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Chapter Six
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Chapter Summary

This chapter begins with a short history of programming languages. It presents the classification of
languages by generations and also points out that such a linear classification scheme fails to capture
the true diversity of languages today. To support this claim, the chapter introduces the declarative,
functional, and object-oriented paradigms as alternatives to the more traditional imperative
approach. There are separate sections later in the chapter on both the object-oriented and declarative
paradigms.
The chapter also presents some common structures found in third-generation imperative and
object-oriented languages, drawing examples from Ada, C, C++, C#, FORTRAN, and Java. Topics
covered include declaration statements, control statements, functions, and parameter passing. An
additional section extends this study to include topics associated with object-oriented languages.
To bridge the gap between high-level languages and machine language, this chapter discusses
the rudiments of language translation, including the basic steps of lexical analysis, parsing, and
code generation.
Optional sections introduce parallel programming, and explore declarative programming via
logic programming and the language Prolog.

Comments

1. This chapter is intended to serve one of two roles, depending on the programming background of
the audience. For those with previous programming experience, the chapter can be approached as
an introduction to the subject of language design and implementation. For those with no
programming experience, the chapter can serve as a generic introduction to programming
languages or a context in which a particular language can be emphasized.
2. I encourage you not to get bogged down in the details of this chapter. Discourage your students
from approaching the material in the context of memorizing facts about specific languages. Their
goal should be to answer questions such as "Identify some different programming paradigms,"
"Describe three generic control structures and indicate how they might be expressed in a high-level
programming language," and "Describe the difference between data type and data structure."
3. Although the section on declarative programming is optional, I encourage you to give it some
time in your class. It is important that beginning students be exposed to alternatives.
4. An area in programming language research is the identification of useful control structures and
the development of syntactic structures to represent them. Along these lines I like to use the
example of trying to find a particular value in an array using the equivalent of a "for" statement. The
problem is to exit the loop structure as soon as the target value is found without traversing more of
the array. This leads to the role of such statements as the "break" in C and its derivatives or "EXIT"
in FORTRAN.

Answers to Chapter Review Problems

1. The statements in the language are not made in terms of a particular machine’s characteristics.

33
2. Suppose the value of x is stored in the memory cell whose address is XY and the program begins
at address 00.
2100
31XY
2003
B110
2201
5112
31XY
B006
3. We'll represent the addresses of LENGTH, WIDTH, and HALFWAY by XX, YY, and ZZ,
respectively.
10XX
11YY
6001
30ZZ
4. Suppose the values W, X, Y, and Z are stored at locations WW, XX, YY, and ZZ, respectively.
Moreover, we use VV as an address.
2000
11XX
12YY
B1VV
11WW
VV: 5012
30ZZ
5. The answer to both questions is that this information is needed before the machine code for
manipulating the data can be generated. (To add two binary values uses a different op-code than
adding two floating-point values.)
6. Imperative paradigm: Programs consist of a sequence of commands.
Object-oriented paradigm: Programs are organized as active elements called objects.
Functional paradigm: Programs consist of nested functions.
Declarative paradigm: Programs consist of declarative statements that describe properties.
7. The smallest of the four values w, x, y, and z.
8. The string dcababcd.
9. The major item of data would be the account balance. The object should be able to respond to
deposit and withdrawal messages. Other objects in the program might be saving account objects,
mortgage objects, and credit card account objects.
10. An assembly language is essentially a mnemonic form of a machine language.
11. A simple approach would be to assign mnemonics to the opcodes, using R1, R2, and so on to
represent the registers, and separating the fields in each instruction with commas. This would
produce instructions such as ST R5, F2; MV R4, R5; and ROT R5, 3.
12. This approach is not self-documenting in the sense that it does not indicate that the value of
AirportAlt will not change in the program. Moreover, it allows the value to be changed by an
erroneous statement.
13. The declarative part of the program contains the programmer-defined terminology; the
procedural part contains the steps in the algorithm to be executed.
14. A literal is a specific value appearing as itself; a constant is a name for a fixed value; a variable is
a name whose associated value can change as the program executes.

34
15. a. Operator precedence is a priority system given to operations that determines the order in
which operations will be performed unless otherwise specified.
b. Depending on operator precedence the expression could be equal to either 24 or 12.
16. Structured programming refers to an organized method of developing and expressing a
program with the goal being to obtain a well-organized program that is easy to read, understand,
and modify.
17. In the first case the symbol represents a comparison; in the second case it represents data
movement.
18.

19. x = 2
while (x < 8):
. . .
x = x + 2
20. Music is normally written in an imperative language containing loops and "go to" control
structures.
21.

22. case(W)
5: Z = 7
6: Y = 7
7: X = 7

35
23. if (X > 5):
X = X + 2
else:
X = X + 1
24. a. if and switch structures
b. while, repeat, and for structures as well as recursion
c. the assignment statement
25. A translator merely converts a program form one language to another. An interpreter executes
the source program without producing a translated copy.
26. If the required coercion was allowed the value 2.5 would probably be truncated to 2.
27. All operations (including assignments) must be performed without coercion.
28. It would require time to copy the data as well as memory space to hold the copy.
29. When passing by value, the sequence 7, 5 would be printed. When passing by reference the
sequence 7, 7 would be printed.
30. When passing by value the sequence 5, 9, 5 would be printed. When passing by reference, the
sequence 9, 9, 9 would be printed.
31. 5, 9, 9
32. a. Passing parameters by value protects the calling environment from being altered by the
function being called.
b. Passing parameters by reference is more efficient than passing them by value.
33. Depending on the order of execution, X could be assigned either 25 or 13.
34. It is not clear which of the statements in the first program should be modified, but merely
changing the value of the constant NumberOfEmp in the alternate version would update the
program without difficulty.
35. a. A formal language is defined by its grammar, whereas the grammar of a natural language is
merely an attempt to explain the structure of a natural language.
b. Programming languages such as C, C++, Java, and C# are formal languages. Examples of
natural languages include English, Spanish, Italian, etc.
36.

37. As indicated in the text a solution could start like this:

38. The first diagram might be something like this:

39. Answers will vary. The top level diagram might indicate that the date can be expressed in
different ways. Then, other diagrams would reveal the details of each approach.

36
40. A string would have the structure of "yes no," or the word yes followed by a "sentence" followed
by the word no.
41. This one is a bit tough for beginning students. The point is for them to experience the reality that
the tools applied when solving a problem can actually restrict one's ability to find the solution. In
this case the problem is to describe the grammatical structure of a simple language. However, the
tool is the concept of a syntax diagram that only allows the description of context-free languages,
whereas the set to be described does not form a context-free language. Encourage your students to
think about this. An extension to the problem would be to ask your students what features could be
added to syntax diagrams that would allow such languages to be described.
42. Any string of the form xnyxn , where n is a nonnegative integer.
43.

44.

45. When performing either assignment statement, the value of X will already be in a register as a
result of the comparison performed earlier. Thus, it need not be retrieved from memory.
46. Y = 5
Z=9
47. X = 5
48. Both types and classes are templates used to describe the underlying composition of "variables."
Types, however, are predefined whereas classes are defined by the programmer within the "written
program." (We put written program in quotes because the class definition could be imported from a
pre-written package as in Java's API.) More about types versus classes is discussed in Section 7.7.
49. There are numerous answers. The idea is for students to isolate basic properties of buildings
within a single class and then use inheritance to describe more specialized classes such as houses,
hotels, grocery stores, barns, etc. Some students may find that multiple levels of inheritance are
helpful.
50. The public parts of a class are those parts that are accessible from the outside; the private parts
are those that are not accessible from the outside.
51. Answers will vary.
52. There may be numerous objects representing people. Some would be quests whereas others
would be hotel employees (a good place for inheritance). Other objects might include a
receptionist's desk, a seating area, and perhaps an elevator.

37
53. A programming language monitor is a construct that provides controlled access (usually mutual
exclusion) to a data item.
54. Concurrent processing can involve multiple threads of execution sharing and coordinating
resources. Programming languages with concurrency support provide easier ways for developers to
create and coordinate threads, share data between threads, provide mutual exclusion where
required, and prevent common concurrent programming errors.
55. One solution would be
56. No. The following resolution pattern produces the empty clause.
57. Assuming that the sibling relationship is amended so that a person cannot be his or her on
sibling as proposed in the answer to Question/Exercise 3, the additional relationships could be
defined as:
uncle(X, Y) :- male(X), sibling(X, Z), parent(Z, Y).
aunt(X, Y) :- female(X), sibling(X, Z), parent(Z, Y).
grandparent(X, Z) :- parent(X, Y), parent(Y, Z).
cousin(X, Y) :- sibling(W, Z), parent(W, X), parent(Z, Y).
parents(X, Y, Z) :- X \= Y, parent(X, Z), parent(Y, Z).
58. The last two statements translate to “David likes people who like sports” and “Alice likes things
that David likes.” Prolog will conclude that Alice likes sports, music, and herself. (Alice likes things
that David likes, David likes people who like sports, and Alice likes sports. Therefore, Alice likes Alice.)
59. Due to truncation errors, X may never be exactly equal to 1.00 so the loop may never terminate.

38
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 drew his sword on his unarmed antagonist, and wounded him so
severely in the arm, that he was obliged to undergo amputation
the day following.
It is usual for a Peon who has been fortunate at play, to go to
Monte Video and clothe himself anew in the shop of a slop-seller.
While the shopman is looking out the articles he calls for, he
deliberately places his dollars on the counter, in separate piles,
assigning each to its destined purpose. He then retires to a
corner, and attires himself; an unfortunate comrade invariably
attends him, who examines his cast clothes, and, if better than
his own, puts them on. After passing a few days in idleness, he
sets out on his return home, where he appears in his new dress.

[7] Among the many daring and active feats performed by the
Peons, one of the most extraordinary of late years, was the
capture of a tiger by a female of that tribe. She was a mulatto-
woman, brought up in the vicinity of Barriga Negra. She was
accustomed at an early age to ride horses, and prided herself in
doing offices which belonged to the stronger sex, such as
catching cattle with the noose, killing them, &c. Her form was
masculine, and she became so inured to men’s work, that she
was hired as a Peon, and fulfilled that office much to the
satisfaction of her employers. She was noted for selecting spirited
horses, and for riding them at full speed. One day on her return
from labor, as she was passing a rivulet, she observed a large
tiger at no great distance. Surprised that the animal did not steal
away, as is generally the case when he sees a person mounted,
she drew nearer, still keeping her horse’s head from him, so as to
be ready to gallop off if he should make a spring. He was still
inattentive and motionless; the woman observing this, and
thinking he ailed something, after some minutes’ pause backed
her horse until she came within twenty yards of him, loosening at
the same time her noose from the saddle, which she threw most
dexterously over his neck, and immediately galloped away with
him to a considerable distance. Whether maimed or not before,
she knew he must now be dead; she therefore alighted, flayed
him, and carried home the skin as a trophy. The animal was
above the ordinary size, and not smaller than a calf six weeks
old. This exploit was long the talk of the neighbourhood, and I
have heard the woman herself relate the adventure.

[8] Sus Tajassu.—Lin. Tajaçu.—Buffon.

[9] One mode which they adopted for displaying their triumph over
their late conquerors was singular enough; they collected all the
sign boards belonging to the English warehouses and shops, and
made a bonfire of them. A great quantity of these boards was
from the pulperias, the masters of which had been obliged to
have on them the following inscription, painted in large
characters, “Licensed to sell liquor.”

[10] The fishery of the baugre here is very considerable, and the
mode of catching the fish, by means of a curved line of boats, by
night, (from each of which is held a flambeau of straw to scare
the fish toward the shore), is singularly picturesque, and might
remind the imaginative spectator of a crescent of wild fire
dancing on the waves. The fish is called at Rio de Janeiro the
mulatto velho; the negroes eat it during Lent, and on Fridays and
Saturdays.

[11] This very rarely happens.

[12] Forty years ago they caught a whale a day; but they now catch
only one in the course of a month.

[13] The oil, in consequence of not being well refined, is black and
sooty.

[14] Three leagues from Sorocaba, which is twenty leagues distant

from the capital. S. Paulo is the famous mountain of Varessoiba.
It contains such an abundance of iron, solta e á garnel, (loose or
in heaps), that ten foundries, each melting 10,000 quintals per
annum, would not exhaust it in a century; and it has wood for
charcoal, which the same number would be unable to consume in
that space of time. A company of Swedish miners was established
here in 1810, but the undertaking was frustrated by intrigue.

[15] According to a statistical report, dated 1811, the city of S.

Paulo contains 4017 houses, (fogos, hearths); 5219 whites
(males), 6319 whites (females); 377 free negroes, 485 free
negresses; 1967 male, and 1914 female captive negroes; 2394
free mulattoes, 3279 free mulattas; 745 male, and 896 female
captive mulattoes; making the whole population 23,764. In this
year (1811), the births were 1301, the deaths 785, the marriages
233.
[16] Probably the coloring matter arises from the decomposition of
the hornblende; I have frequently observed a mass of granite
having its surface decomposed into a red clay, in which the
particles of mica were hardly perceptible, while the compact rock
below contained a very fair proportion. These granites contain
hornblende with mica.

[17] In one part of the town is found a beautiful species of

decomposed granite, consisting of extremely white feldspar,
quartz, and very little mica.

[18] Mandioca requires a dry hot soil, of a sandy nature.

[19] This generous root requires but little preparation to make it

serve as a substitute for bread. When taken out of the ground
they wash and scrape it clean, and then rasp it on a coarse grater
of iron or copper, press the juice from it, and place it on a hot
surface, a shallow copper-pan for instance, four or five feet in
diameter, or a clay one, with a brick fire underneath; while drying
it is constantly stirred, and when the moisture is completely
evaporated, it is immediately fit for use. If preserved from wet, it
will keep good a long time. In broths and soups it becomes
gelatinous, and affords rich nourishment; it is particularly good
when eaten with cheese. The wild or spurious mandioca, called
Aipim, is little inferior, when roasted, to fine chesnuts. The
Portuguese introduce it at table, boiled as well as roasted.

[20] Its leaf is shaped like a heart.

[21] The Spur-winged Plover. In the Spanish territories they are

called disperteros (awakeners), on account of the noise they
make when disturbed in the night. A flock of them in any
plantation answers the purpose of an alarm-bell against thieves.

[22] Fr. Gaspar da Madre de Deos.

[23] I may also add their public spirit in resenting injuries done to
individuals, and in supporting the cause of the oppressed; a
singular instance of which I have often heard related. Some
seventy years ago, one of their governors, who was a nobleman,
had an intrigue with the daughter of a mechanic. The whole town
espoused the cause of the injured female, and compelled the
governor, at the peril of his life, to marry her.
[24] Had I approached this city by sea, I might have been enabled
to give a more animated description of its aspect; but I feel it
incumbent on me to adhere to veracity, the first duty of a
traveller, and to describe the impression made on my mind by the
view as I approached by land on my route from S. Paulo.

[25] Several have been established since the time when this
narrative was written.

[26] By way of experiment, I had some fat ewes killed, and the
mutton was acknowledged to be excellent; but the male lambs
are never prepared for the table.

[27] A name given to those persons who go about the country

seeking gold-washings, and do not give notice, or solicit a grant
when they discover any. They are considered and treated as
smugglers.

[28] Ere they departed, I saw an instance of that dangerous excess

to which the passions of savages are liable when once excited;
for, on presenting a few bottles of liquor, there was a general
strife for them, and the person, man or woman, who first
obtained one, would have drank the whole of its contents, had it
not been forcibly taken away. It is very unsafe to give them
ardent spirits, for when intoxicated it is necessary to confine
them. If preference is given to one, the rest are insolent and
unruly until they obtain the same mark of favor.

[29] I was well informed that a few hundred pounds, judiciously

employed, would defray the expense of making a good road from
Canta Gallo to Porto das Caixas, which loaded mules might travel
in two days.

[30] The mode of crossing a river with horses or mules in these

parts, is to tie one to the canoe, and drive him into the water; the
rest follow.

[31] The little lime which they use here is made of shells, and is
brought from Porto das Caixas.

[32] In one part of the road we passed a nest of insects (called

marimbondos), which are extremely troublesome to cattle, and
cause the mules to be very violent and unruly. They attack with
great pertinacity, and pursue to a considerable distance; we took
 a devious route to get rid of them, but I was followed by some
which stung me as painfully as an irritated wasp could have
done. There is a singular variety of them, having a horny pointed
proboscis, with which they pierce most keenly and give
intolerable pain.

[33] No person can be permitted to see the diamonds in the

Treasury without a joint order from the ministers to that effect.

[34] This name is given to what we should call a huckster’s shop,

where various articles, such as liquors, Indian corn, and
sometimes sugar, are sold. Though they profess to answer the
purpose of inns, they are destitute of conveniences; travellers
who carry their beds and cooking utensils with them, generally
prefer lodging in a rancho or estallage. Shelter from rain and
night air is the only convenience which a lodging in these districts
can be expected to afford.

[35] In this country the practice of cutting flax is attended with

great success, and is preferred to that of pulling it, which prevails
elsewhere. The fibres, though cut, are considered sufficiently long
to be spun and made into good common linen. The old roots
produce fresh shoots incredibly soon.

[36] They also informed me that green topazes were sometimes

found, which I very much doubted. If any substance of that color,
resembling topaz, did occur, it was most probably Euclase. It is
now known that Euclase is found with topazes.

[37] Our mules required at least six penny-worth each per day,
exclusive of their corn.

[38] In England I once knew an instance in which an ingot with

mercury adhering to it, in the possession of a person ignorant of
metallurgy, was sold at a reduced price, as if the discolored part
had really been lead; the purchaser also supposing that to be the
case.

[39] The finest parts of these tracts, in the best season, are by no
means so rich in grass as an English meadow.

[40] This species of sublimation on a small scale interested me

greatly. Could it proceed from any glimmering of science in the
minds of the negroes, or was it merely an accidental discovery?
[41] This substance contains fine-formed octahedral crystals of
magnetic iron.

[42] An owner of mules, who travels with a number of them,

carrying goods for other persons, as well as on his own account.

[43] Canga is the name of ferruginous quartz, fragments of which

abound in this town, and are used for paving the streets.

[44] Four vintens are nearly equal to a shilling of our money. When
this rivulet was first washed for gold, the quantity produced by
each gamella amounted in value to that sum. As the cascalho
then lay near the surface, and required very little trouble to get
at, one washer could clear about twelve bowls-full per hour,
which was considered a comparatively rich return.
In the mines they have two methods of estimating the quantity
produced: for example; Quatro Vintens, here mean four vintens
of gold, which is equal to eight of copper; whereas, in Rio de
Janeiro, the same expression implies four vintens of copper.

[45] In order to insure the vigilance of the overseers, these chairs

are constructed without backs or any other support on which a
person can recline.

[46] The negroes employed in these works are the property of

individuals, who let them to hire at the daily rate of three vintens
of gold, equal to about eight-pence, Government supplying them
with victuals. Every officer of the establishment is allowed the
privilege of having a certain number of negroes employed.

[47] The negroes are constantly attending to the cascalho from the
very commencement of the washings, and frequently find
diamonds before this last operation.

[48] Probably fugitive negroes, who subsist in this remote district

by plunder and smuggling.

[49] It was then in seed, of which I collected a small quantity; since

my return, I have sent part of it to the Agricultural Society, and
the remainder I have distributed among gentlemen who
endeavoured to promote its growth in this country, but without
effect. It is rather a hardy grass, as it grew in situations which
were all so cold, that the bananas and coffees were frequently
blighted.
[50] The ladies particularly wished to have the cheese of a fine
color, like that sent thither from England; and I was at no loss for
an ingredient for tinging the milk, as the tree, which produces the
seed from which annatto is made, grew spontaneously in the
neighbourhood.

[51] On the road there are numerous farm houses, which afford
sufficient accommodation for a traveller. They in general belong
to persons resident in Tejuco, where their produce is sold.

[52] In some of the low swampy tracts large serpents are not
uncommon. At Tejueo I was shown the skin of a young one, of
the Boa Constrictor genus. It was twenty-four feet in length, and
about twenty inches in circumference. These formidable reptiles
have been killed forty feet long! The strength of such a serpent is
not easily to be imagined; they have an undulating motion, and
carry their head erect four or five feet from the ground; their
jaws, &c. are capable of inconceivable dilatation.

[53] Since my return, His Excellency the Conde de Funchall,

ordered a model of a ballast-lighter, which I got constructed for
him, and which will one day or other be found extremely useful.

[54] It may become useful at Villa Rica; but the quantity required
there at present is so trivial as scarcely to merit attention.

[55] If salt were cheaper they might be cured, and would become
an article of commerce, particularly during Lent.

[56] Exclusive of this amount there is a vast quantity smuggled.

[57] One Sunday morning during my stay, an owner of a washing

came to the house of the Intendant, and brought him two
miserable diamonds of bad color, which did not weigh together
above five grains, and these, he said, were all which his ten
negroes had found in six weeks. In the course of conversation,
the Intendant observed that all the smugglers were either
imprisoned or dispersed, when the man immediately assumed an
appearance of great disgust at the mention of persons of so vile
a description, and was liberal in his epithets of abuse on them. If
I durst have enquired how it happened that his negroes in six
weeks could find only two bad-colored diamonds, what emotions
would this immaculate miner have manifested!
[58] From all accounts relative to the Indians, either by the officers
employed against them, and better acquainted with their habits
than other men, or from any of the settlers who live near the
coast, it does not appear that they have the smallest knowledge
of gold or of precious stones; hence they can in no degree have
contributed to the discovery of those treasures in the district.

[59] At a place called Caldeiroens, near to Ouro Branco, I received

two bits of this metal, but they were so small and disfigured, as
to leave strong doubts respecting their being natural; the more
so, by reason of the many impositions that were attempted to be
practised upon me by false specimens of copper-ores, silver, &c.

[60] A part of the lichen which I brought home with me I presented

to a gentleman who was fond of chemical experiments: he
obtained from the small quantity of three grains as much coloring
matter as imparted to an ounce of fluid a deep purple, sufficiently
strong for every purpose of dying.
The following are the results of some experiments which he
did me the favor to make:
White sewing-silk, put into an alcoholic solution only once,
received a fine strong purple.
Part of a skein of the same material, was put into a solution of
potash, which produced a purple deeper in hue than the former.
Cotton thread and worsted yarn, immersed only once in the
same solution, produced very nearly the same colors.
The part of a skein of silk died in the alcoholic solution was
immersed in a solution of muriate of tin, which produced a
beautiful lilac, approaching to dove-colored blue. The same
substance died in a solution of potash, and immersed in a
solution of muriate of tin, became a few shades darker, and
rather more of a pink hue. These are not unfavorable results from
a quantity so minute; and I feel confident that this substance
may be rendered a very valuable article of trade.
A few weeks ago, I received another sample of excellent
lichen, very full of color, which I hope may be turned to some
advantage.

[61] In many parts of the coast, the plant which produces the
barilla would probably florish abundantly, if introduced, and
would form an excellent article of commerce, not only for
exportation, but for home consumption.
[62] There are several rivulets in various parts that bear this name.

[63] If necessary, another channel might be made at a convenient

distance from the first.

[64] It cannot be too much recommended to Government to

introduce the process of amalgamation generally throughout the
mines.

[65] Bucking-irons, are pieces of cast-iron with wood handles, used

at the lead mines, to break the ore from what it adheres to.

[66] A lixivium of strong ashes is made, and a quantity of lime is

put into it: or sometimes the ashes are mixed with a larger
proportion of lime, and the clear fluid running from the mixture is
added to the juice in various quantities, at the discretion of the
negro who manages the process: respecting this temper various
opinions prevail. Every negro has his peculiar mode of making,
mixing, and applying it.

[67] In skimming, lading, and managing the syrup during the

operation, the negroes display great dexterity.

[68] Large trees are cut into planks of these dimensions for making
the cases, which are preferred to hogsheads.

[69] The West India sugars are not clayed, consequently much
stronger and fit for refining and making loaves.
It is much to be desired that the very excellent work, written
by Bryan Edwards, upon sugar making, and distilling rum, was
introduced in Brazil.

[70] It is considered bad policy to subject the raw material, as

cotton, to a heavy duty, and very discouraging to planters, who
must have large capitals employed, and who are greatly exposed
to loss if the crops fail. Too much stimulus cannot be given to the
growers; and they ought to be encouraged by a premium, rather
than to pay a tax on the unmanufactured article.

[71] During the past few years, the Governors of Matto Grosso have
used every effort to shorten the distance from these remote
provinces to the sea ports, by making roads, cutting down
woods, and forming establishments to accommodate passengers,
so that canoes, &c. may be transported over land, and make
 straight-forward communications from one river to another, which
has shortened this journey at least two months.

[72] Sutaò. This is a place understood to be uninhabitable for

Europeans, being the residence of uncivilized Indians, and
covered with almost impenetrable woods.

[73] So called, because they abound with these animals.

[74] This river being the grand channel of communication from Rio
de Janeiro, Santos, S. Paulo, and other places, to the interesting
districts of Cuiaba, Matto Grosso, the whole of Paraguay, the river
Plata, Potosi, Chiquisaca, and a great part of Peru, I have
preserved the particular detail given in this paper, of its numerous
falls, and the difficulties of its navigation, as it is now well known,
and there is great reason to suppose, that it will soon be much
more frequented.

[75] The labor of dragging the canoes over-land to avoid the

cataracts might be much lessened (where the finest timber is in
such abundance), if Government were to order rail-ways to be
made, upon which loaded canoes might easily be drawn on
wheels. This would more facilitate the intercourse than any other
measure, and, from the present enterprising spirit and wisdom of
his Majesty’s ministers, we may soon hope to see it put in
practice.

[76] The Silver from Potosi, which some years has exceeded twenty
millions of dollars, came down the Rio de la Plata to Buenos
Ayres.

[77] Some English settlers, disappointed in the river Plata, went to

Rio Grande to establish concerns for curing beef, refining tallow,
&c. which they soon abandoned from the want of practical
knowledge.

[78] Almost every vessel brings a greater or smaller number of

negroes, it being the practice at Rio de Janeiro to ship off all
those who are ill-disposed and troublesome for Rio Grande,
whence, if they continue refractory, they are frequently sold into
the neighbouring colony.

[79] It has been found, however, from modern surveys, that those
rocks are by no means so dangerous as they have been
 represented.

[80] In Brazil and the Plata the bridle is made of sufficient length to
serve the purpose of a whip.

[81] Delicate connections were soon formed, and females of the

obscurest class appeared dressed in the most costly extreme of
English fashion.

[82] An arroba is equal to 32lbs. avoirdupois.

[83] Cotton of third quality is manufactured in the country into

coarse cloth for bags, negroes’ dresses, &c. and exported to the
Spanish colonies in large quantities.

[84] Formerly, if any diamonds were found in a gold-washing, the

owner was obliged to desist from working it, and the ground was
appropriated by government. This law is now no longer in force.

[85] It is reasonable to suppose, that few persons would hazard the

penalty incurred by dealing in diamonds clandestinely, when, by
paying a duty, they could bring them fairly into circulation.

[86] Bay salt.

[87] It would be interesting to enquire, in what manner the salt

acts upon the ore containing silver, for without it the mercury has
no effect.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN THE
INTERIOR OF BRAZIL ***

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