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Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Craig Hunt & Robert Bruce Thompson

First Edition October 1998

ISBN: 1-56592-377-4, 503 pages

Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration is a complete guide to

setting up and running a TCP/IP network on Windows NT.

It starts with the fundamentals - the protocols, routing, and setup.

Beyond that, it covers all the important networking services provided as

part of Windows NT, including IIS, RRAS, DNS, WINS, and DHCP.

This book is the NT administrator's indispensable guide.

Table of Contents

Preface 1

1. Overview of TCP/IP 5
TCP/IP and the Internet
A Data Communications Model
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Network Access Layer
Internet Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Summary

2. Delivering the Data 19

Addressing, Routing, and Multiplexing
The IP Address
Subnets
The Routing Table
Address Resolution
Protocols, Ports, and Sockets
Summary

3. Network Services 35
Names and Addresses
The Host Table
LMHOSTS
Domain Name System
Windows Internet Name Service
Mail Services
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Summary

4. Getting Started 53
To Connect or Not to Connect
Basic Information
Planning Routing
Planning Naming Service
Other Services
Informing the Users
Summary

5. Installing TCP/IP 67
Windows NT Networking
Configuring the TCP/IP Protocol
Summary

6. Using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 85

Why DHCP Is Needed
How DHCP Works
Planning for DHCP
Installing the DHCP Server Service
Installing and Configuring the DHCP Relay Agent
Managing DHCP with DHCP Manager
Maintaining and Troubleshooting DHCP Server
Summary
Table of Contents (cont...)

7. Using Windows Internet Name Service 111

Why WINS Is Needed
How WINS Works
Installing the WINS Server Service
Managing WINS with WINS Manager
Troubleshooting WINS
Summary

8. Configuring DNS Name System 138

The Microsoft DNS Server
Planning Your DNS Service
Installing the DNS Server
The DNS Manager
Creating a New Zone
Building the DNS Database
The DNS Files
Using nslookup
Summary

9. Microsoft Routing and Remote Access Service 156

Routing and Remote Access Service Features
Installing Microsoft Routing and RAS
Administering Microsoft Routing and RAS
Using Dial-Up Networking (DUN)
Summary

10. Internet Information Server (IIS) 194

IIS Components
Installing IIS
Configuring IIS
Managing IIS
Summary

11. Troubleshooting TCP/IP 247

Approaching a Problem
Diagnostic Tools
Testing Basic Connectivity
Troubleshooting Network Access
Checking Routing
Checking Name Service
Analyzing Protocol Problems
Protocol Case Study
Simple Network Management Protocol
Summary

12. Network Security 270

Security Planning
Firewalls
Encryption
User Authentication
Software Security
Security Monitoring
File Security
Words to the Wise
Summary
Table of Contents (cont...)

13. Information Resources 290

The World Wide Web
Anonymous FTP
Retrieving RFCs
Mailing Lists
Newsgroups
The White Pages
Summary

A. PPP Scripting Languages 302

B. DNS Resource Records 312

C. Microsoft DHCP Option Support 323

D. Routing Protocols 329

Colophon 336
Description
Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration is a complete guide to setting up and running a
TCP/IP network on Windows NT. Windows NT and TCP/IP have long had a close association, and
this is the first book to focus exclusively on NT networking with TCP/IP. It starts with the
fundamentals--what the protocols do and how they work, how addresses and routing move data
through the network, and how to set up your network connection. Beyond that, all the important
networking services provided as part of Windows NT - including IIS, RRAS, DNS, WINS, and DHCP -
are presented in detail. This book is the NT administrator's indispensable guide.

Contents include:

• Overview

• Delivering the data

• Network services

• Getting started

• Installing and configuring NT TCP/IP

• Using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• Using Windows Internet Name Service

• Using Domain Name Service

• Configuring Email Service

• Using Microsoft routing

• Using Remote Access Service

• Troubleshooting TCP/IP

• Network Security

• Internet Information Server

• Appendixes on the TCP/IP commands, PPP script language reference, and DNS resource
records
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Preface
The protocol wars are over and TCP/IP won. TCP/IP is now universally recognized as the preeminent
communications protocol for linking diverse computer systems. The importance of interoperable data
communications and global computer networks are no longer debated. But that was not always the
case. A few years ago things were different. IPX was far and away the leading PC communications
protocol. Microsoft did not bundle communications protocols in their operating systems. Corporate
networks were so dependent on SNA that many corporate network administrators had not even heard
of TCP/IP. Back then it was necessary to tout the importance of TCP/IP by pointing out that it was
used on thousands of networks and hundreds of thousands of computers. How times have changed!
Today we count the hosts and users connected to the Internet in the tens of millions. And the Internet
is only the tip of the TCP/IP iceberg. The largest market for TCP/IP is in the corporate intranet. An
intranet is a private TCP/IP network used to disseminate information within the enterprise. Today,
the competing network technologies have shrunk to niche markets where they fill special needs, while
TCP/IP has grown to be the communications software that links the world.

Windows NT and TCP/IP have a close association. Windows NT was the first Microsoft operating
system that included TCP/IP as part of the basic system. And TCP/IP has been a part of NT from the
very first release of the operating system. The availability of TCP/IP for Windows NT has helped to
make NT a popular choice as a network server.

The acceptance of TCP/IP as a worldwide standard and the size of its global user base have created an
explosion of books about TCP/IP and the Internet. Today, NT administrators can choose from a large
number of books that have TCP/IP and the Internet as a theme. However, there are still too few books
that concentrate on what an NT system administrator really needs to know about TCP/IP
administration and too many books that try to tell you how to surf the Web. In this book we strive to
keep focused on TCP/IP and NT, and not to be distracted by the phenomenon of the Internet.

This book is the combined effort of Craig Hunt and Robert Bruce Thompson. Craig is an expert on
TCP/IP and is the author of the best-seller TCP/IP Network Administration. Robert is an expert on
Windows NT. He is the author of several books, three of which are books on Windows NT including
the recently released Windows NT Server 4.0 for NetWare Administrators.

This new book is the Windows NT version of TCP/IP Network Administration: the book that Byte
magazine called "the definitive volume on the subject" of creating your own TCP/IP network. If you're
familiar with that book you will see the similarities, particularly in the background material about the
TCP/IP protocols. However, all of the examples are Windows NT-specific.

On the other hand, this new book is much more than an NT version of an existing book. Extensive
amounts of Windows NT-specific material have been added. Coverage of NetBIOS, Windows Internet
Name Service (WINS), Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS), Internet Information Server (IIS),
and Microsoft's implementations of Domain Name Service (DNS) and Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) all combine to make this a unique book in its own right.

The combination of Windows NT and TCP/IP expertise provides the perfect blend for a book about
TCP/IP for Windows NT. This book covers the issues that are most important to the Windows NT
system administrator who is building a TCP/IP network.

The use of Windows NT systems to provide TCP/IP network services is growing rapidly. This book
provides practical, detailed TCP/IP network information for the NT system administrator. It is a book
about building your own network based on TCP/IP and NT servers. It is both a tutorial covering the
why and how of TCP/IP networking and a reference providing the details about specific network
programs.

page 1
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Audience
This book is intended for everyone who has an NT computer connected to a TCP/IP network. This
obviously includes the network managers and the system administrators who are responsible for
setting up and running computers and networks, but the audience also includes any user who wants to
understand how a computer communicates with other systems. The distinction between a system
administrator and an end-user is a fuzzy one. You may think of yourself as an end-user, but if you have
an NT workstation on your desk, you're probably also involved in system administration tasks.

We assume that you have a good understanding of computers and their operation, and that you're
generally familiar with NT system administration. In recent years there has been a rash of books for
"dummies" and "idiots." If you really think of yourself as an "idiot" when it comes to NT, this book is
not for you. Likewise, if you are a network administration genius, this book is probably not suitable.
However, if you fall anywhere in between these two extremes, this book has something to offer you.

Conventions
This book uses the following typographical conventions:
Italic
is used for the names of files, directories, host names, domain names, URLs, and to emphasize
new terms when they are first introduced.
bold
is used for command names.
constant-width
is used to show the contents of files or the output from commands.
constant-bold
is used in examples to show commands or text that would be typed literally by you.
constant-italic
is used in examples to show variables for which a context-specific substitution should be
made. (The variable filename, for example, would be replaced by some actual filename.)
[ option ]
When showing command syntax, we place optional parts of the command within brackets.
For example, ls [ -l ] means that the -l option is not required.

page 2
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Organization
This book is divided into three parts: fundamental concepts, tutorial, and reference. The first three
chapters are a basic discussion of the TCP/IP protocols and services. This discussion provides the
fundamental concepts necessary to understand the rest of the book. The remaining chapters provide a
how-to tutorial. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 discuss how to plan a network installation and configure the
basic software necessary to get a network running. Chapter 6 through Chapter 10 discuss how to set
up various important network services. The final chapters, Chapter 11 through Chapter 13, cover how
to perform the ongoing tasks that are essential for a reliable network: troubleshooting, security, and
keeping up with changing network information.

This book contains the following chapters:

Chapter 1 gives the history of TCP/IP, a description of the structure of the protocol architecture, and a
basic explanation of how the protocols function.

Chapter 2 describes addressing, and how data passes through a network to reach the destination.

Chapter 3 discusses the relationship between clients and server systems, and the various services that
are central to the function of a modern internet.

Chapter 4 begins the discussion of network setup and configuration. This chapter discusses the
preliminary configuration planning needed before you configure the systems on your network.

Chapter 5 provides details of how NT TCP/IP is installed and configured. This chapter describes the
various dialogues used to configure TCP/IP, and the meaning and use of all of the configuration
choices available in those dialogues.

Chapter 6 describes how to install and configure the Windows NT DHCP server.

Chapter 7 describes how to administer the WINS name server program that converts NetBIOS
computer names to Internet addresses.

Chapter 8 describes how to configure the Microsoft DNS name server program that converts TCP/IP
host names to IP addresses.

Chapter 9 describes how to install and configure the RRAS software that permits a Windows NT
server to run a wide variety of TCP/IP routing protocols. In addition to providing advanced routing
support, RRAS is used to turn an NT server into a PPP server for remote dial-up Internet access.
RRAS also provides the security protocols needed to create encrypted connections.

Chapter 10 describes how to install and configure the IIS software. IIS is the heart of any Internet
server built on a Windows NT system. The Internet Information Server software provides Web
services, an FTP server, an SMTP email server, and more.

Chapter 11 tells you what to do when something goes wrong. It describes the techniques and tools used
to monitor the system and troubleshoot it when problems develop.

Chapter 12 discusses how to live on the Internet without excessive risk. This chapter covers the
security threats brought by the network, and the plans and preparations you can make to meet them.

Chapter 13 describes the information resources available on the Internet and how you can make use of
them.

Appendix A is a reference guide to the scripting language used on a Windows NT system to create dial-
up serial connections for PPP.

Appendix B is a reference for the records used to build a Domain Name Service database.

Appendix C is a reference for the configuration parameters that a Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) server can provide to configure a client.

Appendix D provides a detailed description of the interior routing protocols most commonly used on
enterprise networks.

page 3
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Acknowledgments
In addition to thanking the O'Reilly production folks, who are listed individually in the Colophon, we
want to thank Mark Friedman, who reviewed most of the manuscript and made numerous helpful
corrections and suggestions. We would also like to thank Cricket Liu for his help in improving the
DNS material. No one knows DNS better than Cricket! Their efforts allowed us to catch and fix
outright errors and ambiguous statements that would otherwise have appeared in print. Any errors
that remain are ours alone.

We also want to single out one of our technical reviewers for special thanks. AEleen Frisch, the author
of several O'Reilly Unix and Windows NT books, went far above and beyond the call of duty. In
addition to devoting a great deal of time and effort to doing a detailed technical review, AEleen made
many valuable suggestions about the overall content and structure of the book. This is a better book
because she took the time to help us make it so.

Finally, we want to thank our editor, Robert Denn. Robert initiated the project, drove it through the
rough patches, and co-ordinated the work of two authors who had not worked together previously.
Robert is the best editor that any author could hope for. Without his efforts, you would not be reading
this book.

We'd Like to Hear from You

We have tested and verified the information in this book to the best of our ability, but you may find
that features have changed (which may in fact resemble bugs). Please let us know about any errors you
find, as well as your suggestions for future editions, by writing to:
O'Reilly & Associates, Inc.
101 Morris Street
Sebastopol, CA 95472
1-800-998-9938 (in U.S. or Canada)
1-707-829-0515 (international/local)
1-707-829-0104 (fax)
You can also send us messages electronically. To be put on our mailing list or request a catalog, send
email to:

• info@oreilly.com

To ask technical questions or comments on the book, send email to:

• bookquestions@oreilly.com

If you want to contact one of us directly, we can be reached at:

• craigh@oreilly.com

• thompson@oreilly.com

We also have a web site for the book, where we'll list errata and plans for future editions:

• http://www.ttgnet.com/rbt/books/nttcp/nttcp_error.html

page 4
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Chapter 1. Overview of TCP/IP

All of us—engineers, educators, scientists, and business people—who use Windows NT or any other
advanced desktop operating system have second careers managing that system. Networking increases
the complexity of this new task.

Administration tasks such as adding users and local tape backups are isolated to one independent
computer system. Not so with network administration. Once you place your computer on a network, it
interacts with many other systems. The way you do network administration tasks has effects, good and
bad, not only on your system, but also on other systems on the network. A sound understanding of
basic network administration benefits everyone.

Networking computers dramatically enhances their ability to communicate—and most computers are
used more for communication than computation. Many mainframes and supercomputers are busy
crunching the numbers for business and science, but the number of such systems pales in comparison
to the millions of systems busily moving mail to a remote colleague or retrieving information from a
remote repository. Further, when you think of the hundreds of millions of desktop systems that are
used primarily for preparing documents to communicate ideas from one person to another, it is easy
to see why most computers can be viewed as communications devices.

The positive impact of computer communications increases with the number and type of computers
that participate in the network. One of the great benefits of TCP/IP is that it provides interoperable
communications between all types of hardware and all kinds of operating systems.

With the advent of Windows NT, Microsoft acknowledged the importance of interoperable
networking. NT was designed from the ground up to include a variety of networking software. The
most important of these is TCP/IP, which provides NT systems with truly interoperable data
communications.

This book is a practical, step-by-step guide to configuring and managing TCP/IP networking software
on Windows NT computer systems. TCP/IP is the software package that dominates data
communications. It is the leading communications software for enterprise intranets, and it is the
foundation of the worldwide Internet.

The name TCP/IP refers to an entire suite of data communications protocols. The suite gets its name
from two of the protocols that belong to it: the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet
Protocol. Although there are many other protocols in the suite, TCP and IP are certainly two of the
most important.

The first part of this book discusses the basics of TCP/IP and how it moves data across a network.
Let's start with a little history.

1.1 TCP/IP and the Internet

In 1969 the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded a research and development project
to create an experimental packet-switching network. This network, called the ARPANET, became the
foundation for the Internet. Today it is larger than ever and encompasses more than 95,000 networks
worldwide. The Internet has grown exponentially since 1983—roughly doubling in size every year.
Through all of this incredible change one thing has remained constant: the Internet is built on the
TCP/IP protocol suite.

Because TCP/IP is required for Internet connection, the growth of the Internet has spurred interest in
TCP/IP. As more organizations become familiar with TCP/IP, they see that its power can be applied in
other network applications. The Internet protocols are often used for local area networking, even
when the local network is not connected to the Internet. TCP/IP is also widely used to build enterprise
networks. TCP/IP-based enterprise networks that use Internet techniques and World Wide Web tools
to disseminate internal corporate information are called intranets. TCP/IP is the foundation of all of
these varied networks.

Microsoft recognized the importance of TCP/IP for server systems and included TCP/IP support in
Windows NT from the beginning. The role of Windows NT as a TCP/IP server, both inside the
enterprise and in the global Internet, grows every year.

page 5
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

1.1.1 TCP/IP Features

The popularity of the TCP/IP protocols did not grow rapidly just because the protocols were there, or
because connecting to the Internet mandated their use. They met an important need (worldwide data
communication) at the right time, and they had several important features that allowed them to meet
this need. These features are:

• Open protocol standards, freely available and developed independently from any specific
computer hardware or operating system. Because it is so widely supported, TCP/IP is ideal for
uniting different hardware and software, even if you don't communicate over the Internet.

• Independence from specific physical network hardware. This allows TCP/IP to integrate many
different kinds of networks. TCP/IP can be run over an Ethernet, a token ring, a dial-up line,
an FDDI net, and virtually any other kind of physical transmission medium.

• A common addressing scheme that allows any TCP/IP device to uniquely address any other
device in the entire network, even if the network is as large as the worldwide Internet.

• Standardized high-level protocols for consistent, widely available user services.

1.1.2 Protocol Standards

Protocols are formal rules of behavior. In international relations, protocols minimize the problems
caused by cultural differences when various nations work together. By agreeing to a common set of
rules that are widely known and independent of any one nation's customs, diplomatic protocols
minimize misunderstandings; everyone knows how to act and how to interpret the actions of others.
Similarly, when computers communicate, it is necessary to define a set of rules to govern their
communications.

In data communications these sets of rules are also called protocols. In homogeneous networks, a
single computer vendor specifies a set of communications rules designed to use the strengths of the
vendor's operating system and hardware architecture. But homogeneous networks are like the culture
of a single country—only the natives are truly at home in it. TCP/IP attempts to create a
heterogeneous network with open protocols that are independent of operating system and
architectural differences. TCP/IP protocols are available to everyone, and are developed and changed
by consensus—not by the fiat of one manufacturer. Everyone is free to develop products to meet these
open protocol specifications.

The open nature of TCP/IP protocols requires publicly available standards documents. All protocols in
the TCP/IP protocol suite are defined in one of three Internet standards publications. A number of the
protocols have been adopted as Military Standards (MIL STD). Others were published as Internet
Engineering Notes (IEN)—though the IEN form of publication has now been abandoned. But most
information about TCP/IP protocols is published as Requests for Comments (RFC). RFCs contain the
latest versions of the specifications of all standard TCP/IP protocols.[1]
[1] Interested in finding out how Internet standards are created? Read The Internet Standards Process, RFC 1310.

As the title Request for Comments implies, the style and content of these documents is much less rigid
than most standards documents. RFCs contain a wide range of interesting and useful information, and
are not limited to the formal specification of data communications protocols. As a network system
administrator, you probably will read some of the RFCs yourself.

1.2 A Data Communications Model

To discuss computer networking, it is necessary to use terms that have special meaning. Even other
computer professionals may not be familiar with all the terms in the networking alphabet soup. As is
always the case, English and computer-speak are not equivalent (or even necessarily compatible)
languages. Although descriptions and examples should make the meaning of the networking jargon
more apparent, sometimes terms are ambiguous. A common frame of reference is necessary for
understanding data communications terminology.

page 6
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

An architectural model developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) is frequently

used to describe the structure and function of data communications protocols. This architectural
model, called the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Reference Model, provides a common reference
for discussing communications. The terms defined by this model are well understood and widely used
in the data communications community—so widely used, in fact, that it is difficult to discuss data
communications without using OSI's terminology.

The OSI Reference Model contains seven layers that define the functions of data communications
protocols. Each layer of the OSI model represents a function performed when data is transferred
between cooperating applications across an intervening network. Figure 1-1 identifies each layer by
name and provides a short functional description for it. Looking at this figure, the protocols are like a
pile of building blocks stacked one upon another. Because of this appearance, the structure is often
called a stack or protocol stack.

Figure 1-1. The OSI reference model

A layer does not define a single protocol—it defines a data communications function that may be
performed by any number of protocols. Therefore, each layer may contain multiple protocols, each
providing a service suitable to the function of that layer. For example, a file transfer protocol and an
electronic mail protocol both provide user services, and both are part of the Application Layer.

Every protocol communicates with its peer. A peer is an implementation of the same protocol in the
equivalent layer on a remote system; for example, the local file transfer protocol is the peer of a
remote file transfer protocol. Peer level communications must be standardized for successful
communications to take place. In the abstract, each protocol is concerned only with communicating to
its peer; it does not care about the layer above or below it.

However, there must also be agreement on how to pass data between the layers on a single computer,
because every layer is involved in sending data from a local application to an equivalent remote
application. The upper layers rely on the lower layers to transfer the data over the underlying network.
Data is passed down the stack from one layer to the next, until it is transmitted over the network by
the Physical Layer protocols. At the remote end, the data is passed up the stack to the receiving
application. The individual layers do not need to know how the layers above and below them function;
they only need to know how to pass data to them. Isolating network communications functions in
different layers minimizes the impact of technological change on the entire protocol suite. New
applications can be added without changing the physical network, and new network hardware can be
installed without rewriting the application software.

page 7
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

Although the OSI model is useful, the TCP/IP protocols don't match its structure exactly. Therefore, in
our discussions of TCP/IP we use the layers of the OSI model in the following way:
Application Layer
The Application Layer is the level of the protocol hierarchy where user-accessed network
processes reside. In this context, a TCP/IP application is any network process that occurs
above the Transport Layer. This includes all of the processes that users directly interact with,
as well as other processes at this level that users are not necessarily aware of.
Presentation Layer
For cooperating applications to exchange data, they must agree about how data is
represented. In OSI, this layer provides standard data presentation routines. This function is
frequently handled within the applications in TCP/IP, though increasingly TCP/IP protocols
such as XDR and MIME perform this function.
Session Layer
As with the Presentation Layer, the Session Layer is not identifiable as a separate layer in the
TCP/IP protocol hierarchy. The OSI Session Layer manages the sessions (connection)
between cooperating applications. In TCP/IP, this function largely occurs in the Transport
Layer, and the term session is not used. For TCP/IP, the terms socket and port are used to
describe the path over which cooperating applications communicate.
Transport Layer
Much of our discussion of TCP/IP is directed to the protocols that occur in the Transport
Layer. The Transport Layer in the OSI reference model guarantees that the receiver gets the
data exactly as it was sent. In TCP/IP this function is performed by the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). However, not all applications require reliable delivery service. TCP/IP offers a
second Transport Layer service, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), that does not perform the
end-to-end reliability checks.[2]
The OSI model originally defined only reliable service, but an unreliable protocol, Connectionless
[2]

Network Protocol (CLNP), was later added.

Network Layer
The Network Layer manages connections across the network and isolates the upper layer
protocols from the details of the underlying network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which
isolates the upper layers from the underlying network and handles the addressing and
delivery of data, is usually described as TCP/IP's Network Layer.
Data Link Layer
The reliable delivery of data across the underlying physical network is handled by the Data
Link Layer. TCP/IP rarely creates protocols in the Data Link Layer. Most RFCs that relate to
the Data Link Layer discuss how IP can make use of existing data link protocols.
Physical Layer
The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of the hardware needed to carry the data
transmission signal. Features such as voltage levels and the number and location of interface
pins are defined in this layer. Examples of standards at the Physical Layer are interface
connectors such as RS232C and V.35 and standards for local area network wiring such as
IEEE 802.3. TCP/IP does not define physical standards—it makes use of existing standards.

The terminology of the OSI reference model helps us describe TCP/IP, but to fully understand it, we
must use an architectural model that more closely matches the structure of TCP/IP. The next section
introduces the protocol model we'll use to describe TCP/IP.

page 8
 Windows NT TCP/IP Network Administration

1.3 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

While there is no universal agreement about how to describe TCP/IP with a layered model, it is
generally viewed as being composed of fewer layers than the seven used in the OSI model. Most
descriptions of TCP/IP define three to five functional levels in the protocol architecture. The four-level
model illustrated in Figure 1-2 is based on the three layers (Application, Host-to-Host, and Network
Access) shown in the DOD Protocol Model in the DDN Protocol Handbook—Volume 1, with the
addition of a separate Internet layer. This model provides a reasonable pictorial representation of the
layers in the TCP/IP protocol hierarchy.

Figure 1-2. Layers in the TCP/IP protocol architecture

As in the OSI model, data is passed down the stack when it is being sent to the network, and up the
stack when it is being received from the network. The four-layered structure of TCP/IP is seen in the
way data is handled as it passes down the protocol stack from the Application Layer to the underlying
physical network. Each layer in the stack adds control information to ensure proper delivery. This
control information is called a header because it is placed in front of the data to be transmitted. Each
layer treats all of the information it receives from the layer above as data and places its own header in
front of that information. The addition of delivery information at every layer is called encapsulation.
(Figure 1-3 illustrates this.) When data is received, the opposite happens. Each layer strips off its
header before passing the data on to the layer above. As information flows back up the stack,
information received from a lower layer is interpreted as both a header and data.

Figure 1-3. Data encapsulation

Each layer has its own independent data structures. Conceptually a layer is unaware of the data
structures used by the layers above and below it. In reality, the data structures of a layer are designed
to be compatible with the structures used by the surrounding layers for the sake of more efficient data
transmission. Still, each layer has its own data structure and its own terminology to describe that
structure.

page 9
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