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CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN
ADVANCED MATHEMATICS 105
EDITORIAL BOARD
B. BOLLOBAS, W. FULTON, A. KATOK, F. KIRWAN,
P. SARNAK, B. SIMON, B. TOTARO
ADDITIVE COMBINATORICS
Additive combinatorics is the theory of counting additive structures in sets. This theory
has seen exciting developments and dramatic changes in direction in recent years, thanks
to its connections with areas such as number theory, ergodic theory and graph theory. This
graduate level textbook will allow students and researchers easy entry into this fascinating
field. Here, for the first time, the authors bring together, in a self-contained and systematic
manner, the many different tools and ideas that are used in the modern theory, presenting
them in an accessible, coherent, and intuitively clear manner, and providing immediate
applications to problems in additive combinatorics. The power of these tools is well
demonstrated in the presentation of recent advances such as the Green-Tao theorem on
arithmetic progressions and Erdős distance problems, and the developing field of
sum-product estimates. The text is supplemented by a large number of exercises and new
material.
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To our families
Contents
Prologue page xi
vii
viii Contents
Bibliography 488
Index 505
Prologue
This book arose out of lecture notes developed by us while teaching courses on
additive combinatorics at the University of California, Los Angeles and the Uni-
versity of California, San Diego. Additive combinatorics is currently a highly
active area of research for several reasons, for example its many applications to
additive number theory. One remarkable feature of the field is the use of tools
from many diverse fields of mathematics, including elementary combinatorics,
harmonic analysis, convex geometry, incidence geometry, graph theory, proba-
bility, algebraic geometry, and ergodic theory; this wealth of perspectives makes
additive combinatorics a rich, fascinating, and multi-faceted subject. There are still
many major problems left in the field, and it seems likely that many of these will
require a combination of tools from several of the areas mentioned above in order
to solve them.
The main purpose of this book is to gather all these diverse tools in one location,
present them in a self-contained and introductory manner, and illustrate their appli-
cation to problems in additive combinatorics. Many aspects of this material have
already been covered in other papers and texts (and in particular several earlier
books [168], [257], [116] have focused on some of the aspects of additive combi-
natorics), but this book attempts to present as many perspectives and techniques
as possible in a unified setting.
Additive combinatorics is largely concerned with the additive structure1 of sets.
To clarify what we mean by “additive structure”, let us introduce the following
definitions.
Definition 0.1 An additive group is any abelian group Z with group operation +.
Note that we can define a multiplication operation nx ∈ Z whenever n ∈ Z and
1 We will also occasionally consider the multiplicative structure of sets as well; we will refer to the
combined study of such structures as arithmetic combinatorics.
xi
xii Prologue
deep and surprising fact that as long as an additive set is dense enough in its ambi-
ent group, it will always have some level of additive structure. The most famous
example of this principle is Szemerédi’s theorem, which asserts that every subset
of the integers of positive upper density will contain arbitrarily long arithmetic
progressions; we shall devote all of Chapter 11 to this beautiful and important the-
orem. A variant of this fact is the very recent Green–Tao theorem, which asserts
that every subset of the prime numbers of positive upper relative density also con-
tains arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions; in particular, the primes themselves
have this property. If one starts with an even sparser set A than the primes, then it
is not yet known whether A will necessarily contain long progressions; however,
if one forms sum sets such as A + A, A + A + A, 2A − 2A, F S(A) then these
sets contain extraordinarily long arithmetic progressions (see in particular Section
4.7 and Chapter 12). This basic principle – that sumsets have much more addi-
tive structure than general sets – is closely connected to the equivalences between
the various types of additive structure mentioned previously; indeed results of the
former type can be used to deduce results of the latter type, and conversely.
We now describe some other topics covered in this text. In Chapter 1 we recall
the simple yet powerful probabilistic method, which is very useful in additive
combinatorics for constructing sets with certain desirable properties (e.g. thin
additive bases of the integers), and provides an important conceptual framework
that complements more classical deterministic approaches to such constructions.
In Chapter 6 we present some ways in which graph theory interacts with additive
combinatorics, for instance in the theory of sum-free sets, or via Ramsey theory.
Graph theory is also decisive in establishing two important results in the theory
of sum sets, the Balog–Szemerédi–Gowers theorem and the Plünnecke inequal-
ities. Two other important tools from graph theory, namely the crossing number
inequality and the Szemerédi regularity lemma, will also be covered in Chapter
8 and Sections 10.6, 11.6 respectively. In Chapter 7 we view sum sets from the
perspective of random walks, and give some classical and recent results concerning
the distribution of these sum sets, and in particular recent applications to random
matrices. Last, but not least, in Chapter 9 we describe some algebraic methods,
notably the combinatorial Nullstellensatz and Chevalley–Waring type methods,
which have led to several deep arithmetical results (often with very sharp bounds)
not obtainable by other means.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Shimon Brooks, Robin Chapman, Michael
Cowling, Andrew Granville, Ben Green, Timothy Gowers, Harald Helfgott, Martin
Klazar, Mariah Hamel, Vsevolod Lev, Roy Meshulam, Melvyn Nathanson, Imre
Ruzsa, Roman Sasyk, and Benny Sudakov for helpful comments and corrections,
Prologue xv
and to the Australian National University and the University of Edinburgh for their
hospitality while portions of this book were being written. Parts of this work were
inspired by the lecture notes of Ben Green [144], the expository article of Imre
Ruzsa [297], and the book by Melvyn Nathanson [257]. TT is also particularly
indebted to Roman Sasyk and Hillel Furstenberg for explaining the ergodic the-
ory proof of Szemerédi’s theorem. VV would like to thank Endre Szemerédi for
many useful discussions on mathematics and other aspects of life. Last, and most
importantly, the authors thank their wives, Laura and Huong, without whom this
book would not be finished.
General notation
The following general notational conventions will be used throughout the book.
Number systems
We shall rely frequently on the integers Z, the positive integers Z+ := {1, 2, . . .},
the natural numbers N := Z≥0 = {0, 1, . . .}, the reals R, the positive reals
xvi Prologue
In most cases the asymptotic variable n will be clear from context, and we shall
simply write on→∞ ( f (n)) as o( f (n)), and similarly write ωn→∞ ( f (n)) as ω( f (n)).
In some cases the constants c,C and the decaying function a(n) will depend on
some other parameters, in which case we indicate this by subscripts. Thus for
instance g(n) = Ok ( f (n)) would mean that g(n) ≤ Ck f (n) for all n, where Ck
depends on the parameter k; similarly, g(n) = on→∞;k ( f (n)) would mean that
g(n) = O(ak (n) f (n)) for some ak (n) which tends to zero as n → ∞ for each
fixed k.
The notation g(n) = Õ( f (n)) has been used widely in the combinatorics and
theoretical computer science community in recent years; g(n) = Õ( f (n)) means
that there is a constant c such that g(n) ≤ f (n) logc n for all sufficiently large n.
We can define, in a similar manner, ˜ and ,
˜ though this notation will only be
used occasionally here. Here and throughout the rest of the book, log shall denote
y
the natural logarithm unless specified by subscripts, thus logx y = log log x
.
Prologue xvii
Progressions
We have already encountered the concept of a generalized arithmetic progression.
We now make this concept more precise.
Definition 0.2 (Progressions) For any integers a ≤ b, we let [a, b] denote the
discrete closed interval [a, b] := {n ∈ Z : a ≤ n ≤ b}; similarly define the half-
open discrete interval [a, b), etc. More generally, if a = (a1 , . . . , ad ) and b =
(b1 , . . . , bd ) are elements of Zd such that a j ≤ b j , we define the discrete box
[a, b] := {(n 1 , . . . , n d ) ∈ Zd : a j ≤ n j ≤ b j for all 1 ≤ j ≤ d},
and similarly
[a, b) := {(n 1 , . . . , n d ) ∈ Zd : a j ≤ n j < b j for all 1 ≤ j ≤ d},
etc. If Z is an additive group, we define a generalized arithmetic progression (or
just progression for short) in Z to be any set1 of the form P = a + [0, N ] · v,
where a ∈ Z , N = (N1 , . . . , Nd ) is a tuple, [0, N ] ⊂ Zd is a discrete box, v =
(v1 , . . . , vd ) ∈ Z d , the map · : Zd × Z d → Z is the dot product
(n 1 , . . . , n d ) · (v1 , . . . , vd ) := n 1 v1 + · · · + n d vd ,
and [0, N ] · v := {n · v : n ∈ [0, N ]}. In other words,
P = {a + n 1 v1 + · · · + n d vd : 0 ≤ n j ≤ N j for all 1 ≤ j ≤ d}.
We call a the base point of P, v = (v1 , . . . , vd ) the basis vectors of P, N the dimen-
sion of P, d the dimension or rank of P, and vol(P) := |[0, N ]| = dj=1 (N j + 1)
the volume of P. We say that the progression P is proper if the map n → n · v is
injective on [0, N ], or equivalently if the cardinality of P is equal to its volume
(as opposed to being strictly smaller than the volume, which can occur if the basis
vectors are linearly dependent over Z). We say that P is symmetric if −P = P;
for instance [−N , N ] · v = −N · v + [0, 2N ] · v is a symmetric progression.
Other notation
There are a number of other definitions that we shall introduce at appropriate junc-
tures and which will be used in more than one chapter of the book. These include
the probabilistic notation (such as E(), P(), I(), Var(), Cov()) that we introduce
1 Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of notation; the arithmetic progression should really be the
sextuple (P, d, N , a, v, Z ), because the set P alone does not always uniquely determine the base
point, step, ambient space or even length (if the progression is improper) of the progression P.
However, as it would be cumbersome continually to use this sextuple, we shall usually just P to
denote the progression.
xviii Prologue
at the start of Chapter 1, and measures of additive structure such as the doubling
constant σ [A] (Definition 2.4), the Ruzsa distance d(A, B) (Definition 2.5), and
the additive energy E(A, B) (Definition 2.8). We also introduce the concept of a
G
partial sum set A + B in Definition 2.28. The Fourier transform and the averaging
notation Ex∈Z f (x), P Z A is defined in Section 4.1, Fourier bias Au is defined
in Definition 4.12, Bohr sets Bohr(S, ρ) are defined in Definition 4.17, and ( p)
constants are defined in Definition 4.26. The important notion of a Freiman homo-
morphism is defined in Definition 5.21. The notation for group theory (e.g. ord(x)
and x) is summarized in Section 3.1, while the notation for finite fields is sum-
marized in Section 9.4.
1
In additive number theory, one frequently faces the problem of showing that a
set A contains a subset B with a certain property P. A very powerful tool for
such a problem is Erdős’ probabilistic method. In order to show that such a subset
B exists, it suffices to prove that a properly defined random subset of A satis-
fies P with positive probability. The power of the probabilistic method has been
justified by the fact that in most problems solved using this approach, it seems
impossible to come up with a deterministically constructive proof of comparable
simplicity.
In this chapter we are going to present several basic probabilistic tools together
with some representative applications of the probabilistic method, particularly
with regard to additive bases and the primes. We shall require several standard
facts about the distribution of primes P = {2, 3, 5, . . .}; so as not to disrupt the
flow of the chapter we have placed these facts in an appendix (Section 1.10).
Notation. We assume the existence of some sample space (usually this will be
finite). If E is an event in this sample space, we use P(E) to denote the probability
of E, and I(E) to denote the indicator function (thus I(E) = 1 if E occurs and 0
otherwise). If E, F are events, we use E ∧ F to denote the event that E, F both
hold, E ∨ F to denote the event that at least one of E, F hold, and Ē to denote the
event that E does not hold. In this chapter all random variables will be assumed to
be real-valued (and usually denoted by X or Y ) or set-valued (and usually denoted
by B). If X is a real-valued random variable with discrete support, we use
E(X ) := xP(X = x)
x
1
2 1 The probabilistic method
Informally, this inequality asserts that X = O(E(X )) with high probability; for
instance, X ≤ 10E(X ) with probability at least 0.9. Note that this is only an upper
tail estimate; it gives an upper bound for how likely X is to be much larger than
E(X ), but does not control how likely X is to be much smaller than E(X ). Indeed,
if all one knows is the expectation E(X ), it is easy to see that X could be as small
as zero with probability arbitrarily close to 1, so the first moment method cannot
give any non-trivial lower tail estimate. Later on we shall introduce more refined
methods, such as the second moment method, that give further upper and lower
tail estimates.
1.1 The first moment method 3
To apply the first moment method, we of course need to compute the expecta-
tions of random variables. A fundamental tool in doing so is linearity of expectation,
which asserts that
E(c1 X 1 + · · · + cn X n ) = c1 E(X 1 ) + · · · + cn E(X n ) (1.3)
whenever X 1 , . . . , X n are random variables and c1 , . . . , cn are real numbers. The
power of this principle comes from there being no restriction on the independence
or dependence between the X i s. A very typical application of (1.3) is in estimating
the size |B| of a subset B of a given set A, where B is generated in some random
manner. From the obvious identity
|B| = I(a ∈ B)
a∈A
Theorem 1.3 was proved by Erdős in 1965 [86]. Several years later, Bour-
gain [37] used harmonic analysis arguments to improve the bound slightly. It is
surprising that the following question is open.
Question 1.4 Can one replace n/3 by (n/3) + 10?
Alon and Kleiman [10] considered the case of more general additive sets (not
necessarily in Z). They showed that in this case A always contains a sum-free
subset of 2|A|/7 elements and the constant 2/7 is best possible.
Another classical problem concerning sum-free sets is the Erdős–Moser prob-
lem. Consider a finite additive set A. A subset B of A is sum-free with respect to
A if 2∗ B ∩ A = ∅, where 2∗ B = {b1 + b2 |b1 , b2 ∈ B, b1 = b2 }. Erdős and Moser
asked for an estimate of the size of the largest sum-free subset of any given set A
of cardinality n. We will discuss this problem in Section 6.2.1.
1 This trick can be placed in a more systematic context using the theory of Freiman homomorphisms:
see Section 5.3.
1.1 The first moment method 5
Exercises
1.1.1 If X is a non-negative random variable, establish the identity
∞
E(X ) = P(X > λ) dλ (1.6)
0
Thus the probability distribution function P(X > λ) controls all the
moments E(X p ) of X .
1.1.2 When does equality hold in Markov’s inequality?
1.1.3 If E 1 , . . . , E n are arbitrary probabilistic events, establish the lower bound
n
P(E 1 ∨ · · · ∨ E n ) ≥ P(E i ) − P(E i ∧ E j );
i=1 1≤i< j≤n
this bound should be compared with (1.5), and can be thought of as a vari-
ant of the second moment method which we discuss in the next section.
n
(Hint: consider the random variable i=1 I(E i ) − 1≤i< j≤n I(E i )I(E j ).)
More generally, establish the Bonferroni inequalities
P(E 1 ∨ · · · ∨ E n ) ≥ (−1)k P Ei
A⊂[1,n]:1≤|A|≤k i∈A
when k is odd.
1.1.4 Let X be a non-negative random variable. Establish the popularity princi-
ple E(X I(X > 12 E(X ))) ≥ 12 E(X ). In particular, if X is bounded by some
constant M, then P(X > 12 E(X )) ≥ 2M 1
E(X ). Thus while there is in gen-
eral no lower tail estimate on the event X ≤ 12 E(X ), we can say that the
majority of the expectation of X is generated outside of this tail event,
which does lead to a lower tail estimate if X is bounded.
1.1.5 Let A, B be non-empty subsets of a finite additive group Z . Show that
there exists an x ∈ Z such that
|A ∩ (B + x)| |A| |B|
1− ≤ 1− 1− ,
|Z | |Z | |Z |
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Language: French
FAISANT SUITE
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