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 COMBINATORICS
OF SET
PARTITIONS

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 DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
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Miklós Bóna, Combinatorics of Permutations, Second Edition
Richard A. Brualdi and Dragos̆ Cvetković, A Combinatorial Approach to Matrix Theory and Its
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 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor KENNETH H. ROSEN

COMBINATORICS
OF SET
PARTITIONS

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 CRC Press
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 vii

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Contents

Preface xix

Acknowledgment xxv

Author Biographies xxvii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Overview and Earliest Results . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Timeline of Research for Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 A More Detailed Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Basic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 Statistics on Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.3 Pattern Avoidance in Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.4 Restricted Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.5 Asymptotics Results on Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.6 Generating Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.7 Normal Ordering and Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 Basic Tools of the Book 31

2.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Solving Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1 Guess and Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.3 Characteristic Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Lagrange Inversion Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5 The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.6 Generating Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3 Preliminary Results on Set Partitions 75

3.1 Dobiński’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2 Different Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.1 Block Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.2 Circular Representation and Line Diagram . . . . . . 89

ix

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3.2.3 Flattened Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3.2.4 More Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2.4.1 Canonical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2.4.2 Graphical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.4.3 Standard Representation . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.4.4 Rook Placement Representation . . . . . . . 98
3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4 Subword Statistics on Set Partitions 107

4.1 Subword Patterns of Size Two: Rises, Levels and Descents . 109
4.1.1 Number Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.1.2 Nontrivial Rises and Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2 Peaks and Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.2.1 Counting Peaks in Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.2 Counting Peaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.3 Counting Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.3 Subword Patterns: `-Rises, `-Levels, and `-Descents . . . . . 131
4.3.1 Long-Rise Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.2 Long-Level Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.3.3 Long-Descent Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4 Families of Subword Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.1 The Patterns 122 · · · 2, 11 · · · 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.4.2 The Patterns 22 · · · 21, 211 · · · 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4.3 The Pattern mρm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.4 The Pattern mρ(m + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.4.5 The Pattern (m + 1)ρm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5 Patterns of Size Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.7 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5 Nonsubword Statistics on Set Partitions 165

5.1 Statistics and Block Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2 Statistics and Canonical and Rook Representations . . . . . 169
5.3 Records and Weak Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.1 Weak Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.3.2 Sum of Positions of Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.3.3 Sum of Positions of Additional Weak Records . . . . . 181
5.4 Number of Positions Between Adjacent Occurrences of a Letter 182
5.4.1 The Statistic dis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.4.2 The Statistic m-Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.4.3 Combinatorial Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.5 The Internal Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.5.1 The Statistic int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.5.2 The Statistic int1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

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5.6 Statistics and Generalized Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

5.7 Major Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.8 Number of Crossings, Nestings and Alignments . . . . . . . . 215
5.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.10 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 219

6 Avoidance of Patterns in Set Partitions 223

6.1 History and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.2 Avoidance of Subsequence Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.2.1 Pattern-Avoiding Fillings of Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 226
6.2.2 Basic Facts and Patterns of Size Three . . . . . . . . . 236
6.2.3 Noncrossing and Nonnesting Set Partitions . . . . . . 237
6.2.4 The Patterns 12 · · · (k + 1)12 · · · k, 12 · · · k12 · · · (k + 1) . 239
6.2.4.1 The Pattern 12 · · · (k + 1)12 · · · k . . . . . . . 240
6.2.4.2 The Pattern 12 · · · k12 · · · (k + 1) . . . . . . . 241
6.2.4.3 The Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.2.5 Patterns of the Form 1(τ + 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.2.6 The Patterns 12 · · · k1, 12 · · · k12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.2.7 Patterns Equivalent to 12 · · · m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.2.8 Binary Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.2.9 Patterns Equivalent to 12k 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.2.10 Landscape Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.2.11 Patterns of Size Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.2.11.1 The Pattern 1123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.2.11.2 Classification of Patterns of Size Four . . . . 267
6.2.12 Patterns of Size Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.2.12.1 The Equivalence 12112 ∼ 12212 . . . . . . . . 268
6.2.12.2 Classification of Patterns of Size Five . . . . 270
6.2.13 Patterns of Size Six . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.2.14 Patterns of Size Seven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.3 Generalized Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.3.1 Patterns of Type (1, 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.3.2 Patterns of Type (2, 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.4 Partially Ordered Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6.4.1 Patterns of Size Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.4.2 Shuffle Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6.6 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 300

7 Multi Restrictions on Set Partitions 307

7.1 Avoiding a Pattern of Size Three and Another Pattern . . . 308
7.1.1 The Patterns 112, 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.1.2 The Pattern 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.1.3 The Pattern 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.2 Pattern Avoidance in Noncrossing Set Partitions . . . . . . . 315

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7.2.1 CC-Equivalences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

7.2.2 Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.2.3 CC-Equivalences of Patterns of Size Four . . . . . . . 326
7.2.4 CC-Equivalences of Patterns of Size Five . . . . . . . 326
7.3 General Equivalences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.4 Two Patterns of Size Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.5 Left Motzkin Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.5.1 The Pairs (1222, 1212) and (1112, 1212) . . . . . . . . . 335
7.5.2 The Pair (1211, 1221) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
7.5.3 The Pair (1222, 1221) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.6 Sequence A054391 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.6.1 The Pairs (1212, 12221), (1212, 11222), (1212, 11122) . . . 340
7.6.2 The Pair (1221, 12311) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.6.3 The Pairs (1221, 12112), (1221, 12122) . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.7 Catalan and Generalized Catalan Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.8 Pell Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.8.1 Counting Pn (1211, 1212, 1213) by inv . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.8.2 Counting Pn (1212, 1222, 1232) by Comaj . . . . . . . . . 351
7.9 Regular Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
7.9.1 Noncrossing Regular Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.9.2 Nonnesting Regular Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . 358
7.10 Distance Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.11 Singletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
7.12 Block-Connected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
7.14 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 372

8 Asymptotics and Random Set Partition 379

8.1 Tools from Probability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8.2 Tools from Complex Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.3 Z-statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
8.4 Set Partitions as Geometric Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
8.5 Asymptotics for Set Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
8.5.1 Asymptotics for Bell and Stirling Numbers . . . . . . 405
8.5.1.1 On the Number of Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . 409
8.5.1.2 On the Number of Distinct Block Sizes . . . 411
8.5.2 On Number of Blocks in a Noncrossing Set Partition . 416
8.5.3 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
8.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
8.7 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 420

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9 Gray Codes, Loopless Algorithms and Set Partitions 423

9.1 Gray Code and Loopless Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
9.2 Gray Codes for Pn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
9.3 Loopless Algorithm for Generating Pn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
9.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
9.5 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 437

10 Set Partitions and Normal Ordering 439

10.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
10.2 Linear Representation and N ((a† a)n ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
10.3 Wick’s Theorem and q-Normal Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . 449
10.4 p-Normal Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
10.5 Noncrossing Normal Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.5.1 Some Preliminary Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.5.2 Noncrossing Normal Ordering of (ar (a† )s )n . . . . . . 460
10.5.3 Noncrossing Normal Ordering of (ar + (a† )s )n . . . . . 462
10.5.4 k-Ary Trees and Lattice Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.7 Research Directions and Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 471

A Solutions and Hints 473

B Identities 501

C Power Series and Binomial Theorem 503

D Chebychev Polynomials of the Second Kind 507

E Linear Algebra and Algebra Review 511

F Complex Analysis Review 513

G Coherent States 517

H C++ Programming 519

I Tables 537

J Notation 543

Bibliography 547

Index 573

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 List of Tables

1.1 Timeline of first research steps on set partitions . . . . . . . . 10

1.2 Timeline research for statistics on set partitions . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Timeline research for pattern avoidance on set partitions . . . 14
1.4 Timeline research for restricted set partitions . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Timeline research for asymptotics on set partitions . . . . . . 17
1.6 Timeline research for set partitions and algebra . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Timeline research for generating set partitions . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Timeline research for the normal ordering and set partitions . 20

2.1 The set A(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2 Set partitions in A(n) with exactly k blocks . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Particular solutions for certain q(n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.1 Set partitions avoiding a pattern of [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.2 Set partitions avoiding two patterns of [3] . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3 Even set partitions avoiding a pattern of [3] . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4 The cardinality |Flattenn (τ )|, where τ ∈ S3 and 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 . 91
3.5 Three letter subsequence pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 The cardinality |Flattenn (τ )|, where τ ∈ S4 and 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 . 103

4.1 Generating functions for 2-letter patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4.2 {Pn (τ )}12
n=1 for four letter subword patterns τ . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3 {Pn (τ )}12
n=1 for five letter subword patterns τ . . . . . . . . . 161

6.1 Number of partitions in Pn (τ ), where τ ∈ P3 . . . . . . . . . 237

6.2 The cardinality |Pn (12 · · · k12)| for 2 ≤ k ≤ 5 and 1 ≤ n ≤ 10 244
6.3 Number of set partitions of Pn (τ ), where τ ∈ P4 . . . . . . . 267
6.4 Nonsingleton equivalence classes of subsequence patterns of P5 270
6.5 Nonsingleton equivalence classes of subsequence patterns of P6 271
6.6 Nonsingleton equivalence classes of subsequence patterns of P7 272
6.7 Three-letter generalized patterns of type (1, 2) . . . . . . . . . 276
6.8 Three-letter generalized patterns of type (2, 1) . . . . . . . . . 285
6.9 The number aτ (n) of set partitions of [n] that contain exactly
once a subsequence pattern of size three, where n = 3, 4, . . . , 10 302
6.10 The number aτ (n) of set partitions of [n] that contain a subse-
quence pattern of size four, where n = 4, 5, . . . , 10 . . . . . . . 302

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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xvi

6.11 The number aτ (n) of set partitions of [n] that contain a subse-
quence pattern of size five, where n = 5, 6, . . . , 11 . . . . . . . 303

7.1 Generating functions Fa (x, y), where a is a nonempty compo-

sition of size at most three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.2 The equivalence classes of (3, 4)-pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
7.3 Nonsingleton cc-equivalences of patterns of size four . . . . . 326
7.4 Nonsingleton cc-equivalences of patterns of size five . . . . . . 327
7.5 Nonsingleton equivalences of pair patterns of size four . . . . 333
7.6 Number of set partitions of [n] with exactly r circular connec-
tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.7 Number of set partitions of [n] with exactly r connectors. . . 365
7.8 Number of sparse set partitions of Pn (τ ) with τ ∈ P4 . . . . . 373
7.9 Number of sparse set partitions of Pn (τ, τ 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . 373

8.1 Values for Pn,k for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n ≤ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

8.2 Number of set partitions of [n] and estimation . . . . . . . . . 407

9.1 Listing P4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

I.1 The numbers Pn (τ ) where τ is a subsequence pattern of size

six and n = 6, 7, . . . , 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
I.2 The numbers Pn (1212, τ ) where τ is a subsequence pattern of
size four and n = 4, 5, . . . , 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
I.3 The numbers Pn (1212, τ ) where τ is a subsequence pattern of
size five and n = 6, 7, . . . , 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
I.4 The numbers Pn (1212, τ ) where τ is a subsequence pattern of
size six and n = 7, 8, . . . , 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 List of Figures

1.1 Diagrams used to represent set partitions in 16th century Japan 1

1.2 Stirling numbers of the second kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Rhyming patterns for 5-line verses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Rhyming patterns for 6-line verses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.1 Different ways of drawing non-intersecting chords on a circle

between 4 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2 Generating tree for [2]n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.3 Generating tree for set partitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.1 The circular representation and the line diagram of the set par-
tition 18/235/47/6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.2 A graphical representation of the set partition π = 1231242 . 96
3.3 The standard representation of 1357/26/4/89 . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4 The standard representation of 4/235/167/89 and its corre-
sponding Dyck path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.5 A rook placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.6 A rook placement representation of 1357/26/4/89 . . . . . . . 100

5.1 A rook placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

5.2 The vectors csw(r), cnw(r), and rnw(r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3 The rook placement f (112132242) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.4 The rook placement g(11213114233) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5 The standard representation of the partition 15/27/34/68. . . 211
5.6 The cr2 (π) for π ∈ Pn ({1, 2}, {4, 6}) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.7 The pmaj(π) for π ∈ Pn ({1, 2}, {4, 6}) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

6.1 Three diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

6.2 A diagram and its filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.3 A Ferrers diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.4 A stack polyomino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.5 A moon polyomino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

7.1 Generating tree for set partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

7.2 Rook placement of the set partition 19/26/348/5/7 . . . . . . 356
7.3 The mapping ψ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

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 xviii

7.4 The bijection Φ maps 19/25/36/48/7 to 18/247/35 . . . . . . 357

7.5 The linear representation of a linked set partition . . . . . . . 368

10.1 The linear representations of the contractions of the word

aaa† a† . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
10.2 The linear representation of the Feynman diagram γ. . . . . . 443
10.3 The linear representations of the contractions of the word
(a† a)3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
10.4 The set L2 of L-lattices paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.5 2-Motzkin paths of length 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Preface

This book gives an introduction to and an overview of the methods used in the
combinatorics of pattern avoidance and pattern enumeration in set partitions,
a very active area of research in the last decade. The first known application
of set partitions arose in the context of tea ceremonies and incense games in
Japanese upper class society around A.D. 1500. Guests at a Kado ceremony
would be smelling cups with burned incense with the goal to either identity the
incense or to identity which cups contained identical incense. There are many
variations of the game, even today. One particular game is named genji-ko,
and it is the one that originated the interest in set partitions. Five different
incense were cut into five pieces, each piece put into a separate bag, and then
five of these bags were chosen to be burned. Guests had to identify which
of the five incense were the same. The Kado ceremony masters developed
symbols for the different possibilities, so-called genji-mon. Each such symbol
consists of five vertical bars, some of which are connected by horizontal bars.
Fifty-two symbols were created, and for easier memorization, each symbol was
identified with one of the fifty-four chapters of the famous Tale of Genji by
Lady Murasaki. In time, these genji-mon and two additional symbols started
to be displayed at the beginning of each chapter of the Tale of Genji and
in turn became part of numerous Japanese paintings. They continued to be
popular symbols for family crests and Japanese kimono patterns in the early
20th century and can be found on T-shirts sold today.
Until the late 1960s, individual research papers on various aspects of set
partitions appeared, but there was no focused research interest. This changed
after the 1970s, when several groups of authors developed new research di-
rections. They studied set partitions under certain set of conditions, and not
only enumerated the total number of these objects, but also certain of their
characteristics. Other focuses were the relation between the algebra and set
partitions such as the noncrossing set partitions, the appearance of set parti-
tions in physics where the number of set partitions is a good language to find
explicit formula for normal ordering form of an expression of boson operators,
and the study of random set partition to obtain asymptotics results.
We wrote this book to provide a comprehensive resource for anybody in-
terested in this new area of research. It will combine the following in one
place:

• provide a self-contained, broadly accessible introduction to research in

this area,

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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xx

• present an overview of the history of research on enumeration of and

pattern avoidance in set partitions,

• present several links between set partitions and other areas of math-
ematics, and in normal ordering form of expressions of boson operators
in physics,

• describe a variety of tools and approaches that are also useful to other
areas of enumerative combinatorics.

• suggest open questions for further research, and

• provide a comprehensive and extensive bibliography.

Our book is based on my own research and on that of my collaborators and

other researchers in the field. We present these results with consistent notation
and have modified some proofs to relate to other results in the book. As
a general rule, theorems listed without specific references give results from
articles by the author and their collaborators, while results from other authors
are given with specific references. Many results of my own, with or without
collaborators, articles are omitted, so we refer the reader to all these articles
to find the full details in the subject.

Audience
The book is intended primarily for advanced undergraduate and graduate
students in discrete mathematics with a focus on set partitions. Additionally,
the book serves as a one-stop reference for a bibliography of research activities
on the subject, known results, and research directions for any researcher who
is interested to study this topic. The main chapter of the book is based on the
research papers of the author and his coauthors.

Outline
In Chapter 1 we present a historical perspective of the research on set
partitions and give very basic definitions and early results. This is followed
by an overview of the major themes of the book: Dobiński’s formula and
representations of set partitions, subword statistics on set partitions, nonsub-
word statistics on set partitions, pattern avoidance in set partitions, multi-
pattern avoidance in set partitions, asymptotics and random set partitions,

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xxi

Gray codes, loopless algorithm and set partitions, and normal ordering and
set partitions. We also provide a time line for the articles in these major areas
of research.
In Chapter 2 we introduce techniques to solve recurrence relations, which
arise naturally when counting set partitions. This chapter contains several
basic examples to illustrate out techniques on solving recurrence relations.
We also provide the basic definitions and basic combinatorial techniques that
are used throughout the book such as Dyck paths, Motzkin paths, generating
trees, Lagrange inversion formula, and the principle of inclusion and exclusion.
In Chapter 3 we focussed on basic steps for set partitions. We start by
presenting Dobiński’s formula and its extensions. Then we provide different
representations of set partitions, where some of them are nonattractive rep-
resentations and other are attractive representations in the set partitions re-
search. For the nonattractive representations, we provide the full results on our
area. But for the attractive representations we only give very basic definitions
and results, leaving the full discussions to the rest of the book chapters.
Chapter 4 deals with statistics on set partitions, where we use the term
statistic exclusively for subword statistics (counting occurrences of a subword
pattern), for instance, the number times two adjacent terms in a set parti-
tion are the same. We connect early research on the rises, levels, and falls of
statistics with the enumeration of subword patterns. Also we consider subword
pattern of length three and general longer subword patterns.
Chapter 5 completes the study of the previous chapter by dealing with
statistics on set partitions, where our statistics have not been introduced “nat-
urally” by subword patterns. Here, we focus on different types of statistics,
where the research on set partitions has taken interest in them. For instance,
we deal with major index, inversions, records, weak records, sum of positions
of records on set partitions, crossings, nestings, alignments, etc. We also con-
sider the case of generalized patterns in set partitions.
In Chapter 6 we present results on pattern avoidance for subsequence,
generalized patterns and partially ordered patterns. We provide a complete
classification with respect to Wilf-equivalence for subsequence patterns with
sizes three to seven. We also provide exact formulas for patterns of sizes three
and four, and some formulas for other patterns. Our basic tools is based on
pattern-avoidance fillings of diagrams, where it has received a lot of atten-
tion, for example, in the research articles of Backelin, Krattenthaler, de Mier,
Rubey West, and Xin. We conclude the chapter with results on avoidance of
generalized patterns and partially ordered patterns.
Chapter 7 deals with multi-restrictions on set partitions. Indeed, this chap-
ter complements the previous chapter by providing a complete classification
with respect to Wilf-equivalence for two (or more) subsequence patterns with
sizes four, and for two subsequence patterns with one of size three and an-
other for sizes up to 20. Noncrossing set partitions also have received a lot of
attention in this chapter, where we provide a full classification with respect
to Wilf-equivalence for two subsequence patterns (1212, τ ) with patterns τ of

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xxii

sizes four and five. We conclude the chapter with links between set partitions
and other combinatorial sequences such as left Moztkin numbers, sequence
A054391, generalized Catalan numbers, Catalan numbers, and Pell numbers.
At the end of this chapter we present other types of multi-restrictions that have
not been created from subsequence/generalized patterns such as d-regular set
partitions, distances and singletons and set partitions, and block-connected
set partitions.

In Chapter 8 we focus on random set partitions, after first presenting

tools from probability theory. Then, we describe asymptotic results for various
statistics on random set partitions. Finally, we derive asymptotic results using
tools from complex analysis.

In Chapter 9 we focus on generating set partitions to provide a Gray code

algorithm and generate them looplesly. After presenting tools for generating
algorithms, Gray codes, and loopless algorithms, we provide our generating
Gray code and then a loopless algorithm for set partitions.

In Chapter 10 we provide several results that connect the set partitions

and the problem of normal ordering of boson expressions. After we present a
modern review of normal ordering, we focus on normal ordering of the operator
(aa∗ )n . Here, we establish two bijections between the set of contractions of
this operator and the set of set partitions of [n]. Also, we provide an extension
of Wick’s theorem to the case of q-normal ordering. Again, the noncrossing set
partitions have take a part in our research, where the language of noncrossing
set partitions have been used.

The chapters build upon each other, with exception of the last three chap-
ters, which can be read (almost) independently of previous chapters. Most
chapters start with a section describing the history of the particular topic
and its relations to other pervious chapters. New methods and definitions are
illustrated with worked examples, and (sometimes) we provide Maple code.
At the end of each chapter we present a list of exercises that correspond to
the topics in the chapter, where some of them are related to published re-
search papers. Then we provide research directions that extend the results
given in the chapter. Questions posed in the research directions can be used
for projects, thesis topics, or research.

The appendix gives basic background from different area of mathematics.

We also provide a number of C++ programs that are used in the book (clas-
sification of pattern avoidance according to Wilf-equivalence) and a number
of tables that containing the output of such programs. In addition, we present
a detailed description of the relevant Maple functions.

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 xxiii

Support Features
We have included hints and answers to exercises in Appendix A. In ad-
dition, the C++ programs and their outputs can be downloaded from the
author’s web page http://math.haifa.ac.il/manbook.html. We will regularly
update the author’s web page to post references to new papers in this re-
search area as well as any corrections that might be necessary. (No matter
how hard we try, we know that there will be typos.) We invite readers to give
us feedback at tmansour@univ.haifa.ac.il.

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Acknowledgment

Every book has a story of how it came into being and the people that sup-
ported the author(s) along the way. Ours is no exception. The idea for this
book came when Mark Shattuck emailed the author asking some enumera-
tion problems on set partitions, after collaborating via the Internet on a few
papers. Toufik had been working on several combinatorial problems on set
partitions and had a background in pattern avoidance in different combinato-
rial families such as permutations, words, and compositions. Combining these
lines of inquiry, he started to work on pattern avoidance in set partitions.
Several years later, after a mostly long-distance collaboration that has
made full use of modern electronic technology (e-mail and Skype1 ), this book
has taken its final shape. Along the way we have received encouragement
for our endeavor from William Y.C. Chen, Mark Dukes, Vı́t Jelı́nek, Silvia
Heubach, Arnold Knopfmacher, Augustine Munagi, Matthias Schork, Simone
Severini, Armend Sh. Shabani, Mark Shattuck, and Chunwei Song. A special
thanks to Armend Sh. Shabani for reading the previous version of this book.
And then there are the people in our lives who supported us on a daily basis
by giving us the time and the space to write this book. Their moral support
has been very important. Toufik thanks his wife Ronit for her support and
understanding when the work on the book took him away from spending time
with her and from playing with their children Itar, Atil, and Hadil. Also,
Toufik thanks our larger families for cheering us on and supporting us even
though they do not understand the mathematics that we have described.

1 SkypeTM is a registered trademark of Skype Limited.

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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Author Biographies

Toufik Mansour obtained his Ph.D. degree in mathematics from the Uni-
versity of Haifa in 2001. He spent one year as a postdoctoral researcher at
the University of Bordeaux (France) supported by a Bourse Chateaubriand
scholarship, and a second year at the Chalmers Institute in Gothenburg (Swe-
den) supported by a European Research Training Network grant. He has also
received a prestigious MAOF grant from the Israeli Council for Education.
Toufik has been a permanent faculty member at the University of Haifa since
2003 and was promoted to associate professor in 2008. He spends his summers
as a visitor at institutions around the globe, for example, at the Center for
Combinatorics at Nankai University (China) where he was a faculty member
from 2004 to 2007, and at The John Knopfmacher Center for Applicable Anal-
ysis and Number Theory, University of the Witwatersrand (South Africa).
Toufik’s area of specialty is enumerative combinatorics, and more generally,
discrete mathematics and its applications to physics, biology, and chemistry.
Originally focusing on pattern avoidance in permutations, he has extended
his interest to colored permutations, set partitions, words, and compositions.
Toufik has authored or co-authored more than 200 papers in this area, many
of them concerning the enumeration of set partitions. He has given talks at
national and international conferences and is very active as a reviewer for
several journals, including Advances in Applied Mathematics, Ars Combina-
torica, Discrete Mathematics, Discrete Applied Mathematics, European Jour-
nal of Combinatorics, Journal of Integer Sequences, Journal of Combinatorial
Theory Series A, Annals of Combinatorics, and the Electronic Journal of
Combinatorics.

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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Historical Overview and Earliest Results

The first known application of set partitions arose in the context of tea
ceremonies and incense games in Japanese upper-class society around A.D.
1500. Guests at a Kado ceremony would be smelling cups with burned incense
with the goal to either identify the incense or to identify which cups contained
identical incense. There are many variations of the game, even today. One par-
ticular game is named genji-ko, and it is the one that originated the interest
in n-set partitions. Five different incense sticks were cut into five pieces, each
piece put into a separate bag, and then five of these bags were chosen to be
burned. Guests had to identify which of the five were the same. The Kado
ceremony masters developed symbols for the different possibilities, so-called
genji-mon. Each such symbol consists of vertical bars, some of which are con-
nected by horizontal bars. For example, the symbol indicates that incense
1, 2, and 3 are the same, while incense 4 and 5 are different from the first three
and also from each other (recall that the Japanese write from right to left).
Fifty-two symbols were created, and for easier memorization, each symbol
was identified with one of the chapters of the famous Tale of Genji by Lady

FIGURE 1.1: Diagrams used to represent set partitions in 16th century

Japan

Murasaki. Figure 1.1 shows the diagrams1 used in the tea ceremony game. In
1 www.viewingjapaneseprints.net/texts/topictexts/artist varia topics/genjimon7.html

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 2 Combinatorics of Set Partitions

time, these genji-mon and two additional symbols started to be displayed at

the beginning of each chapter of the Tale of Genji and in turn became part
of numerous Japanese paintings. They continued to be popular symbols for
family crests and Japanese kimono patterns in the early 20th century, and can
be found on T-shirts sold today.
How does the tea ceremony game relate to set partitions? Before making
the connection, let us define what we mean by a set partition in general, and
by a set partition in particular.

Definition 1.1 A set partition π of a set S is a collection B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk of

nonempty disjoint subsets of S such that ∪ki=1 Bi = S. The elements of a set
partition are called blocks, and the size of a block B is given by |B| the number
of elements in B. We assume that B1 , B2 , . . . , Bk are listed in increasing order
of their minimal elements, that is, min B1 < min B2 < · · · < min Bk . The set
of all set partitions of S is denoted by P(S).

Note that an equivalent way of representing a set partition is to order the

blocks by their maximal element, that is, max B1 < max B2 < · · · < max Bk .
Unless otherwise noted, we will use the ordering according to the minimal
element of the blocks.

Example 1.2 The set partitions of the set {1, 3, 5} are given by

{1, 3, 5}; {1, 3}, {5}; {1, 5}, {3}; {1}, {3, 5} and {1}, {3}, {5}.

There is another representation of a set partition, which arises from con-

sidering them as words that satisfy certain set of conditions.

Definition 1.3 Let π be any set partition of the set [n] = {1, 2, . . . , n}. We
represent π in either sequential or canonical form. In the sequential form, each
block is represented as sequence of increasing numbers and different blocks
are separated by the symbol /. In the canonical representation, we indicate
for each integer the block in which it occurs, that is, π = π1 π2 · · · πn such
that j ∈ Bπj , 1 ≤ j ≤ n. We denote the set of all set partitions of [n] by
Pn = P([n]), and the number of all set partitions of [n] by pn = |Pn |, with
p0 = 1 (as there is only one set partition of the empty set). Also, we denote
the set of all set partitions of [n] with exactly k blocks by Pn,k .

Example 1.4 The set partitions of [3] in sequential form are 1/2/3, 1/23,
12/3, 13/2, and 123, while the set partitions of [3] in canonical representation
are 123, 122, 112, 121, and 111, respectively. Thus, p3 = 5.

Example 1.5 The set partition 14/257/3/6 has canonical form 1231242. We
have that π1 = π4 = 1, as both 1 and 4 are in the first block. Likewise,
π2 = π5 = π7 = 2, as 2, 5, and 7 are in the second block.

© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Indian held him there. That other man I denounce as an accomplice
indoors, evidently acting in concert with him."
Wilfred shook off Gaspé's arm and flew to Yula. "Leave go," he
said, "leave go." His hands went round the dog's throat to enforce
obedience as he whispered, "I am not quite a babby to choke him
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Mathurin drew up his leg with a groan, but Yula's teeth had
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house and through the porch before Mathurin could reach it. He
collared him by the kitchen-table, to Pête's amazement. Forgill burst
out of the dining-room, ready to identify him as one of their guests,
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 Wilfred was looking round him for the Cree, who was feeling for
his bow and arrows, thrown somewhere on the ground during his
prolonged struggle. When the stone was struck from Maxica's grasp,
and he knew that Vanner was dragged off helpless, he felt himself in
the presence of a power that was mightier than his own. As Wilfred
caught up the bow and put it in his hand, he said solemnly, "You are
safe under the shadow of that great white warrior chief, and Maxica
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the great white medicine as seven to one, therefore the redman
shuns his presence, and here we part."
"Not yet, not yet," urged Wilfred desperately; but whilst he was
speaking the Cree was gone. He had vanished with the morning
shadows behind the pine trees.
Wilfred stretched out his arms to recall him; but Gaspé, who
had followed his friend like his shadow, pulled him back. "It would
be but poor gratitude for Maxica's gallant rescue to run your head
into the noose a second time," he said. "With these hunters lurking
about the place, we ought to make our way indoors as fast as we
can."
The chill of the morning wrapped them round. They were
shivering in the icy mist, through which the rising sun was
struggling. It was folly to linger. Gaspé knew the Indian was afraid to
trust himself in the company of the policeman.
"Shall I never see him more?" burst out Wilfred mournfully.
"Don't say that," retorted Gaspé. "He is sure to come again to
Hungry Hall with the furs from his winter's hunting. You can meet
him then."
 "I? I shall be at school at Garry. How can I go there?" asked
Wilfred.
"At Garry," repeated his consoler, brightening. "Well, from Garry
you can send him anything you like by the winter packet of letters.
You know our postman, the old Indian, who carries them in his dog-
sled to every one of the Hudson Bay stations. You can send what
you like by him to Hungry Hall. Sooner or later it will be sure to
reach your dusky friend."
"It will be something to let him know I don't forget," sighed
Wilfred, whose foot was in his uncle's porch, where safety was
before him.
There was a sudden stillness about the place. A kind of paralysis
had seized upon the household, as it fell under the startling interdict
of the policeman: "Not a thing on the premises to be touched; not
an individual to leave them until he gave permission." This utter
standstill was more appalling to the farm-servants than the riotous
confusion which had preceded it. The dread of what would come
next lay like a nightmare over master and men.
Wilfred scarcely looked at prisoners or policeman; he made his
way to his uncle.
"I can finish my prayer this morning, and I will—I will try to do
my duty. Tell me what it is?"
"To speak the truth," returned old Caleb solemnly, "without fear
or prevarication. No, no! don't tell me beforehand what you are
going to say, or that fellow in the scarlet coat will assert I have
tutored you."
Gaspé began to speak.
 "No, no!" continued Uncle Caleb, "you must not talk it over with
your friend. Sit down, my boy; think of all that has happened in the
night quietly and calmly, and God help us to bear the result."
Again he rocked himself backwards and forwards, murmuring
under his breath, "My poor Miriam! I have two to think of—my poor,
poor Miriam!"
Wilfred's own clear commonsense came to his aid; he looked up
brightly. The old man's tears were slowly trickling down his furrowed
cheeks. "Uncle," he urged, "my friends have not only saved me, they
have saved you all. They stopped those fellows short, before they
had time to do their worst. They will not be punished for what they
were going to do, but for what they actually did do."
A sudden rush of gratitude came over Wilfred as he recalled his
peril. His arms went round Gaspé with a clasp that seemed to know
no unloosening. A friend is worth all hazards.
His turn soon came. Aunt Miriam had preceded her nephew. She
had so little to tell. "In the midst of the dancing there was a cry of
'Thieves!' The men ran. Her husband came back to her, bringing her
invalid brother to the safest part of the house. He stayed to guard
them, until there arose a second cry, 'The police!' She supposed the
thieves made off. Her husband had started in pursuit."
In pursuit, when there was nothing to pursue; the aggressor
was already taken. Aunt Miriam saw the inevitable inference: her
husband had fled with his guests. She never looked up. She could
not meet the eyes around her, until she was asked if Vanner and
Mathurin were among her guests. Her pale cheeks grew paler.
Their own men were stupid and sleepy, and could only stare at
each other. All they had had to say confirmed their mistress's
statements.
Mr. De Brunier had fetched Wilfred whilst his aunt was speaking.
He looked at the men crowding round the table, pushed between
the sledge-driver and Pête to where his aunt was standing, and
squeezed her hand. There was just one look exchanged between
them. Of all the startling events in that strange night, it was
strangest of all to Aunt Miriam to see him there. The fervency in the
pressure she returned set Wilfred's heart at ease. One determination
possessed them both—not to make a scene.
Aunt Miriam got back into her own room; how, she never knew.
She threw herself on her knees beside her bed, and listened; for in
that wood-built house every word could be heard as plainly as if she
had remained in the kitchen. Her grief and shame were hidden, that
was all.
Wilfred's clear, straightforward answers made it plain there were
no thieves in the case. Her wedding guests had set upon her little
wanderer in the moment of his return.
Vanner, scowling and sullen, never uttered a single word.
Mathurin protested volubly. He never meant to let them hurt the
boy, but some amongst them owed him a grudge, and they were
bent on paying it off before they parted.
"A base and cowardly trick, by your own showing, to break into
an old man's room in the dead of the night with a false alarm; not to
mention your behaviour to the boy. If this outrage hastens the old
gentleman's end, you will find yourselves in a very awkward position.
His seizure in the night was solely due to the unwarrantable alarm,"
observed the policeman.
Mathurin began to interrupt. He checked him.
 "If you have anything to say for yourself, reserve it for the
proper time and place; for the present you must step into that
sledge and come with me at once.—Mr. De Brunier, I shall meet you
and your son at Garry on the twenty-ninth."
He marched his prisoners through the porch; a sullen silence
reigned around. The sledge-bell tinkled, the snow gleamed white as
ever in the morning sunshine, as Vanner and Mathurin left the farm.
With the air of a mute at a funeral, Forgill bolted the door
behind them. Mr. De Brunier walked into the sleeping-room, to
examine the scene of confusion it presented for himself.
Aunt Miriam came out, leaving the door behind her open,
without knowing it. She moved like one in a dream. "I cannot
understand all this," she said, "but we must do the thing that is
nearest."
She directed Forgill to board up the broken window and to see
that the house was secure, and took Pête with her to make up a bed
for her brother in the dining-room. She laid her hand on Wilfred's
shoulder as she passed him, but the words died on her lips.
The men obeyed her without reply. Forgill was afraid to go out
of the house alone. As the cowman followed him, he patted Yula's
head, observing, "After all that's said and done, it was this here dog
which caught 'em. I reckon he's worth his weight in gold, wherever
he comes from, that I do."
Yula shook off the stranger's caress as if it were an impertinent
freedom. His eye was fixed on two small moccasined feet peeping
out from under Aunt Miriam's bed.
There was a spring, but Wilfred's hand was in his collar.
 "I know I had better stop him," he whispered, looking up at
Gaspé, as he thought of Mr. De Brunier's reproof.
"Right enough now," cried Gaspé. "Wilfred, it is a girl."
He ran to the bed and handed out Bowkett's young sister,
Anastasia. Her dress was of the universal smoked skin, but its gay
embroidery of beads and the white ribbons which adorned it spoke
of the recent bridal. Her black hair fell in one long, heavy braid to
her waist.
"Oh, you uncomplimentary creatures!" she exclaimed, "not one
of you remembered my existence; but I'll forgive you two"—
extending a hand to each—"because you did not know of it. I
crawled in here at the first alarm, and here I have lain trembling,
and nobody missed me. But, I declare, you men folk have been
going on awful. You will be the death of us all some of these days. I
could have knocked your heads together until I had knocked some
sense into you. Put your pappoose in its cradle, indeed! I wish you
were all pappooses; I would soon let you know what I think of
upsetting a poor old man like that."
The indignant young beauty shook the dust from her
embroidery, and twirled her white ribbons into their places as she
spoke.
"Spoiling all the fun," she added.
"Now don't perform upon us, Miss Bowkett," put in Gaspé. "We
are not the representatives of last night's rowdyism. My poor friend
here is chief sufferer from it. Only he had a four-footed friend, and a
dark-skinned friend, and two others at the back of them of a very
ordinary type, but still friends with hands and feet. So the tables
were turned, and the two real representatives are gone up for their
exam."
"I daren't be the first to tell a tale like this in the hunters' camp.
Besides," she demanded, "who is to take me there? This is what the
day after brings," she pouted, passing the boys as she went into the
kitchen. The guns which the hunters had left behind them had been
carefully unloaded by the policeman and Mr. De Brunier, and were
piled together in one corner, waiting for their owners to reclaim
them. Every one knew the hunters could not live without their
trading guns; they must come back to fetch them. Anastasia, too,
was aware she had only to wait for the first who should put in an
appearance to escort her home. Little was said, for Aunt Miriam
knew Anastasia's departure from Acland's Hut would be Hugh
Bowkett's recall.
When Mr. De Brunier understood this, his anxiety on Wilfred's
account was redoubled.
But when Uncle Caleb revived enough for conversation, he
spoke of the little business to be settled between them, and asked
for Mr. De Brunier.
"I have thought it all through," he said. "In the face of the
Cree's warning, and all that happened under this roof, I can never
leave my nephew and Hugh Bowkett to live together beneath it. As
soon as he hears from his sister how matters stand here, and finds
sentence has been passed on Vanner and Mathurin, he may come
back at any hour. I want to leave my nephew to your care; a better
friend he could not have."
"As he has had it already, he shall always have it, as if he were
next to Gaspé, I promise you," was the ready answer.
 "I want a little more than that," Uncle Caleb continued. "I want
you to take him away at once, and send him back to school. You
spoke of buying land; buy half of mine. That will be Wilfred's
portion. Invest the money in the Hudson Bay Company, where
Bowkett can never touch it, and I shall feel my boy is safe. As for
Miriam, she will still have a good home and a good farm; and the
temptation out of his reach, Bowkett may settle down."
"I have no faith in bribery for making a man better. It wants the
change here, and that is God's work, not man's," returned Mr. De
Brunier, tapping his own breast.
Caleb Acland had but one more charge: "Let nobody tell poor
Miriam the worst." But she knew enough without the telling.
When Wilfred found he was to return to Garry with his friends
the next day his arms went round his dogs, and a look of mute
appeal wandered from Mr. De Brunier to Aunt Miriam.
"Had not I better take back Kusky?" suggested Gaspé. "And
could not we have Yula too?"
"Yula!" repeated Aunt Miriam. "It is I who must take care of
Yula. He shall never want a bone whilst I have one. I shall feed him,
Wilfred, with my own hands till you come back to claim him."

THE END.
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