, 5 feet in diameter, and 40 feet high, with their complete
entablature and appendages. A dipteral hypæthral temple with twelve
columns in front and ornamented with columns also internally, the
largest known to antiquity, only employs at the utmost one hundred and
ninety-six. It is beautiful in design, graceful and even magnificent; yet
magnificence is not its character. The design would be better on a
smaller scale, with Corinthian columns hardly as high as the present,
and an ornamented Corinthian entablature. The design has richness and
magnificence, but it has not majesty or sublimity; and it is this want of
majesty which makes one unwilling to admit its size, and communicates
an appearance of uselessness. But you will ask me, If thus enriched and
adorned, would it form a suitable approach to St. Peter’s? I answer No,
nor does it now; and the proof of this is, that it looks better any way
than towards the church. It is more beautiful considered alone, than
united with the building it was meant to accompany. There are several
considerable defects in the details; the curves are injudiciously broken in
the middle, and the columns, bigger in the middle of the shaft than at
the bottom, have some resemblance to barrels; but neither of these are
of much consequence in the general view, though very disagreeable
when considered separately. The fountains are beautiful, and they are
mere fountains, without tritons or nymphs blowing up water, or any
affectation of the sort; and this to my eyes is a very great merit,
especially in Rome, where they have been so prodigal of these
accessories. The obelisk would, I think, be better away; if there were
two, instead of one, leaving the centre clear, I should like the effect
better, but all the obelisks in Rome are single, and badly mounted.
You enter St. Peter’s by a vaulted gallery, whose length is equal to the
breadth of the building, and whose height occupies what is apparently
the first story; this arrangement occurs in several of the Roman basilican
churches, and is adopted in order to obtain an upper gallery, from which
the benediction is given. It forms frequently a very noble porch, and is
certainly a highly magnificent feature in this instance, though defaced by
many errors in the architecture. There is a smaller order employed in the
openings of the front, subordinate to the principal one, which in the
general view looks quite small; but after passing a short time in this
corridor, the eye acquires a new scale, and these become noble
columns; while even a third order, which adorns the doors of the church
seems of considerable size. We enter.——After all the abuse which has
been bestowed on the building for looking little, and all the absurd
admiration it has obtained for this defect, the spectator must perceive at
once that he is in the largest, far the largest room he ever saw, and if he
have any sentiment in the art, he must feel the strong impression of a
most noble and magnificent piece of architecture. Of one where the
richness of the material is combined with justness of proportion, and
where science, taste, and genius have united with riches and power to
produce sublimity. For my own part, I was indeed on my guard against
the deception, but it seemed to me to be impossible that any one should
seriously believe the cupids or angels at the font, to be no bigger than
little children, or suppose the doves mentioned by Eustace to be of the
natural size.
All these criticisms, and conjectures, and comparisons, are sadly
injurious to the first impression of a building; they divert the attention
from the sublime and admirable whole, to fix it on trifles; but they are so
drilled into one by books, and by the driest of all dry prosers, the Roman
antiquaries, who are anxious to show you that they know every thing,
by letting you feel nothing, that it is I believe impossible to enter the
church with the same simplicity, and freedom from system, with which
you would enter a less celebrated edifice; but if you should ever come to
Rome, let me exhort you to pay your first visit to St. Peter’s alone, and if
you must think of these things at first, turn your back on all your
knowledge as soon as you can; this is the true way, both to judge of,
and enjoy a fine building. Criticise afterwards, and you will find yourself
able from time to time to correct your criticisms, and to repeat your
enjoyment, by recalling the first impressions; but if you begin by
dwelling on the details, and still more by minuting the defects, you may
indeed feel the beauties of the architecture afterwards, but never with
that vividness, or the same unmixed delight, that you experience, if you
begin by laying yourself completely open to it. This unfortunately is a
pleasure which I cannot communicate by words, and I must therefore
descend to the more distinct and tangible field of criticism.
If the peculiarity of this building, in looking so much smaller than the
truth has been exaggerated, I must however acknowledge that there is
some foundation for it. It is probable that whatever the disposition might
be, the mind would never give credit at first glance to its unusual
dimensions; but great part of the secret lies in a single word,
disproportion. The nave is composed of alternate arches and piers, with
two Corinthian pilasters in each pier. Now a column is made to diminish
upwards; and the circumference at the necking is a little more than
three times the top diameter, or about two and a half times the bottom
diameter. Suppose, for example, a column 7 feet in diameter at the
base; it usually diminishes one-sixth of its diameter, and therefore would
be 70 inches at the top, and the circumference 220 inches: now, as
there are always eight leaves, each leaf, including the very small interval
between them, would measure 27½ inches in width: a pilaster of the
same diameter would be 84 inches on each face, at top as well as at
bottom, since it is not usual to diminish them upwards; and as it has
always two leaves on each exposed face, each leaf, with the interval, or
measured from centre to centre, either of leaf or interval, would be 42
inches wide, instead of 27½; and this disproportionate size of the leaves
tends to diminish by comparison the size of the other parts, and makes
a room ornamented with pilasters, look smaller than one surrounded by
columns. The other architectural details are in general rather too small
than too large. The next source of deception may be found in the panels
of coloured marbles in the pilasters of the second order. The contrast
brings the object apparently nearer, and consequently makes it look
smaller. This is assisted by the overcharged sculpture of these panels,
and its great projection, rather than relief. A third source of error is in
the figures of the spandrils of the principal arches (which I believe are
only of plaster). A number of colossal angels are crawling out of their
triangular holes, and sprawling over the lines of the archivolt below
them, and of the entablature above; they look as if they must fall out,
and it is a great pity they do not. These have no inconsiderable effect in
diminishing the apparent size of the architecture. The fourth cause of
deception is in the too great size of the orders of the altars. The church
has three orders: the large one which supports the vaulting; a secondary
one belonging to the side arches, and the aisles, and also forming an
essential part of the edifice; and a third to the altars, which is mere
furniture. This last cuts the lines of the entablature of the second order,
and thus gains size for itself, but it is at the expense of the building.
The sculpture all over the church is too large, (except the pietà of
Michael Angelo,) and this may be enumerated among the causes which
diminish the apparent magnitude; for though perfectly aware that they
are of stone, and may be of any size, yet the mind always involuntarily
compares them with the human figure, and measures the building by
them. It is recorded of Bernini, that when he had fixed the chair of St.
Peter at the extremity of the church, he applied to Andrea Sacchi to go
with him, and to give him his opinion of the work. The painter at first
would not go, but being very much pressed by Bernini, without changing
his cap or slippers, got into a coach and accompanied him. No entreaties
could persuade him to advance a step beyond the door of the church.
There he fixed himself, to examine the effect of the work, and after a
few minutes consideration, pronounced the giant figures which support
the seat, too low by a palm. The Italians have proceeded on a principle,
which I have sometimes heard contended for in England, of
exaggerating the details, in order to give them consequence. But in all
the fine arts, nothing has a worse effect, or has spoiled more beauties,
than this desire to give great consequence to the subordinate parts. If
these are inaccessible, and can only be seen from a distance, the
minuter details may be omitted, or rudely marked: all that is required, is
to give the notion that the finishing is there, in order that the part may
not look naked and neglected, or rather to render it impossible to
determine that it is not there. If they can be approached, be content to
mark them so that they can be seen well at a proper distance. If you
execute them with reference to their appearance at a point that is too
far off, they may look well there indeed, but everywhere else they will
appear extravagant and distorted; whereas, if not exaggerated, they
nowhere look ill; and looking well in their proper point of view, the
imagination easily gives them credit for their excellence, when seen from
any other. It is not the business of the artist to expose every beauty
from every part, but to set the imagination in the right road, and above
all, not to lead it to any thing monstrous or extravagant; and this will
infallibly be the consequence of overcharging any part; for when once
the disproportion is observed, it recurs and offends the mind of the
spectator even when surveying the object from that point which
represents it most favourably. Suppose you were to employ an artist to
make a drawing of the interior of St. Peter’s. It will look better with
figures in it. Will you direct the painter to make his figures twice as large
as life, and with extravagant noses and chins? We know that this
exaggeration spoils a painting; but it is equally inimical to architecture;
and yet it is what we frequently see adopted. Besides, the eye measures
the building by the number of parts, as much as by their size; nor in the
case of statues is it of consequence that a continued range should be
presented to us; we make a ready allowance for the spaces between,
measuring them by the statues themselves. But it will be asked, Are
statues never, then, to be larger than life? Yes, to give the appearance of
strength, of dignity, of power, it is necessary to make them so; but in
that case the rule is very easy. Do you wish when the spectator is near
them, that they should appear larger than the human form? If that is
the case, make them so, but not otherwise. Even for the sake of
exhibiting forms and expression, the sculptor may wish to give his
subjects additional size, and the plea is unobjectionable; but still,
without taking distance into the account; whatever may be done to
obviate the indistinctness produced by distance, has the effect of
diminishing the apparent distance of the object, and consequently its
size, and the size of the place it is in: make them all really smaller, and
the effect remains the same. This rule leaves nothing for the
enlargement of the sculpture in proportion to the size of the building,
and some allowance there certainly ought to be. For instance: to take a
very clear example, if any building should ever be erected (a monstrous
edifice) whose frieze is 12 feet high, there can be no doubt that any
figures by which it is ornamented must be nearly of the same height;
they so evidently belong to architecture, that they form no scale by
which to measure the height of the edifice. In niches too, something of
the same sort takes place, though not so absolutely: a marble statue of
the size of life looks generally rather small; I do not know why, but I
apprehend that every body perceives it to be the case; and if
surrounded by the mouldings and ornaments of a colossal architecture,
the effect will be increased. This appearance should be corrected by
additional size, but here I think we should stop. For instance; under the
dome there are four great figures, each about 16 feet high, where the
niches are made too large for the architecture, in order to receive
colossal figures, and the figures are made too large for the niches: had
these been half the height, they would not have struck the spectator as
larger than life; perhaps they might be made somewhat more than this,
but not much; and the expression does not require any increase of size,
for they represent the saints and martyrs of the church, suffering virtue,
not triumphant power; we do not sympathize more readily with a giant,
than with a man of our own stature, but rather the contrary. The figures
on the pediment have a closer connexion with the architecture, than
those in niches, because the statues are there evidently made for the
place, whereas the niches are in some degree made for the statues. I
believe, of all the Greek statues existing, there is not one whose size is
not accounted for on these principles.
If in niches but little liberty be allowed of enlarging the proportions of
the human figure, the license, though still some license must be
permitted, is yet further diminished in monuments; but here all the
monuments are colossal. That a sculptor, even of the first class, should
wish to make his productions of somewhat more than their just
consequence, is perfectly natural, but one would hardly have expected
such an error from the architect sculptors of the sixteenth century.
While I am enumerating the faults of this building, I may as well go
on, and conclude my subject; mentioning the principal of those which
have been attributed to it by others, as well as those which offend my
own judgment. It has been said to be one of the greatest, that the nave
has been lengthened into a Latin cross, instead of a Greek one, as was
intended by Michael Angelo. It is difficult to assign precisely to each
architect his part in the building, but it is certain, that the original design
of Bramante was for a Latin cross. Sangallo and Raphael, who
successively followed Bramante, kept, as we have already seen, to this
general idea, though each proposed some alterations. Peruzzi reduced it
to a Greek cross, and the piers of the dome were carried up, probably to
the height of the nave; one arm at least of the cross was executed, and
perhaps a considerable portion of the walls of the rest of the building
carried up, before Michael Angelo had any thing to do with it. This great
man made some alterations, which I have already explained: under him
the plan was that of a Greek cross, consisting of a large dome in the
centre, and four equal, square recesses, to three of which a semicircular
tribune was added; and the fourth, or that of the entrance, was
consequently shorter than the rest by the radius of the semicircle. For
this, my authority is Milizia; for from Bonanni one would rather conceive
that all the four arms were precisely similar. If this difference entered
into M. Angelo’s design, it was well conceived, for the first view of a
spacious edifice is that which fixes itself on the mind, and there can be
no doubt that the view would be much grander, and more impressive
from the entrance, as thus designed, than from the bottom of one of the
semicircles. The more I consider the subject, the more I am dissatisfied
with the shape of a Latin cross, as usually managed so as to make a
single room. If this form be adopted, it ought to be divided into distinct
parts, the nave forming one, the dome another, the three other
branches, or three tribunes, as they are called in Italy, three others;
these divisions may open into each other, not by doorways, but by
arches, occupying nearly all their width, or they may be separated
merely by ranges of columns; but still the separation ought to be
distinctly marked; for there is necessarily a change of design, which
otherwise confuses the attention. In a Greek cross the whole may be
considered as one room, the four arms being merely so many recesses;
but then they should be kept shallow, so as never to present themselves
but as mere appendages. The old design of St. Peter’s had these
recesses too deep; probably had Michael Angelo had the entire design,
he would have omitted altogether the semicircular tribunes; but he did
not like to destroy what had been executed. With all these
considerations present to my mind, I confess I cannot wish that the
nave were not executed; it is so beautiful in itself, that some degree of
want of harmony with the dome may be forgiven to it.
It is usually said to have been the boast of Michael Angelo that he
would elevate the Pantheon in the air. Whatever honour may attach to
this idea, is due to Bramante, since the cupola designed by him was
certainly in pendentive, while that of Brunelleschi at Florence, bears
perpendicularly on its foundations. Perhaps to put it upon stilts, would
have been a more correct expression, and it is certainly better on the
ground. To be convinced of this, it is only necessary to mount into the
gallery, and observe how much superior it appears in size and beauty,
than when seen from below.
I must mention among the faults, that while the vault of the nave is
very beautifully gilt, the principal order which supports the vault is
entirely without gilding, a transition which is displeasingly abrupt; and
the roof, and the pilasters and entablature, do not seem to belong to
each other. Then the ornaments in and about the arches are gilt, and
the plain surfaces of the spandrils. This is very bad, because it separates
the work into different parts, which no longer appear firmly knit together
into one solid body, but as if you could take out the arches and leave the
main piers and pilasters standing. The side aisles do not form one
continued corridor, but are divided into a series of little rooms, by
columns and piers supporting arches, the latter going up into the circular
pediments, which appear to be supported by the order: but I will not
detain you about these side aisles, because the whole arrangement is
entirely bad: the niches squeezed in between the pilasters in the
principal nave are also to be considered as defects.
In spite of all these faults, the interior is universally admired. Horace
Walpole says that “one must have taste to be sensible of the beauties of
Grecian architecture, one only wants passions to feel the Gothic. In St.
Peter’s one is convinced that it was built by great princes. In
Westminster Abbey one thinks not of the builder; the religion of the
place makes the first impression.” He has here, I am persuaded,
confounded the effect of his own early associations, with that produced
by the architecture; and he is unjust with respect to St. Peter’s, since his
observation would imply that it had no other merit than mere size and
splendour. The pyramids must have been built by great princes, yet who
thinks them beautiful? I must however, according to my custom,
endeavour to trace the source of this pleasing impression, or at least, to
be more correct in my metaphor, point out the little streams which unite
to produce it.
First, the size. Nothing of sublime or beautiful is found in a model of
Mont Blanc, or the Jung Frau, considered in itself. It could interest us
only by calling to mind the forms and appearances of those large
masses; but when we see the objects themselves, the mind must be
insensible indeed, which does not feel the impression. Such a feeling
may doubtless be heightened by various poetical associations; but
unless there were a strong native impression, such associations would
never have been attached to lofty mountains. Great size alone then is
capable of producing admiration; and as our estimate of size is
comparative, such a building as St. Peter’s is to other churches, what
Mont Blanc is to other hills. This effect of size to produce the sublime is
probably by its exciting ideas of power, and in this instance the effect is
much enhanced by the richness and splendour of the decoration. It is
true, that when the parts are considered separately, there are some
deficiencies; there is, for instance, a good deal of stucco, which ought to
be marble, or at least good stone; but nothing of this comes into the
first glance; we see a great deal of really rich and beautiful material, and
give credit for something more, which is not so distinctly seen.
Afterwards, when we examine the whole, we find so much of rich and
beautiful in this respect, that we are willing to overlook what is wanting.
Another source of pleasure lies in the simplicity of design. In this respect
also I must acknowledge that there are some failures; but upon the
whole the design is easily comprehended, and there are not many
unaccountable breaks, nor of much importance. The arrangement of the
vaulting of the nave in simple caissoons, with each a rose in the centre,
and the judicious distribution of the gilding upon it, contribute very
much to this excellence; but do not look along the side aisles, for you
will find nothing of it there. To produce the effect of magnificence in
architecture, three things seem to be necessary, greatness of dimension,
simplicity of design, and richness of decoration; to satisfy the mind, after
examination, three other things are requisite, otherwise there is danger
that the observer may be vexed that he has been cheated into
admiration for the moment, and disgust instead of pleasure will be the
permanent result; correctness of proportion, graceful drawing, and
delicate execution; by graceful drawing, I mean that the mouldings and
ornaments should be beautiful in themselves, and well combined. Of
these six points, St. Peter’s has the first in a high degree, something of
the second, and a great deal of the third. The three latter it also
possesses, though not in a very remarkable degree; the proportions do
not offend, and the drawing and execution are good.
The most admired piece of sculpture here is the Pietà of Michael
Angelo, the Virgin supporting the body of her dead son, apparently
much older than herself. She is stoutly made, and the weight appears
nothing to her. The countenance is good, not expressive of deep sorrow,
but rather of affection and anxiety, such as a mother might well have,
when looking on her sleeping child, and meditating its future fortunes.
Mr. Scott says, she is ruminating on the past, and considering whether
all that our Saviour had said of himself could be true; an idea which I
think the artist did not intend to suggest. Another celebrated monument
is that of Clement XIII. by Canova. Here are only three figures, the pope
himself in the attitude of prayer, which is excellent; a colossal Religion,
where Canova has attempted the sublime, and failed; and another
colossal figure called the Genius of Rome. It is an angel of most
exquisite beauty, but appearing to lean so painfully against the edge of
the marble, that I never could look at it with pleasure. Can you tell me
why in a monument nothing is to be told of a man but that he died? One
would think that in any distinguished character some of those
circumstances which rendered his life conspicuous, might be introduced
in sculpture, and that which is common to all men, might without any
loss be omitted. Into how many absurdities has this custom of telling
that a man died, and that somebody grieved for it, betrayed the
sculptors! Angels with lumbering stone wings, and bodies wholly
unsuited to them, and without any apparatus for moving them; Deaths
of mere bones, moving without muscles; heathen gods and goddesses
to help a Christian on his journey to heaven, and extravagant and
unintelligible personifications, and allegories still more extravagant and
unintelligible. Another monument which has been much praised is by
Bernini; above are a pope and two allegorical figures, made to be
forgotten. The admired part arises from a door below, which it was
necessary to preserve, and Bernini has surrounded it with marble
drapery, and made Death supporting the curtain, as if to give entrance
to the tomb. The Death wants consequence, and the whole is prettier in
description than in reality.
St. Peter’s as you know is ornamented with mosaics, which have the
advantage of pictures in durability. The damps will not injure them, and
if by chance a candle should fall against them, they do not suffer; but if
you should ask me whether these mosaics are equal to the originals, I
must answer in the negative; and I will add, that the difference is very
considerable, even between the best mosaics, and the first-rate
paintings from which they were copied; in pictures of inferior merit of
course there is less difference, and I have seen the weaker parts even of
a capital painting improved in the copy; for the natural tendency of
every process of the sort, is to reduce all things to a level, bringing
down the finest touches, and raising those which are indifferent. These
pictures cost from ten to twenty thousand crowns each, and it has been
said that for half the money you might have had paintings, either copies
or originals, of equal or superior merit, while the interest of the
remaining sum would have provided an ample fund for renewing them,
and have kept alive the spirit and emulation of artists; but I confess the
mere circumstance of their durability gives me a pleasing emotion. It is
painful to see the most beautiful productions of the fine arts exposed in
situations which are preparing their destruction; and this idea of
duration corresponds with the character of the immense structure which
surrounds you. Added to which, the altar pieces of churches are never in
very good lights for the effect of the painting. In the adoption of such a
mode of decoration, one would imagine that none but the very first-rate
paintings would be chosen; but you will be surprised to learn that this is
by no means the case; several of those at St. Peter’s are copied from
quite second-rate productions.
I descended into the vaults, the pavement of which, in part at least, is
that of the ancient basilica of Constantine; it contains some ancient
sarcophagi of saints, emperors, and popes; and some sculpture, and
mosaics, and ancient columns, the plunder as we are told of the
Septizonium. No woman is permitted to enter here, except on one
particular day in the year, when the men are prohibited.
The excursion to the top is more interesting than that into the vaults;
but contains still less to write about, unless I were to enter into the
particulars of the construction, which has already occupied so many
writers. The masses are so great, and the roof so extensive, that we
seem rather to be in a town founded on a vast rock, than on the top of
an edifice. The building is perfect, without this wooden roof, but as
vaults covered with stucco are seldom entirely impervious to the
weather, it was necessary to erect it. It is slight, and rests entirely upon
the vaulting, so that the whole might be blown away, and no mischief
done to the edifice. On reading over what I have written, I feel that it is
calculated to give a much less favourable impression of this truly
magnificent edifice than it really deserves. I go to it again and again,
and contemplate it, and enjoy it; and now I have finished my criticisms,
perhaps more than at first. I wish I could enable you to dwell upon its
beauties, and feel the same mental satisfaction and delight; but this
seems to be quite beyond my ability.
———Cupidum, pater optime, vires
Deficiunt.
 LETTER XXVI.

BASILICAN CHURCHES.

Rome, March, 1817.

I n following the order of dates, an account of the basilicas and
ancient churches of the lower empire, should have preceded my
observations on St. Peter’s; for although most of them have been
very much altered, yet there are still sufficient remains of the old
work to trace the plan and distribution of the parts, and indeed
every thing relating to the solid masses of the building; and in one
or two, more or less of the original mode of fitting it up. The first of
these in size and in reputation, is the Church of St. Paul without the
walls, (fuori delle mura) and it has the advantage of having
undergone very little alteration, so that most of the original
construction is not only preserved, but is still exposed.[45] It was
founded by Constantine, A. D. 324, but not completed till A. D. 395,
under the reign of Honorius. About the year 440, it was restored by
Eudoxa, wife of Valentinian III., but one may suppose, that at so
early a period it did not want any important repairs. Having
afterwards been injured by an earthquake, it was again restored in
795, by St. Leo III. The wall, which at present divides the transept
longitudinally, is thought to be part of this restoration. Under
Clement VIII. (about 1600), a new ceiling (or roof?) was put to the
transept, and in 1725, Benedict XIII. added the portico.
This church is one of the seven, as the guide books tell you, which
are visited to obtain indulgences; of the four which have the Porta
Santa; and of the five patriarchal churches of Rome. The seven
churches, which are visited to obtain indulgences are, besides this,
St. Peter’s in the Vatican, St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore,
Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, San Lorenzo, fuori delle mura, and St.
Sebastian. They must all be visited in one day, but I cannot tell you
what particular degree or term of indulgence is obtained by the
performance of this task. The Porta Santa is a gate opened only in
the years of jubilee. The others are at the Lateran, St. Peter’s, and
Santa Maria Maggiore. The patriarchal churches should by their
name be the seat of as many patriarchs; yet I do not know that
Rome ever pretended to have more than one: the others are St.
Peter, St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore, and San Lorenzo.
On the outside, the Church of St. Paul is a great ugly barn: it
would look better if many of the windows of the upper part of the
nave, or clerestory, as it is called in Gothic churches, were not filled
up; we should then have had one uniform range of openings, but
now there is hardly any appearance of regularity or design in any
part; for the lower windows are very capriciously disposed. In the
upper part of the front is a large cove, ornamented with mosaics,
which was frequently the case in these basilican churches, but
perhaps it does not date from the erection of the building. The
portico is not at all in harmony with the rest of the church, and it is
become a useless appendage, since the road now passes by what
was the back of the edifice, and you creep in by a narrow winding
passage. Internally, the space is divided into two principal parts, the
nave and transept; the apsis being merely a recess in the transept,
formed of a portion of a circle less than half. I do not know whether
I have not already praised this disposition: it is perhaps the finest of
any in point of effect, if well managed; but this beau ideal in the
management must be collected from different examples, there is no
one, either at Rome or elsewhere, which will completely satisfy us.
Two long colonnades, forming an avenue to the altar, support the
nave. This part must not be dark, but should be illuminated by a
chastened and sober light. The transept ought to be wide and open,
and not very long; and a large window at each end, might pour the
full blaze of light on a magnificent altar of highly enriched
architecture, behind which the dark recess of the choir, or apsis,
would give increased value to the principal light. This recess itself
must be enriched. The eye will see that it is so, without precisely
distinguishing the details, and the imagination is immediately excited
to fill it with its own beauties. In all works of the fine arts, the artist
who can call in the imagination of the spectator, and direct it in his
favour, has accomplished a great object. In smaller churches, a
single range of columns on each side, is sufficient; in larger ones
two ranges, and double side aisles, enhance the variety and
magnificence of the scene. At this church of St. Paul, we have such
double ranges; and the whole is on a grand scale, since the nave is
80 feet wide, and the entire width exceeds 200. The columns which
divide the side aisles are smaller than those of the nave, but there is
the same number of each, i. e. twenty in each row. Twenty-four of
the larger ones are of pavonazzo, a very beautiful marble, the
ground of which is white, or with a slight tinge of red or buff, and
marked with purple veins. They are finely proportioned, and
perfectly well wrought, with capitals and bases of white marble. I did
not get up to examine the former, but I am told that they are a good
deal repaired with plaster. These columns are usually said to have
been taken from the mausoleum of Hadrian, but I think Hobhouse
has pretty clearly shewn, that there never were any columns there;
[46]
but there can be no doubt that they are the spoils of a building of
the best ages of architecture; and perhaps in attributing them to
Hadrian, we assign too recent a period. The remaining sixteen are
imitations of these, in a stone which is called at Rome marmo greco,
and which I suspect to come from Paros, as the grain is very similar
to that of the Parian marble; and in the latter, we may sometimes
see vestiges of the faint, indistinct, gray stripes, which form the
character of this marmo greco: it perhaps contains magnesia, and
generally gives a faint unpleasant smell, when rubbed pretty firmly
with the finger. The workmanship of these columns is extremely bad.
We might forgive some imperfections in the capitals and bases, but
the clumsy and irregular formation of the shaft, quite exceeds all
previous calculation; and it appears, that the workmen of this period
could neither make a straight flute, nor an evenly curved surface.
The forty smaller columns are without flutes, and are perhaps even
worse in point of execution than any of the larger ones. All these
columns support arches, and though the philosophy of the art
condemns them, the effect has a degree of lightness and elegance
which always pleases, and which it is perhaps impossible to obtain in
any other way. The wall of the nave, above these arches, is very
much too high. Originally, there was a narrow circular-headed
window over each of the openings below, a large proportion of
which has been filled up. These walls have been painted in
distemper, with a sort of architecture, whose divisions do not
correspond with those of the building. In the panels thus formed,
there were historical paintings, but the subjects are nearly
obliterated. The roof is very well constructed, but is not a beautiful
object, entirely exposed as it is to the church. It is a defect inherent
to this sort of plan, that we cannot consistently make use of a
vaulted roof, because the columns below can never seem sufficient
to support it. It must therefore be coved, or flat, but the timberwork
may be covered with panels, and ornamented with mouldings and
gilding; here all is rude and naked. The pavement is composed of
fragments of tombstones, and other slabs of marble, placed without
order, occasionally overflowed by the inundations of the Tiber, and
generally bearing the marks of such evils. The walls of the aisles are
merely whitewashed, every thing breathes poverty and neglect, dirt
and decay, yet nobody enters without admiring, without feeling
impressed with the magnificence of the design. Nevertheless, the
proportions are not good, or at least the size of the columns is not
such as to correspond with the dimensions of the church, and to
these columns it certainly owes its principal beauty. They divide the
width without concealing it, and probably thus increase the apparent
magnitude. With a system of square piers and arches, you would see
directly across, just as well as at present, but the diagonal views
would be lost, and these are perhaps the most pleasing, or at least
they are those which most excite the attention; and they offer also a
number of perspectives, instead of confining you to one. The
imagination is gratefully exercised in successfully tracing the
arrangement of the parts. The motion of the spectator produces a
continual change of scene, and this change maintains a continued
interest. The transept is divided longitudinally, by a wall with three
large openings, which are adorned with columns of porphyry,
granite, and marble, enriched with ornaments which do not belong
to them. The whole interpolation, for this wall forms no part of the
original structure, must be considered as a blemish, as it interrupts
the breadth of light, which ought to detach the nave from the altar,
and from the dark coloured apsis behind it.
The ancient Basilica of St. Peter was entirely destroyed to make
room for the present majestic edifice; but the plans and elevations
have been handed down to us, and they exhibit a church of the
same general arrangement as that of St. Paul; two ranges of
columns on each side of the nave, and a transept crossing it at the
end, in the centre of which is the apsis, opposite to the central nave.
This apsis is a large semicircular niche, not a continuation of the
architecture of the nave; and in this sense only I use the word,
since, however loosely the term may have been used at different
periods, it is now very desirable to have an appropriate name to a
very distinct and characteristic feature in the earlier ecclesiastical
architecture. The columns supported architraves, as in Santa Maria
Maggiore, and not arches; the wall above them was very high, with
small windows; and the timbers of the roof were left naked. The
dimensions were smaller than in St. Paul’s. The elevation probably
exhibits the original distribution of the front of these basilicas, but
not with all the details. A court entirely surrounded with porticos,
precedes the entrance; above this, are two ranges, each of three
circular-headed windows; which windows are filled up in a manner
somewhat similar to those of Orsan Michele at Florence, and it is not
improbable that they may have been among the restorations of
Nicholas V., which would be about the same period. Over these
ranges, in the pediment, was a small rose, or wheel window. This
front was enriched with paintings, or perhaps mosaics; but it has not
in these representations, that large, advancing, enriched cove, which
is still seen at St. Paul’s, and at Santa Maria Maggiore, and which
appears at one period to have been very generally adopted. It is
possible also that this may have been destroyed by Nicholas V.
The Church of St. John Lateran is attributed, like that of St. Paul,
to Constantine, and the epoch assigned to its foundation is also 324.
The original plan was very similar, consisting of a nave resting on
four ranges, each of twelve columns, of which the central division
was 72[47] feet wide and 272 long, and beyond this an open transept
70 feet wide, with a semicircular apsis 50 feet wide, opposite the
opening of the nave. This perhaps is not the original apsis; at least
the mosaics with which it is adorned, and the circular Gothic corridor
behind it, seem to belong to a later period, and are probably coeval
with the court of the convent behind. This church and the adjoining
palace were burnt in 1308, and the roofs, the pavimenti sacri
preziosi, and every thing combustible was destroyed. Clement V.,
who was then residing at Avignon, sent considerable sums of money
for its restoration; but it was reserved to Innocent X. to employ
Borromini, to transform it into the ugliest, and worst proportioned
church, that ever existed. He built up the columns into enormous
piers, which are almost perforated by monstrous niches, the
receptacle of huge, sprawling statues. There is nothing deserving of
praise in the body of the nave, no taste, no feeling; if the marble
columns were, as is said, too much damaged by the fire to be
trusted to for the support of the building, it would have been better
to have removed them, than to have cramped the plan by
accommodating the piers to their disposition; and as at present they
are totally invisible, the lover of antiquity cannot be gratified by their
preservation.
But if in the nave itself we can find nothing to admire, there is a
side chapel of the Corsini family which is highly beautiful. It was
designed by Alexander Galileo, a Florentine, who adopted the form
of a shortened Greek cross, with a dome in the centre, and
ornamented it with rich marbles, painting and gilding. The porphyry
urn, found in the portico of the Pantheon, forms one of the depositi
of this chapel. In the crypt underneath, is a very admirable Pietà of
Bernini. The front of the church is a design of the same Galileo, and
in spite of numerous faults, it is certainly impressive. These faults, as
I often remind you, are not mere offences against rule, or such as
contradict some theory; the rule may be false, and the theory
groundless, but they are errors which are against the character and
expression of the building, and counteract its magnificence. The
northern entrance to the transept is a design of Domenico Fontana.
It consists of a double arcade, each of five arches, the lower
decorated with the Doric, the upper with the Corinthian order; a
handsome structure in itself, but it recalls the often repeated
question, why employ the appearance of two stories without, when
there is only one within; and when this division gives the effect of
small rooms, instead of one spacious hall, and consequently is
opposed to magnificence.
There is a fine court, surrounded with cloisters at St. Paul’s, and
another very similar one attached to this church; openings are
formed by little arches supported on doubled shafts; these shafts are
plain, or twisted, or have spiral flutes, or are ornamented with
mosaics, with which the whole architecture abounds. In its original
state, this court has had considerable grace and beauty, and it is
well worthy of observation, that similarly beautiful effects may be
produced by many, may we not say, by almost every style of
architecture; all becomes gold in the hands of a skilful architect, but
the finest parts, and most exquisite proportions, turn again to dross,
in the hands of ignorance and insensibility. Some large piers have
been added here to strengthen the work, and they very much injure
its beauty.
In walking round this cloister, we are shown, 1st, the mouth of a
well of white marble, said to have stood on the well at Samaria,
where the woman talked with Christ. 2nd, A marble base on which
the cock stood, when his crowing awakened the apostle Peter to a
sense of his fault. 3rd, The stone (a marble column) split into two on
our Saviour’s crucifixion. 4th, A slab of porphyry, on which the
soldiers cast lots for his garments. 5th, A slab of granite, fixed at the
exact measure of our Saviour’s height. 6th, The ancient marble chair
of installation for the popes. It is impossible not to feel indignant at
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