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Embedded Systems

Peter Marwedel

Embedded System
Design
Embedded Systems, Foundations of
Cyber-Physical Systems, and the
Internet of Things
Third Edition
Embedded Systems

Series editors
Nikil D. Dutt, Irvine, CA, USA
Grant Martin, Santa Clara, CA, USA
Peter Marwedel, Dortmund, Germany
This Series addresses current and future challenges pertaining to embedded
hardware, software, specifications and techniques. Titles in the Series cover a
focused set of embedded topics relating to traditional computing devices as well as
high-tech appliances used in newer, personal devices, and related topics. The
material will vary by topic but in general most volumes will include fundamental
material (when appropriate), methods, designs and techniques.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8563

Peter Marwedel

Embedded System Design

Embedded Systems, Foundations
of Cyber-Physical Systems,
and the Internet of Things

Third Edition

123
Peter Marwedel
TU Dortmund
Dortmund
Germany

ISSN 2193-0155 ISSN 2193-0163 (electronic)

Embedded Systems
ISBN 978-3-319-56043-4 ISBN 978-3-319-56045-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56045-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017938320

1st edition: © Springer 2006

2nd edition: © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
3rd edition: © Springer International Publishing AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my family members
Veronika, Malte, Gesine, and Ronja.
Preface

What Does This Book Present?

“Information technology (IT) is on the verge of another revolution. … networked

systems of embedded computers … have the potential to change radically the way
people interact with their environment by linking together a range of devices and
sensors that will allow information to be collected, shared, and processed in
unprecedented ways. … The use … throughout society could well dwarf previous
milestones in the information revolution.”
This citation from a report of the National Research Council in the USA [392]
describes very nicely the dramatic impact of information technology in embedded
systems. Such systems can be understood as information processing embedded into
an enclosing product [355], such as a car or an airplane. This revolution has already
had a major impact and is still continuing. For example, the availability of mobile
devices has had an impact on societies. Due to the increasing integration of com-
puting and physical objects, the term cyber-physical systems (CPS) has been
introduced. Such systems “are engineered systems that are built from and depend
upon the synergy of computational and physical components” [394]. Objects or
“things” play a key rule in the definition of the popular term “Internet of Things”
(IoT). IoT “… describes … a variety of devices … able to interact and cooperate
with each other to reach common goals” [179]. Terms such as pervasive and
ubiquitous computing, ambient intelligence, and “Industry 4.0” are also referring to
the dramatic impact of changes caused by information technology. More changes
like the use of self-driving cars and more remotely controlled airborne devices are
on the horizon.
This importance of embedded/cyber-physical systems and IoT is so far not well
reflected in many of the current curricula. Designing the mentioned systems
requires knowledge and skills from areas beyond traditional programming and
algorithm design. Obtaining an overview of such knowledge is very difficult, due to
the wide range of relevant areas. This book aims at facilitating the acquisition of
knowledge from the relevant areas. It provides material for a first course on such

vii
viii Preface

systems and includes an overview of key concepts for the integration of information
technology with physical objects. It covers hardware as well as software aspects.
This is in-line with the ARTIST guidelines for curricula of embedded systems: “The
development of embedded systems cannot ignore the underlying hardware char-
acteristics. Timing, memory usage, power consumption, and physical failures are
important” [86].
This book has been designed as a textbook. However, this book provides more
references than typical textbooks do and also helps to structure the area. Hence, this
book should also be useful for faculty members and engineers. For students, the
inclusion of a rich set of references facilitates access to relevant sources of
information.
This book focuses on the fundamental bases of software and hardware. Specific
products and tools are mentioned only if they have outstanding characteristics.
Again, this is in-line with the ARTIST guidelines: “It seems that fundamental bases
are really difficult to acquire during continuous training if they haven’t been ini-
tially learned, and we must focus on them” [86]. As a consequence, this book goes
beyond teaching embedded system design by programming microcontrollers. This
book presents the fundamentals of embedded systems design which are needed
for the design of CPS and IoT systems. With this approach, we would like to
make sure that the material taught will not be outdated too soon. The concepts
covered in this book should be relevant for a number of years to come.
The proposed positioning of the current textbook in computer science and
computer engineering curricula is explained in a paper [356]. We want to relate the
most important topics in this area to each other. This way, we avoid a problem
mentioned in the ARTIST guidelines: “The lack of maturity of the domain results in
a large variety of industrial practices, often due to cultural habits. … curricula …
concentrate on one technique and do not present a sufficiently wide perspective. …
As a result, industry has difficulty finding adequately trained engineers, fully aware
of design choices” [86].
This book should also help to bridge the gap between practical experiences with
programming microcontrollers and more theoretical issues. Furthermore, it should
help to motivate students and teachers to look at more details. While this book
covers a number of topics in detail, others are covered only briefly. These brief
sections have been included in order to put a number of related issues into per-
spective. Furthermore, this approach allows lecturers to have appropriate links in
this book for adding complementary material of their choice. Due to the rich set of
references, this book can also be used as a comprehensive tutorial, providing
pointers for additional reading. Such references can also stimulate taking benefit of
this book during laboratories, projects, and independent studies as well as a starting
point for research.
The scope of this book includes specification techniques, hardware components,
system software, application mapping, evaluation and validation, as well as
exemplary optimizations and test methods. This book covers embedded systems
and their interface to the physical environment from a wide perspective, but cannot
cover every related area. Legal and socioeconomic aspects, human interfaces, data
Preface ix

analysis, application-specific aspects, and a detailed presentation of physics and

communication are beyond the scope of this book. The coverage of the Internet of
Things is limited to areas linked to embedded systems.

Who Should Read the Book?

This book is intended for the following audience:

• Computer science (CS), computer engineering (CE), and electrical engineering
(EE) students as well as students in other information and communication
technology (ICT)-related areas who would like to specialize in
embedded/cyber-physical systems or IoT. This book should be appropriate for
third-year students who do have a basic knowledge of computer hardware and
software. This means that this book primarily targets senior undergraduate
students1. However, it can also be used at the graduate level if embedded system
design is not part of the undergraduate program or if the discussion of some
topics is postponed. This book is intended to pave the way for more advanced
topics that should be covered in follow-up courses. This book assumes a basic
knowledge of computer science. EE students may have to read some additional
material in order to fully understand the topics of this book. This should be
compensated by the fact that some material covered in this book may already be
known to EE students.
• Engineers who have so far worked on systems hardware and who have to move
more toward software of embedded systems. This book should provide enough
background to understand the relevant technical publications.
• Ph.D. students who would like to get a quick, broad overview of key concepts in
embedded system technology before focusing on a specific research area.
• Professors designing a new curriculum for the mentioned areas.

How Is This Book Different from Earlier Editions?

The first edition of this book was published in 2003. The field of embedded systems
is moving fast, and many new results have become available since then. Also, there
are areas for which the emphasis has shifted. In some cases, a more detailed
treatment of the topic became desirable. New developments have been taken up
when the first German edition of this book was published in 2007. Therefore, it
became necessary to publish a second English edition in late 2010/early 2011. Since

1
This is consistent with the curriculum described by T. Abdelzaher in a recent report on CPS
education [393].
x Preface

then, some technological changes occurred. There was a clear shift from single core
systems toward multi-core systems. Cyber-physical systems (CPS) and the Internet
of Things (IoT) gained more attention. Power consumption and thermal issues have
become more important, and many designs now have tight power and thermal
constraints. Furthermore, safety and security have gained importance as well.
Overall, it became necessary to publish the current third edition.
The changes just described had an impact on several chapters. We are now
including and linking those aspects of embedded systems that provide foundations
for the design of CPS and IoT systems. The preface and the introduction have been
rewritten to reflect these changes. (a) The chapter on specifications and modeling
now includes partial differential equations and transaction-level modeling (TLM).
The use of this book in flipped-classroom-based teaching led to the consideration of
more details, in particular of specification techniques. (b) The chapter on embedded
system hardware now includes multi-cores, a rewritten section on memories, more
information on the conversion between the analog and the digital domain, including
pulse-width modulation (PWM). There are updated descriptions of field pro-
grammable gate arrays (FPGAs) and a brief section on security issues in embedded
systems. (c) The chapter on system software now contains a section on Linux in
embedded systems and more information on resource access protocols. (d) In the
context of system evaluation, there are new subsections on quality metrics, on
safety/security, on energy models, and on thermal issues. (e) The chapter on
mapping to execution platforms has been restructured: A standard classification of
scheduling problems has been introduced, and multi-core scheduling algorithms
have been added. There is now a clearer distinction between jobs and tasks. The
description of hardware/software codesign has been dropped. (f) The chapter on
optimizations has been updated. Some information on compilation for specialized
processors has been dropped.
All chapters have been carefully reviewed and updated if required. There are
also an improved integration of (color) graphics, more assignments (problems), as
well as a clearer distinction between definitions, theorems, proofs, code, and
examples. We adopted the Springer book layout style.
For this edition, it is typically not feasible to cover the complete book in a single
course for undergraduates and lecturers can select a subset which fits the local needs
and preferences.

Dortmund, Germany Peter Marwedel

February 2017
Acknowledgements

My Ph.D. students, in particular Lars Wehmeyer, did an excellent job in proof-

reading the second edition of this book. The same applies to Michael Engel for
the third edition. Also, the students attending my courses provided valuable
help. Corrections were contributed by David Hec, Thomas Wiederkehr, Thorsten
Wilmer, and Henning Garus. In addition, the following colleagues and students gave
comments or hints which were incorporated into this book: R. Dömer, N. Dutt
(UC Irvine), A.B. Kahng (UC San Diego), T. Mitra (Nat. Univ. Singapore),
W. Kluge, R. von Hanxleden (U. Kiel), P. Buchholz, J.J. Chen, M. Engel,
H. Krumm, K. Morik, O. Spinczyk (TU Dortmund), W. Müller, F. Rammig
(U. Paderborn), W. Rosenstiel (U. Tübingen), L. Thiele (ETH Zürich), and
R. Wilhelm (Saarland University). Material from the following persons was used to
prepare this book: G.C. Buttazzo, D. Gajski, R. Gupta, J.P. Hayes, H. Kopetz,
R. Leupers, R. Niemann, W. Rosenstiel, H. Takada, L. Thiele, and R. Wilhelm.
M. Engel provided invaluable help during various iterations of our course, including
the generation of videos which are now available on YouTube. Ph.D. students of my
group contributed to the assignments included in this book. Of course, the author is
responsible for all errors and mistakes contained in the final manuscript.
I do acknowledge the support of the European Commission through projects
MORE, Artist2, ArtistDesign, Hipeac(2), PREDATOR, MNEMEE, and MADNESS.
Furthermore, support by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) with grants for
the Collaborative Research Center SFB 876 and the FEHLER (grant Ma 943/10)
project is also acknowledged. These projects provided an excellent context for writing
the third edition of this book. Synopsys Inc. provided access to their Virtualizer virtual
platform.
This book has been produced using the LATEX typesetting system from the
TeXnicCenter user interface. Some functions have been plotted with GNU Octave.
I would like to thank the authors of this software for their contribution to this work.
Acknowledgments also go to all those who have patiently accepted the author’s
additional workload during the writing of this book and his resulting reduced
availability for professional as well as personal partners.

xi
xii Acknowledgements

Names used in this book without any reference to copyrights or trademarks may
still be legally protected.
Please enjoy reading the book!
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 History of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Common Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Curriculum Integration of Embedded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Design Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 Structure of This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Specifications and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Models of Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Early Design Phases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.1 Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.2 (Message) Sequence Charts and Time/Distance
Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.3 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 Communicating Finite State Machines (CFSMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.1 Timed Automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.2 StateCharts: Implicit Shared Memory
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.3 Synchronous Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.4 Message Passing: SDL as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.2 Kahn Process Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5.3 Synchronous Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5.4 Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

xiii
xiv Contents

2.6 Petri Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6.2 Condition/Event Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.6.3 Place/Transition Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.6.4 Predicate/Transition Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.6.5 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.7 Discrete Event-Based Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.7.1 Basic Discrete Event Simulation Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.7.2 Multi-valued Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.7.3 Transaction-Level Modeling (TLM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.7.4 SpecC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.7.5 SystemC™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.6 VHDL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.7.7 Verilog and SystemVerilog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.8 Von-Neumann Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.8.1 CSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.8.2 Ada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.8.3 Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.8.4 Communication Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.8.5 Additional Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.9 Levels of Hardware Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.10 Comparison of Models of Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.10.1 Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.10.2 UML™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10.3 Ptolemy II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3 Embedded System Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.2 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.2.1 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.2.2 Discretization of Time: Sample-and-Hold Circuits . . . . . 129
3.2.3 Fourier Approximation of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.2.4 Discretization of Values: Analog-to-Digital
Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 Processing Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.3.1 Application-Specific Circuits (ASICs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.3.2 Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.3.3 Reconfigurable Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.4 Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.4.1 Conflicting Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.4.2 Memory Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.4.3 Register Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.4.4 Caches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.4.5 Scratchpad Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents xv

3.5 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

3.5.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.5.2 Electrical Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.5.3 Guaranteeing Real-Time Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.6 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.6.1 Digital-to-Analog Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.6.2 Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.6.3 Pulse-width Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.6.4 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.7 Electrical Energy: Energy Efficiency, Generation,
and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.7.1 Energy Efficiency of Hardware Components. . . . . . . . . . 185
3.7.2 Sources of Electrical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.7.3 Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.8 Secure Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4 System Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.1 Embedded Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.1.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.1.2 Real-Time Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.1.3 Virtual Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.2 Resource Access Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2.1 Priority Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.2.2 Priority Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.2.3 Priority Ceiling Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.2.4 Stack Resource Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3 ERIKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.4 Embedded Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.4.1 Embedded Linux Structure and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.4.2 Real-Time Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.4.3 Flash Memory File Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.4.4 Reducing RAM Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.4.5 uClinux—Linux for MMU-Less Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.4.6 Evaluating the Use of Linux in Embedded Systems . . . . 224
4.5 Hardware Abstraction Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.6 Middleware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.6.1 OSEK/VDX COM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.6.2 CORBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.6.3 POSIX Threads (Pthreads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.6.4 UPnP, DPWS, and JXTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.7 Real-Time Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
xvi Contents

5 Evaluation and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.1.2 Multi-objective Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.1.3 Relevant Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.2 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.2.1 Early Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.2.2 WCET Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.2.3 Real-Time Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.3 Quality Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.3.1 Approximate Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.3.2 Simple Criteria of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.3.3 Criteria for Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.4 Energy and Power Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.4.1 General Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.4.2 Analysis of Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.4.3 Analysis of Instructions and Inter-Instruction Effects . . . 251
5.4.4 Analysis of Major Functional Processor Units . . . . . . . . 252
5.4.5 Analysis of Processor and Memory Energy
Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 252
5.4.6 Analysis of an Entire Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254
5.4.7 Analysis of Multiple Applications
with Multithreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.4.8 Analysis for Communication in an Android Phone . . . . . 256
5.4.9 Worst Case Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.5 Thermal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.6 Dependability and Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.6.1 Aspects of Dependability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.6.2 Safety Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.6.3 Security Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.6.4 Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.6.5 Fault Tree Analysis, Failure Mode and Effect
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
5.7 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.8 Rapid Prototyping and Emulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.9 Formal Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6 Application Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.1 Definition of Scheduling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.1.1 Elaboration on the Design Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.1.2 Types of Scheduling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.2 Scheduling for Uniprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.2.1 Independent Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.2.2 Scheduling with Precedence Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Contents xvii

6.2.3 Periodic Scheduling Without Precedence Constraints . .. 299

6.2.4 Periodic Scheduling with Precedence Constraints . . . . .. 307
6.2.5 Sporadic Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
6.3 Scheduling for Independent Jobs on Identical
Multiprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
6.3.1 Partitioned Scheduling of Implicit-Deadline Tasks . . . .. 308
6.3.2 Global Dynamic-Priority Scheduling for Implicit
Deadlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311
6.3.3 Global Fixed-Job-Priority Scheduling for Implicit
Deadlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 313
6.3.4 Global Fixed-Task-Priority Scheduling for Implicit
Deadlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.4 Dependent Jobs on Homogeneous Multiprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.4.1 As-Soon-As-Possible Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
6.4.2 As-Late-As-Possible Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.4.3 List Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.4.4 Optimal Scheduling with Integer Linear
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.5 Dependent Jobs on Heterogeneous Multiprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.5.1 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.5.2 Static Scheduling with Local Heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.5.3 Static Scheduling with Integer Linear Programming . . . . 329
6.5.4 Static Scheduling with Evolutionary Algorithms . . . . . . . 329
6.5.5 Dynamic and Hybrid Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.1 High-Level Optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.1.1 Simple Loop Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.1.2 Loop Tiling/Blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.1.3 Loop Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.1.4 Array Folding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.1.5 Floating-Point to Fixed-Point Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
7.2 Task Level Concurrency Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.3 Compilers for Embedded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.3.2 Energy-Aware Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
7.3.3 Memory-Architecture Aware Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.3.4 Reconciling Compilers and Timing Analysis . . . . . . . . . 359
7.4 Power and Thermal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.4.1 Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) . . . . . 361
7.4.2 Dynamic Power Management (DPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.4.3 Thermal Management for MPSoCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
xviii Contents

8 Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.2 Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
8.2.1 Test Pattern Generation for Gate Level Models . . . . . . . 368
8.2.2 Self-Test Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
8.3 Evaluation of Test Pattern Sets and System Robustness. . . . . . . . 370
8.3.1 Fault Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
8.3.2 Fault Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.3.3 Fault Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.4 Design for Testability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.4.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.4.2 Scan Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.4.3 Signature Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8.4.4 Pseudo-Random Test Pattern Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.4.5 The Built-In Logic Block Observer (BILBO) . . . . . . . . . 377
8.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Appendix A: Integer Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Appendix B: Kirchhoff’s Laws and Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . 381
Appendix C: Paging and Memory Management Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
About the Author

Peter Marwedel was born in Hamburg, Germany. He

received a Dr. rer. nat. degree in Physics in 1974 and a
Dr. habil. degree in Computer Science in 1987, both
from the University of Kiel (Germany). From 1974 to
1989, he was a faculty member of the Institute for
Computer Science and Applied Mathematics at the
same university. He has been a professor at TU
Dortmund, Germany, since 1989. He held a chair for
embedded systems at the Computer Science
Department from 1989 until 2014. He is chairing ICD
e.V., a local company specializing in technology
transfer. Dr. Marwedel was a visiting professor of the
University of Paderborn in 1985/1986 and of the
University of California at Irvine in 1995. He served as
Dean of the Computer Science Department from 1992
to 1995. Dr. Marwedel has been active in making the
DATE conference and the WESE workshop successful
and in initiating the SCOPES series of workshops.
He started to work on high-level synthesis in 1975
(in the context of the MIMOLA project) and focused on
the synthesis of very long instruction word (VLIW)
machines. Later, he added efficient compilation for
embedded processors to his scope, with an emphasis on
retargetability, the memory architecture, and optimiza-
tion for the worst-case execution time. His scope also
includes synthesis of self-test programs for processors,
reliable computing, multimedia-based teaching, and
cyber-physical systems. He served as a cluster leader for
ArtistDesign, a European Network of Excellence on
Embedded and Real-Time Systems. He was the
vice-chair of the collaborative research center SFB

xix
xx About the Author

876 on resource-constrained machine learning2 until

2015. He is an IEEE and a DATE Fellow. Dr. Marwedel
won the teaching award of his university, the
ACM SIGDA Distinguished Service Award, the EDAA
Lifetime Achievement Award, and the ESWEEK
Lifetime Achievement Award. Dr. Marwedel is a
member of IEEE, ACM and the Gesellschaft für
Informatik (GI).
He is married and has two daughters and a son. His
hobbies include hiking, photography, bike riding, and
model railways.
E-mail: peter.marwedel@tu-dortmund.de
Web sites: https://www.marwedel.eu/peter,
http://ls12-www.cs.tu-dortmund.de/*marwedel

2
See http://www.sfb876.tu-dortmund.de
Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols

Due to covering many areas in this book, there is a high risk of using the same
symbol for different purposes. Therefore, symbols have been selected such that the
risk of confusion is low. This table is supposed to help maintaining a consistent
notation.

a Weight
a Allocation
A Availability (! reliability)
A Area
A Ampere
b:: Communication bandwidth
B Communication bandwidth
cR Characteristic vector for Petri net
cp Specific thermal capacitance
cv Volumetric heat capacity
Ci Execution time
C Capacitance
C Set of Petri net conditions
Cth Thermal capacity
C Celsius
di Absolute deadline
Di Relative deadline
eð t Þ Input signal
e Euler’s number (2.71828..)
E Energy
E Graph edge
f Frequency
f( ) General function
f Probability density
fi Finishing time of task/job i

xxi
xxii Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols

F Probability distribution
F Flow relation of Petri net
g Gravity
g Gain of operational amplifier
G Graph
h Height
i Index, task/job number
I Current
j Index, dependent task/job
J Set of jobs
J Joule
Jj Job j
J Jitter
k Index, processor number
k Boltzmann constant ð  1:3807  1023 J/KÞ
K Kelvin
l Processor number
li Laxity of task/job i
L Processor type
L Length of conductor
Li Lateness of task si
Lmax Maximum lateness
m Number of processors
m Mass
m Meter
m Milli-prefix
M Marking of Petri net
MSmax Makespan
n Index
n Number of tasks/jobs
N Net
N Natural numbers
O( ) Landauer’s notation
pi Priority of task si
pi Place i of Petri net
P Power
P(S) Semaphore operation
Q Resolution
Q Charge
ri Release time of task/job i
R Reliability
Rth Thermal resistance
R Real numbers
s Time index
Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols xxiii

s Restitution
sj Starting time of task/job j
s Second
S State
S Semaphore
S Schedule
Sj Size of memory j
t Time
ti Transition i of Petri net
T Period
T Timer (for SDL)
Ti Period of task si
T Temperature
ui Utilization of task si
U:: Utilization
Umax Maximum utilization
v Velocity
wðtÞ Signal
V Graph nodes
V Voltage
V Volt
Vt Threshold voltage
VðSÞ Semaphore operation
V Volume
w(t) Signal
W(p,t) Weight in Petri net
W Watt
x Input variable
x(t) Signal
X:: Decision variable
Y:: Decision variable
zðtÞ Signal
Z High impedance
Z Integer numbers
a:: Arrival curve in real-time calculus
a Switching activity
a 1st component in Pinedo’s triplet
b:: Service function in real-time calculus
b 2nd component in Pinedo’s triplet
b Reciprocal of max. utilization
c:: Work load in real-time calculus
c 3rd component in Pinedo’s triplet
D Time interval
j Thermal conductivity
xxiv Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols

k Failure rate
p Number pi (3.1415926..)
p Set of processors
pi Processor i
q Mass density
si Task si
s Set of tasks
n Threshold for RM-US scheduling
Chapter 1
Introduction

This chapter presents terms used in the context of embedded systems together
with their history as well as opportunities, challenges and common characteristic
of embedded and cyber-physical systems. Furthermore, educational aspects, design
flows and the structure of this book are introduced.

1.1 History of Terms

Until the late 1980s, information processing was associated with large mainframe
computers and huge tape drives. Later, miniaturization allowed information process-
ing with personal computers (PCs). Office applications were dominating, but some
computers were also controlling the physical environment, typically in the form of
some feedback loop.
Later, Mark Weiser created the term “ubiquitous computing” [548]. This term
reflects Weiser’s prediction to have computing (and information) anytime, anywhere.
Weiser also predicted that computers are going to be integrated into products such
that they will become invisible. Hence, he created the term “invisible computer.”
With a similar vision, the predicted penetration of our day-to-day life with computing
devices led to the terms “pervasive computing” and “ambient intelligence.” These
three terms focus on only slightly different aspects of future information technology.
Ubiquitous computing focuses more on the long-term goal of providing information
anytime, anywhere, whereas pervasive computing focuses more on practical aspects
and the exploitation of already available technology. For ambient intelligence, there
is some emphasis on communication technology in future homes and smart buildings.
Miniaturization also enabled the integration of information processing and the
physical environment using computers. This type of information processing has been
called an “embedded system”:

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

P. Marwedel, Embedded System Design, Embedded Systems,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56045-8_1
2 1 Introduction

Definition 1.1 (Marwedel [355]): “Embedded systems are information processing

systems embedded into enclosing products”.

Examples include embedded systems in cars, trains, planes, and telecommunica-

tion or fabrication equipment. Such systems come with a large number of common
characteristics, including real-time constraints, and dependability as well as effi-
ciency requirements. For such systems, the link to physics and physical systems is
rather important. This link is emphasized in the following citation [316]:
“Embedded software is software integrated with physical processes. The technical
problem is managing time and concurrency in computational systems.”
This citation could be used as a definition of the term “embedded software”
and could be extended into a definition of “embedded systems” by just replacing
“software” by “system”.
However, the strong link to physics has recently been stressed even more by the
introduction of the term “cyber-physical systems” (CPS for short). CPS can be
defined as follows:

Definition 1.2 (Lee [317]): “Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of com-
putation and physical processes”.

The new term emphasizes the link to physical quantities such as time, energy, and
space. Emphasizing this link makes sense, since it is frequently ignored in a world of
applications running on servers and on PCs. For CPS, we may be expecting models
to include models of the physical environment as well. In this sense, we may think
of CPS to comprise embedded systems (the information processing part) and the
physical environment, or CPS = ES + physics. This is also reflected in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Relationship

Cyber-physical system (CPS)
between embedded systems
and CPS according to Lee’s
Embedded system Physics
definition

In their call for proposals, the National Science Foundation in the US mentions
also communication [394]:
“Emerging CPS will be coordinated, distributed, and connected, and must be
robust and responsive.”
This is also done in the acatech report on CPS [11]: CPS … “represent net-
worked, software-intensive embedded systems in a control loop, provide networked
and distributed services.”
Interconnection and collaboration are also explicitly mentioned in a call for pro-
posals by the European Commission [149]: “Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) refer to
next generation embedded ICT systems that are interconnected and collaborating
including through the Internet of Things, and providing citizens and businesses with
a wide range of innovative applications and services.”
The importance of communication was visualized by the European Commission
earlier, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
1.1 History of Terms 3

Fig. 1.2 Importance of

communication
(© European Commission) Communication Embedded
Technology Systems
- networking - robots
- distributed - control systems
applications - real-time
- quality of service - dependability

Pervasive/
Ubiquitous Computing
- information
anytime, anywhere

From these citations, it is clear that the authors do not only associate the integration
of the cyber- and the physical world with the term CPS. Rather, there is also a
strong communication aspect. Actually, the term CPS is not always used consistently.
Some authors emphasize the integration with the physical environment, and others
emphasize communication.
Communication is more explicit in the term “Internet of Things” (IoT), which
can be defined as follows:

Definition 1.3 ([179]): The term Internet of Things “… describes the pervasive pres-
ence of a variety of devices – such as sensors, actuators, and mobile phones – which,
through unique addressing schemes, are able to interact and cooperate with each
other to reach common goals.”

This term is linking sensors (such that sensed information is available on the
Internet) and actuators (such that things can be controlled from the Internet). Sensor
examples include smoke detectors, heaters, and refrigerators. The Internet of Things
is expected to allow the communication between trillions of devices in the world.
This vision affects a large amount of businesses.
The exploitation of IoT technology for production has been called “Industry 4.0”
[70]. Industry 4.0 targets a more flexible production for which the entire life cycle
from the design phase onward is supported by the IoT.
To some extent, it is a matter of preferences whether the linking of physical objects
to the cyber-world is called CPS or IoT. Taken together, CPS and IoT include most
of the future applications of IT.
The design of these future applications requires knowing fundamental design
techniques for embedded systems. This book focuses on such fundamental tech-
niques and foundations of embedded system design. Please remember that these
are used in IoT and CPS designs though this is not repeatedly stated in each and
every context. This book discusses interfaces of embedded systems to CPS and
IoT systems. However, application-specific aspects of CPS and IoT are usually not
covered.
4 1 Introduction

1.2 Opportunities

There is a huge potential for applications of information processing in the context of

CPS and IoT. The following list demonstrates this potential and the large variation
of corresponding areas:

• Transportation and mobility:

– Automotive electronics: Modern cars can be sold in technologically advanced
countries only if they contain a significant amount of electronics [396]. These
include air bag control systems, engine control systems, anti-braking sys-
tems (ABS), electronic stability programs (ESP) and other safety features, air-
conditioning, GPS systems, anti-theft protection, driver assistance systems, and
many more. In the future, self-driving cars may be a reality. These systems can
help to reduce accidents and the impact on the environment.
– Avionics: A significant amount of the total value of airplanes is due to the infor-
mation processing equipment, including flight control systems, anti-collision
systems, pilot information systems, autopilots, and others. Dependability is of
utmost importance. Embedded systems can decrease emissions (such as carbon
dioxide) from airplanes. Autonomous flying is also becoming reality, at least
for drones.
– Railways: For railways, the situation is similar to the one discussed for cars
and airplanes. Again, safety features contribute significantly to the total value
of trains, and dependability is extremely important. Advanced signaling aims
at safe operation of trains at high speed and short intervals between trains.
The European Train Control System (ETCS) [422] is one step in this direction.
Autonomous rail-based transportation is already used in restricted contexts like
shuttle trains at airports.
– Ships, ocean technology, and maritime systems: In a similar way, modern
ships use large amounts of IT-equipment, e.g., for navigation, for safety, for
optimizing the operation in general, and for bookkeeping (see, e.g., http://www.
smtcsingapore.com/ and https://dupress.deloitte.com/dup-us-en/focus/internet-
of-things/iot-in-shipping-industry.html).
• Factory automation: Fabrication equipment is a very traditional area in which
embedded systems have been employed for decades. In order to optimize produc-
tion technologies further, CPS/IoT technology can be used. CPS/IoT technology
is the key toward a more flexible production, being the target of “Industry 4.0”
[70].
Factory automation is enabled by logistics. There are several ways in which CPS
and IoT systems can be applied to logistics [285]. For example, radio frequency
identification (RFID) technology provides easy identification of each and every
object, worldwide. Mobile communication allows unprecedented interaction.
• Health sector: The importance of healthcare products is increasing, in particular in
aging societies. Opportunities start with new sensors, detecting diseases faster and
more reliably. Available information can be stored in patient information systems.
1.2 Opportunities 5

New data analysis techniques can be used to detect increased risks and improve
chances for healing. Therapies can be supported with personalized medication.
New devices can be designed to help patients, e.g., handicapped patients. Also,
surgery can be supported with new devices. Embedded system technologies also
allow for a significantly improved result monitoring, giving doctors much better
means for checking whether or not a certain treatment has a positive impact. This
monitoring also applies to remotely located patients. Lists of projects in this area
can be found, for example, at http://cps-vo.org/group/medical-cps and at http://
www.nano-tera.ch/program/health.html.
• Smart buildings: Information processing can be used to increase the comfort
level in buildings, can reduce the energy consumption within buildings, and can
improve safety and security. Sub-systems which traditionally were unrelated must
be connected for this purpose. There is a trend toward integrating air-conditioning,
lighting, access control, accounting, safety features, and distribution of informa-
tion into a single system. Tolerance levels of air-conditioning sub-systems can be
increased for empty rooms, and the lighting can be automatically reduced. Air con-
dition noise can be reduced to a level required for the actual operating conditions.
Intelligent usage of blinds can also optimize lighting and air-conditioning. Avail-
able rooms can be displayed at appropriate places, simplifying ad hoc meetings
and cleaning. Lists of non-empty rooms can be displayed at the entrance of the
building in emergency situations (provided the required power is still available).
This way, energy can be saved on cooling, heating, and lighting. Also, safety can
be improved. Initially, such systems might mostly be present in high-tech office
buildings, but the trend toward energy-efficient buildings also affects the design
of private homes. One of the goals is to design so-called zero-energy-buildings
(buildings which produce as much energy as they consume) [404]. Such a design
would be one contribution toward a reduction of the global carbon dioxide footprint
and global warming.
• Smart grid: In the future, the production of energy is supposed to be much more
decentralized than in the past. Providing stability in such a scenario is difficult. IT
technology is required in order to achieve a sufficiently stable system. Information
on the smart grid can be found, for example, at https://www.smartgrid.gov/the_
smart_grid and at http://www.smartgrids.eu/.
• Scientific experiments: Many contemporary experiments in sciences, in particular
in physics, require the observation of experiment outcomes with IT devices. The
combination of physical experiments and IT devices can be seen as a special case
of CPS.
• Public safety: The interest in various kinds of safety is also increasing. Embedded
and cyber-physical systems and the Internet of Things can be used to improve
safety in many ways. This includes identification/authentication of people, for
example with fingerprint sensors or face recognition systems.
• Structural health monitoring: Natural and artificial structures such as mountains,
volcanoes, bridges, and dams (see, e.g., Fig. 1.3) are potentially threatening lives.
We can use embedded system technology to enable advance warnings in case of
increased dangers like avalanches or collapsing bridges.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Johnnies did not discover where the cross fire came from, but when they found bullets coming so
rapidly, from another quarter, they wheeled round, and fled in a hurry, several of them being badly
hurt, as I discovered from the way they rode. When the rebels left, the Indiana boys put out for
camp, taking with them several articles I could see them pick up, although I could not ascertain
what they were, from where I was located.
The fight being over, I swallowed my breakfast in a hurry, and took to the woods, fearing unpleasant
consequences, and was soon in Gen. Hazen's camp.
 CHAPTER XXIII.
SCOUT TO WOODBURY—PLAYING REBEL SENTINEL—NARROW ESCAPES.
When I got back to Murfreesboro it was necessary to know how many rebels were at Woodbury, and
I went from General Rosecrans, under the direction of Captain Swaine, chief of scouts. I left our lines
at Readyville, and went a mile or more, when I got an old woman to hide me in her house in a back
room, where I slept till the moon went down; and then taking up a branch of Stone river, I slipped
into the rebel lines without raising the slightest alarm. It was only about seven miles by the high
road, but it was more than ten by way of the creek to my point of destination. I kept constantly in
the creek bottom, until I was nearly opposite Woodbury, when I struck off to the hills which
surround the town, and from which a full view could be had. I got to a good position on a hill, but
could not see all that was going on. I waited till day light, in the hope that I could then see plainer;
but I was disappointed in that, and at once resolved to change my quarters to another hill. To do
this, I had to go down into a valley and walk across it, and then ascend the other elevation, in plain
view of the reserve picket. I had a small glass, and was so near them that I could see the lint on
their coats very distinctly, and I discovered they were eyeing me closely. I walked quickly out into
the road, took a position, and began to walk a beat, as though I was standing sentinel. Presently a
spruce looking old farmer came walking along, and supposing himself inside the pickets, he moved
carelessly, and did not stop till the second "Halt," and an unmistakable motion of my gun claimed his
attention. He seemed very much surprised to see a guard there, saying: "Nobody stopped me here
yesterday."
"Well," said I, "I belong to a regiment which just came in last night, and the officer of the guard put
me on this beat and told me to stop all persons going into the town unless they had proper papers."
He at once showed me a pass from John Morgan's provost marshal, and I told him he was all right,
and could go on. He was highly tickled at the eulogies I bestowed upon him, and before I let him go
I managed to draw from him all that he had seen in Morgan's camp on the day before.
When he left, I told him it was probable that I might be relieved before he came back, but that he
would find our camp just over the hill there, and pointed in an opposite direction from that I
intended to go. I then resumed my walk upon the beat for a minute or two, when I affected to see
something suspicious on the hill, which I started to go to, and raising my gun as though I intended
to fire, I aimed at a fancied object; then lowering my piece, I pushed rapidly up, while the pickets
watched me intently.
When on the top of the hill, I stopped again, and looked intently in the direction of the picket, and
then passed around the summit with my carbine raised, as though I expected to see the object
every instant; till, in a few minutes I turned the point of the hill, so they could see me no more,
when I ran along the side for about half a mile; then climbing nearly to the top, I doubled my track
and ran back, till nearly opposite the picket again; then getting down on my hands and knees, I
crawled up the hill cautiously, and concealed myself in a hollow log which lay on the top.
I was now enabled to see the rebels in part of their encampment, and everything that passed, either
on the Readyville road, or in Woodbury. It was very early in the morning of a tolerably cold day
when I got in the log, and by night I was nearly frozen. During the day, I heard something running
on the dry leaves outside, and I immediately prepared for a defense, thinking, perhaps, it might be a
man who had seen me secrete myself. Suddenly, however, it sprung lightly upon the log and dropped
itself through the opening right over my face; it was a coon, but it saw the place was occupied, and
politely withdrew. Possibly I was intruding myself into its quarters, but as it did not wait to demand
any apologies, I offered none. It was large and fat, and would have made a famous roast; but I had
to lay still, for my neighbors on the hill were vigilant, and had they seen me for a second, they would
have been after me with a sharp stick, which they would have applied without mercy.
That night I left my log, and took the back track for Readyville. I went across the country till I had
passed the last of their picket fires, of which there appeared to be several lines, these being formed
by Morgan's men, who was conscripting every man he could find. I passed very close to some of the
posts—so near that I could hear the men talking in a low tone. At one place I chased two soldiers
out of an old log house, who were inside talking to some females. As soon as I discovered they were
in there, I secreted myself behind the chimney, and began "peeping" through the cracks. The fellows
seemed to be on very friendly terms with the old man and his three daughters, the latter being very
pretty, and at that time, putting on their sweetest smiles. I felt a little anxious to change places with
the Johnnies about that time; or, if I had felt entirely assured that they would not have became
"unlawful," I would have been content to talk to the odd girl; but that I knew was an impossibility,
and I dismissed the idea.
On the table sat a wooden tray filled with cakes, a few of which I knew would do me an immense
amount of good at that time, for I was hungry; and I determined, if possible, to have my fill. I,
therefore, scrutinized the yard and out-buildings to satisfy myself there were no other men there,
and glanced around to see if any picket fires were in that section; and finding all was right, I walked
off a few steps, and fired off my gun. The Johnnies jumped out of the house, and as they did so, I
screamed: "Run, boys, run; the Yankees are on us!" and away they went, as fast as their legs could
carry them. I fired one shot at them as they appeared in the yard, when the women commenced
shrieking fearfully, supposing themselves surrounded by those horrid Yankees—the terror of all the
chivalry of the South, male and female. I was so near the rebel pickets that I dare not remain long
for fear I would get myself into "business," so I put out for the low ground, and at three o'clock the
next morning was once more in our lines, where I slept till daylight; after which I proceeded toward
Murfreesboro.
When within about six miles of that town, I was walking along the high-road, inside our lines, when I
saw a party of eight or ten men coming down from toward Murfreesboro. Thinking they were our
own soldiers, I trudged along, confidently expecting a friendly chat when we met; but when they got
nearer me, I discovered they were partly dressed in gray. I, however, still could not think they were
other than Yankees—perhaps a detail of scouts on some breakneck expedition—and I was still
expecting a friendly confab, when I noticed that they stealthily raised their guns. That was enough
for me, for I knew that they could not mistake my character, as I was in full uniform, and under
arms; and I sprang through the cedar brake as fresh as if I had just started out after a long rest; the
sight of an enemy in one's rear generally has a magical effect on the gait even of a wearied man,
and certainly it materially accelerated mine.
Running through the densest part of the brake, where they could not follow me on horseback, I felt
confident of escape, as they could not see me before I saw them. I heard them crashing through the
bushes only for a short time, when I stopped, after a mile heat in the cedars, exhausted. They were
now no longer in hearing, and I, therefore, rested myself awhile, and then took a route through the
brake, that I knew would bring me out at old Jack Dill's, within four miles of Murfreesboro. Jack was
a fair specimen of a backwoods Tennessee Union man; large, sun-browned, and muscular—honest
and patriotic. He invited me into the house with a hearty welcome, and told me of a brush he had
had with the rebels the day before; and while the old man was recounting his adventures, his pretty
daughter Jennie set me out a nice dinner, with fresh butter and new buttermilk, hot biscuits, and
venison steak; and who could not enjoy a story under such circumstances?
The rebels had thought to surprise him in his house, and drag him off to the army; but old Jack was
roused by the barking of a faithful dog, and took to the brake near his house; and in pursuing him,
the rebels exposed themselves to his unerring rifle, and went back unsuccessful—minus one of their
men.
On returning to the house they vowed vengeance to his daughter; she told them to go and make
their threats to her father himself; but they didn't go. Old Jack was very proud of his gun—a long,
full-stocked rifle. Patting it affectionately, he said:
"You see she is so old and is worn so thin, that when I push a bullet down her, she strains and swells
out her sides, like a snake swallowin' a toad; but, by hokey, I can knock the spots out of a secesh
yet."
From Dill's I took the main road to town, and in an hour I was at headquarters making my report.
 CHAPTER XXIV.
GEN. STANLEY'S GREAT RAID—PLAYING AID-DE-CAMP—SCOUTING AT HARPETH SHOALS.
The next duty I was on was when Gen. D. S. Stanley, chief of cavalry, made his dashing raid on the
rebel camps near Middleton, Tennessee. It was a brilliant affair, and managed with consummate skill.
Leaving Camp Stanley late in the evening, about the last of March, or first of April, 1863, he led a
heavy column of cavalry down upon the camps in the vicinity of Middleton; the march being
conducted in the night, the darkness and dust so impenetrable that a man could scarcely see his file-
leader; indeed, the General had to station guides all along the route, at cross-roads, to prevent some
of the columns from taking the wrong way. The Fourth Regular Cavalry had the lead, their advance-
guard consisting of about twenty men, who behaved most gallantly, driving in the rebel pickets, and
throwing the first camp into confusion, by an impetuous charge, entering it simultaneously with the
flying pickets themselves.
The rebels being taken by surprise, leaped from their beds or blankets, without coats, pants or hats,
—some, even, without drawers. Our men cut and hacked away as they advanced, until the rebels
discovered that their assailants were but a handful of men, when they rallied, and drove the regulars
out of camp, with a withering fire which caused our boys to suffer severely. But that was only for a
moment; Gen. Stanley was almost immediately upon the enemy with his heavy column, and he
swept everything before him, by one grand, irresistible, overwhelming charge. On and over the
terror-stricken rebels, rode Stanley's daring men with their flashing blades; and the Spartan band of
regulars, being thus relieved from bearing the whole burden of rebel fire, rallied again and dashed
headlong into the thickest of the battle. On and on they sped, and so the first camp was carried, and
the second brigade, under the gallant Col. Eli Long, rushed upon the foe, the ground fairly trembling
beneath the mighty host of maddened horses, while the air was filled with the clash of steel, the
rattle of sabers, the hurried fire of the enemy, the shouts of the victors, the hoarse commands of
officers choked with dust, and the groans and shrieks of the wounded and the dying. Wo to the
man, be he friend or foe, who fell on that field amid that impetuous charge. He sank only to be
trodden under foot and crushed to death.
On rolled another wing of the command under Gen. John Turchin, sweeping over all opposition, till it
was suddenly fired upon from a third camp. But, even here, there was scarcely a momentary check.
The doughty general raised himself in his stirrups, and shouted:
"Now, boys, ve makes von more scharge"—
And before the sound of his voice had died away, the column was sweeping pell-mell through the
camp, among the tents and shanties of the enemy. Frightened beyond measure, the rebels almost
ceased to fight, but threw down their arms, and thought only of escape. Our men rushed madly on,
after resistance had ceased, until recalled by the bugle sound; after which they returned in triumph
to Murfreesboro, leading with them five hundred of the rebels as prisoners of war.
Every regiment—the 7th Pennsylvania, the 4th Regulars, the 4th Michigan, the 4th Ohio, and 3d
Indiana—all, all, seemed to be in their element that morning; and each member of those regiments
must ever regard as a proud day in their history, that one on which they charged and cleared the
rebel camps at Middleton. It was a glorious victory to them, and a withering defeat to the enemy.
The scene after the fight surpasses all description. The ground was strewn with arms and
accouterments—guns, pistols, sabers, cartridge-boxes, belts, blankets, quilts, coverlets, torn tents,
riddled with balls, cooking utensils, filled with food, mess pans, smoking hot, containing cow-peas
and bacon; dead and dying men—some of them cleft, with the deadly saber, from crown to neck—
wounded unfortunates staggering about,—some supplicating for mercy, and others begging to be
relieved of their tortures by death—some with bodies so hoof-beaten as almost to defy recognition—
these were the sights which met our gaze on every side, and startled and sickened the hardiest
soldier, as he gazed at the result of his morning's work.
Here and there one of our brave boys had succumbed to the enemy's fire—but they were fortunately
few—and these engaged our earliest attention; and while we were attending to these, the rebel
infantry, encamped two miles away, having been aroused by the fighting, came upon us at a double-
quick; but our worthy general was not to be caught napping; and, having accomplished his object,
he recalled his men, mounted them, and returned in triumph to Murfreesboro; but not until the
enemy's quarters—winter quarters at that—were committed to the flames; and with them were
burned thousands of small arms, while hundreds of horses were killed, and as many saddles
destroyed. This raid resulted in almost the complete destruction of the famous 8th Confederate
Cavalry, which bore the brunt of our heavy charge. Hundreds of the bodies of men belonging to that
command lay scattered over the field; while many more graced our triumph by being led away as
captives. Our loss was small in numbers, but no man who fell there, could have been well-spared, as
each was a hero—almost a host. We carried off our dead and wounded; not a strap or buckle fell
into the hands of the enemy, when they returned again to their old haunts. We shot every horse that
fell into our hands—even some of our own that broke down on the march
In this fight, I had little in the way of personal adventure, of an unusual character—perhaps not so
much as occurred to hundreds of others on that day. One fellow fired a load of buck shot through
the right knee of my pants, but in return, I worked a new button hole in his coat, with my rifle.
Colonel Long sent me with an order to Major Dobb, who was in command of the 4th Ohio; and I "lit
out," amid the dust, smoke, confusion and clatter, in search of the Major, but succeeded in running
up to the wrong crowd, and did not discover my mistake till within fifty yards of the rebels
themselves. I had reached the end of a lane which ran around a ten acre field, and come out into
another that ran from a house, through a cedar brake; and coming to this last lane, I turned down it
to a party of soldiers I saw close by. Our men were all covered with dust, and almost as grey as the
rebels; and when I saw them, I hailed, but they refused to answer me. I hailed them again, thinking
still that they were our men, and this time rode out from behind the fence, in full view of their lines,
so that they could see my accoutrements; and instantly a volley from the cedar brake greeted me;
and after discharging their pieces, five of the men nearest, charged out after me.
I was riding a very pretty little mare that I had taken from them, when we charged the first camp—
my own horse having fallen headlong in the fight, and as I had no time to ascertain the cause, I
seized the one I was then on, and saddling her in haste, mounted her—and she ran past the end of
the lane I had come down, and then up into the other, so that I was nearly hemmed in; but I
wheeled instantly, and dashing back again, gained the end of the lane I wanted to follow, about
thirty feet ahead of them. My mare was as fleet as a deer, and I left them so fast that they soon
ceased to pursue; but halting, they kept up a steady fire across the field, while I ran around three
sides of it, and until I was out of their sight behind the friendly cedars. I at last found the regiment
in another part of the field, up to their eyes in a fight, and delivered Colonel Long's order to the
Major and then retired to the company ranks. It was my first attempt at playing aid-de-camp, and I
readily reached the conclusion that as an occupation, it was not calculated to prolong the natural
term of a man's life.
 "When he saw his noble brigade break, he drew his blade and rushed upon the enemy,
but only to yield up his life, a precious sacrifice, upon the altar of Liberty—dying, as he
had lived, for his country."—Page 316.

After my return to Murfreesburro, I went to Harpeth Shoals, on special service. Van Dorn was then
foraging in that region; and the country was overrun with marauders. I went about leisurely, and
called on all the famous guerrillas in that section, at their homes. They were chiefly De Morse's men,
and I spent ten days rambling about with them, scouting the country daily, from Indian creek to
Harpeth Shoals, and back to some of the many little streams which flow past into the Tennessee. I
was disguised as a Texas Ranger, and was violently secesh, of course; and in this character I was
stopping at the house of a notorious guerrilla, named Tom Couch. I grew patriotic during our
interview, and boasted of the prowess of the Rangers, and expressed my opinion of those who
favored the Yankee cause, in no very flattering terms; extolled the devotion of those who proved
faithful to the South, and abused the black hearted Abolitionists of the North, till I got old Tom's
"Southern heart" thoroughly "fired," and he could no longer retain himself, and he spoke
unreservedly:
"The people of this section have always stood true to the South, sir; we can never be conquered;
never! NEVER! NEVER! This is Dixie, and a Yankee has never dared to put his foot on these hills,
although we are only sixteen miles from Nashville. If we should even catch one here we would hang
him instantly. They dare not give us a chance, but keep far enough from us. They never can take
this rough country; our hills are all free from them, thank God!"
Old Tom lived on Pond creek, and there was a Tennesseean, an officer in our army, with whom I was
personally acquainted, whose family were next neighbors to him; and I told him that I was on secret
service for Gen. Polk, and that I was authorized to give five hundred dollars for the capture of that
officer—Dave Knight—and his delivery to me on the spot; and he was delighted to know that the
General was after the Lincolnites with such earnestness, and promised me every assistance in his
power. He told me that Gen. R. B. Mitchel had arrested a great many men and women, too, and
confined them in the penitentiary at Nashville, to be sent South, or punished as was thought best;
and Couch told me very confidentially that Dave Knight's wife was to be arrested and taken South,
to be held for retaliation, along with many others. This was news to me, and I asked him if I could
afford any assistance, and told him if I could, it should be cheerfully given. He then told me that the
duty had been committed to De Morse's men, and that about three hundred of them had crossed
Harpeth river, and encamped on Dog creek. Telling him that I would go down to their camp, I
jumped on my horse, and put out. I had been in that region the day before, but of that Couch knew
nothing; and I was aware that there was a high, steep ridge, that I could travel a mile or so on, and
see everything on Dog creek. I reached the hill, and, sure enough, there were the camp fires of the
Johnnies.
After dark I went up the country again, and warned Mrs. Knight of her danger, caught her a horse,
and took her to Nashville for safety; and this I had barely time to do, as the rebels were ahead of us,
picketing every avenue of escape for several miles around, in order to catch as many Union people
as possible; but had not yet visited her house. She was a very brave woman, and buckled on her
navy revolver without hesitation, and when within a few hundred yards of the rebel pickets she
showed me a by-road, which she said she knew perfectly, and that it would take us through the hills
to Nashville without going on the Charlotte pike; and this path we followed, and reached our place of
destination about twelve o'clock, in the midst of a terrible storm.
Returning to Murfreesboro, I found orders to report for duty in Ohio, and I left camp on the 3d of
June, 1863, and arrived in Columbus on the 10th of the same month.
 CHAPTER XXV.
AFTER JOHN MORGAN IN OHIO—WAKING UP THE WRONG PASSENGER.
My mission to Ohio was a purely military one; but I had only one personal adventure, and that was
in connection with the Morgan invasion. When the famous and fugacious John was making his raid, I
happened to be at my home in Highland county; and as the rebels passed within fifteen miles or less
of Hillsboro, of course, I sallied out to see what big things I could do. Everybody and his son were
after him, and why shouldn't I go? Mrs. John A. Smith, a patriotic lady in Hillsboro, kindly furnished
me a spirited little pony to ride, and in company with several of the young men of the town, I
started for the scene of action, supposed to be near Sardinia. When we had passed Mowrytown
some distance, we found where the rebels had thrown the fences down, as if to accommodate
mounted skirmishers, though it might have been to favor their horse-thieves, but which of these
things I do not pretend to say; but this put us on the alert for straggling parties of the enemy. Sure
enough, not far from Sardinia, after passing a large body of timber, I espied a number of men, about
three hundred yards off; two of them standing in the road, talking to a man in his shirt sleeves,
while several others were in the timber. It seemed as though all of them had horses, but some were
dismounted. Well, it was a suspicious case. Eyeing them for some moments, I made up my mind
that it was a rebel picket post, and so I raised my gun, and blazed away. How they jumped! but they
started right toward me. At this time the citizens who accompanied me were a little way behind; so
throwing up my hand as a signal for them to stop, I turned my horse, and started back on the jump,
attempting to reload my gun at the same time. The motion with the gun gave the pony a scare, and
with a couple of quick side-jumps to the right, the little rascal flounced me out of the terrapin-shell
saddle, and the next thing I knew, he was making his best time back to Mowrytown. Jumping to my
feet, badly "stove up" by the fall, I called out to my comrades: "Stop that horse! stop that horse!"
but the more I hallooed, the faster they went, until in a short time they were lost in a cloud of dust.
Thinking the Johnnies were still coming, I bounced over a fence, and off through the woods, to a
house, and borrowed a two year old colt to ride back Mowrytown; and at the next place I came to, I
borrowed a saddle of a woman, telling about the scrape; and in due course of time I arrived at
Mowrytown, where I found my pony, but my comrades, having succeeded in stopping their runaway
horses, had again pushed on after Morgan. Hurrying after them, I overtook them at Sardinia, and
learned that I had fired on—a lot of citizens; and that, too, within fifteen miles of home. We scoured
around till long after night, when I and comrade named McKee, succeeded in overhauling them. A
couple of darkies, belonging to Morgan's command, with horses and equipments, had wandered into
a settlement of blacks in that neighborhood, and some of the citizens thought they had been sent as
spies, and that some of Morgan's men intended to make a raid on the village and carry off some of
our black folks into slavery. Not caring to have our black folks reduced to servitude, we started after
the supposed spies, and after a sharp chase, caught one of them, and got both horses; and the
other afterward came in and gave himself up. The horses belonged to Captain Thorpe, of Morgan's
command; and one contraband was his servant. We thought we ought to be allowed to keep the
horses, which were fine Kentucky stock, and so stated our claims to Governor Tod; but that honest
functionary failed to get the matter before his obtuse official optics in that light, and so we had to
give them up. McKee couldn't see the profit of the chase; but I told him that must consist in glory;
that the credit of fighting to save the Union, was pay enough for any man. He admitted that point,
but said, dolefully, that it was poor pay. After all my running around, however, I did not get to see a
Morgan man, except in the distance. It will hardly be necessary for me, after this story, to say that
mine was not the party that captured John and his command; but we were willing souls,
nevertheless.
 CHAPTER XXVI.
OFF TO THE HIAWASSE IN SEARCH OF STEAMBOATS—A FAMILIAR NEIGHBORHOOD—FEARFUL
LEAP—AFFECTING INCIDENT.
Having performed the duties assigned me in Ohio, to the satisfaction of my superiors, I was ordered
back to my regiment, and on the 7th of August, 1863, I reached it, and reported for duty. I found
the boys in high glee over the Tullahoma campaign, which had just been gloriously terminated; but
at the same time all were busily engaged in making preparations for the advance on Chattanooga.
I was at once detailed as a scout, to act under Gen. Stanley, chief of cavalry; and under his
directions I went up the mouth of the Hiawasse river, while the army lay at Winchester. The rebels
had some steamboats, which Gen. Stanley was anxious to get possession of, before they had time to
destroy them; and he knew they were laid up somewhere along the river, between Chattanooga and
Knoxville.
Starting out afoot from Winchester, I took a road in the direction of Cowan's station, and followed it
for several miles; and when I thought I was far enough up the country, I crossed over on Little
Coon, and passed near where I had been taken prisoner the year before. On Little Coon I stopped
one day to get dinner, and was not long in discovering that the people were "secesh," and thinking it
might be of some advantage, I concluded to secede for a few minutes too. As soon as I had
established the belief that I was a rebel, I inquired for old man Terry, and asking if he was still alive;
and the woman of the house answered that he was well, adding that he was her brother-in-law.
"Let me see; didn't he catch a Yank at his house about a year ago?" I asked, carelessly.
"Why, no," she said, "he didn't catch him, himself, but he sent word to Colonel Stearns' men, who
were camped close by, and they went over to Terry's house and got him."
"Did you see him, yourself?" I asked.
"No, I didn't see him, for I was a milkin' when they rid by, but the gals all seed him; they said he
was a savage lookin' feller."
"Pretty hard case," I remarked.
"Yes, the gals sed he had a real "hang-dog" face."
"How did he behave himself?" I asked, for I now remembered the place perfectly well; and also of
having seen a couple of buxom girls standing in the door, who enjoyed my fallen condition hugely,
and laughed at my being tied on the horse.
"Why, the gals said he was a sassin' of our men as far as they could hear him; and the gals said ef
they had a been in our men's place, they wouldn't a took it, for he was as black as any nigger."
"Did the Yanks ever find out that Terry had him captured?"
"Oh, la, yes; and they sent a power of their men thar, and took off nigh about everything the old
man had."
"What did our men do with the Yank?" I asked.
"Why, we did hear," said the garrulous old woman, "that our men took him off down to Chattanooga
and hung him; and then we heard again he had got away from our folks; ever since Terry heard
that, he's been mighty oneasy, for the Yankee soldiers that took his truck away, said our men
couldn't keep him, and if ever he got back, he would be jest as sure to kill Terry as ever he set eyes
on him again."
"Well, I reckon the old man would rather he hadn't have had anything to do with it, in that case,"
said I.
"Oh, la, yes; for the Yankees liked to have broke him up for it; they driv off every cow and every
hoss creetur he had, besides he's afeared the feller will git back some time."
"How far does Terry live from here?" I asked.
"About two miles and a half," she replied, adding in the same breath; "La, it would be mighty bad ef
he should happen to git killed off and leave all them pore little children without anybody to take keer
of them."
"Do you remember that Yankee's name?" I inquired.
"Well now, soldier, I did hear it, but raily I have forgot it; gals—Virginny—does ary one of you gals
remember what that Yankee's name was that got taken over at your uncle Terry's, last spring, a
year?"
"Virginny" now appeared in the door of the sitting room, and no sooner did her eyes light on me,
than she gave a sort of terrified start, and retreated to the innermost recesses of the kitchen.
"La, gal, why don't you tell a body!" said the old woman; "Virginny, do you hear?"
Thinking I would see a little fun with the old woman, I said, solemnly: "Madam, I am the man."
"La, bless my soul an' body," she said, and sinking into a chair, she burst into tears.
"Don't be alarmed, madam," I said, "I don't intend to hurt any of you; and you may tell Terry for me,
that he need not be afraid that I will hurt him, although he caused me six long months of
imprisonment, and I nearly lost my life by it. You can tell him that I will spare him for his children's
sake, and not because I do not think he deserves punishment. Tell him to stay at home and take
care of his children, and I will see that the Federal soldiers do not molest him."
The young ladies made their appearance at this time, to soothe their mother's agitated feelings,
when I bowed to them, and with excessive politeness said:
"Ladies, I wish you a very good day."
Finding that there was a considerable force of rebel cavalry on Little Coon, I concluded to go back on
top of Cumberland mountain, and travel along it until I got out of danger of falling in with them, and
I accordingly changed my route.
Not a great distance from Cowan's station I was going down through a long, narrow, and very
crooked pass in the mountains, when I heard ahead of me a great deal of chopping. None of our
men were in the country, so I concluded, as there were too many axes going for the chopping to be
citizens, that the enemy must be up to some "dirt." Clambering to the top of the mountain, I
followed along it till I came to a projecting spur, which I followed out and presently stood on the
edge of the bluff, almost over the cause of my alarm. At the foot of the mountain was a party of
rebel cavalry—home guards, as I supposed—who had about fifty darkeys chopping down trees
across the road, thus effectually blockading the gap at a place where it could not possibly have been
seen until turning this short spur that projected into it. It didn't require much soldier sense to tell
what that meant. They were fixing a trap for our cavalry, or some other body of troops that they
were perhaps expecting to pass that way. The thing had been well considered, and would have been
a serious obstacle to any body of troops, at that point, for a few sharp-shooters deployed along the
sides of the mountain could have then defended it against a large force. There were about twenty
rebs guarding, and fifty darkeys at work. The Johnnies were scattered about among the choppers,
urging them to their utmost exertions; while right at the end of the spur were their pickets—three in
number—but I was now behind them. After surveying the condition of things, I saw that I was
perfectly safe from them, for the sides of the mountain were very steep, and I could kill every white
man there before they could climb up to me; and as for the blacks I did not fear them. They had not
fallen many trees up to that time, so I thought I would file my objections to the whole proceedings,
and selecting a good position behind a huge, craggy rock, I picked out the most prominent man,
who was a portly fellow, in his shirt sleeves, riding about among the darkeys, whip in hand. He rode
a fine, light gray horse, and was a splendid target. He was about four hundred yards off and "down
hill," and knowing that a "down hill" shot is apt to carry over, I pulled right on the horse's rump, as
he was going straight from me. A puff of wind raised the smoke from my rifle, and I could see when
the ball struck. It must have missed the man entirely, for the horse reared almost straight on his
hind feet, and gave a terrific bound, which tumbled the rider out of his little old "terrapin shell"
saddle upon the rocks so violently, that he must have been severely injured, for some of the negroes
ran to him and helped him up, while several of the white men caught and brought back his horse,
which was bleeding profusely from a point in the middle of the right hip. While this was going on,
every thing was in the highest state of excitement. The soldiers ran together, looking in every
direction, in the wildest alarm, and every darkey ceased chopping instanter. One fellow, who was
much closer to me than the others, bawled out at the top of his voice:
"Who fired that shot?" But he received no answer save the echo of his own voice; but determined to
know, he raised himself in his stirrups, and bawled louder than ever:
"I say, who fired that shot?" but he still received no answer.
By this time my gun was loaded, and I took good aim at him, and fired, just as the word "shot,"
"shot," "shot," was echoing among the hills; and without waiting to see the effect of it, I sprang
upon the rock, in plain view of them, and began to order an imaginary comrade to "run back and tell
the regiment to 'hurry up,'" and then turning, with my gun loaded, I sent another shot whizzing
among them, at the same time ordering some skirmishers to come down from the opposite ridge,
and close in with the rebels, accompanying my speech with a violent gesture, as though pointing
right at my supposed friends. I then fired a third shot and raised a loud "hurrah boys, and we'll
surround 'em," when the Johnnies fled in the wildest confusion, hardly taking time to help their
comrade to mount his wounded horse, which was almost unmanageable. As the cavalry was
speeding down the pass, and the darkeys were shuffling after them, I ran back up the mountain,
and descending it, climbed the opposite side and kept on my journey, following the top of the ridge
the rest of that day, and also on the following night and the next day until about nine o'clock in the
morning, when I was suddenly startled by the sound of horses' feet coming behind me. I stepped
behind a tree and listened, and discovered there were several of them.
A spur put out ahead of me from the main mountain, and I thought if I would run out on this, they
could not see me, and would ride past. The timber was very open, and I was disappointed; for, in
coming around a bend in the road, they observed me just as I arrived on the brink of the mountain,
which was very steep. There was about a dozen of them, well-mounted; and they came upon me as
fast as they could run through the timber; but they necessarily had to run up to the place where I
turned off to gain the top of the spur, to follow me, and this gave me time, and I improved it by
scrambling down the steep sides of the mountain, very fast; but I presently came to the top of a
cliff, about three hundred feet high. This looked like a bad chance for escape, but, turning along it to
the right a few hundred yards, I again found a place where I could descend some distance; but was
then once more stopped by another cliff which projected out like a shelf. Below the right-hand end
of this cliff, a huge hickory tree was growing, and its shaggy top just reared itself above the shelf on
which I stood, the trunk being about eight feet from the edge of the cliff. There was no time to lose,
for already I could hear my pursuers clattering over the rocks above me, and once I heard a saber
jingle; therefore, running to this tree, I looked over the giddy hight, then slung my rifle across my
back, and leaped out headforemost with all my strength. I grasped the body of the tree with my
arms and succeeded in holding, although the weight of my heavy accouterments almost jerked me
loose again. Sliding rapidly down the tree, I lit on another bench in the mountain, from which I
made my way down into the bottom of a deep ravine.
When I got down to the foot of the tree, my clothes were badly torn, and great slivers of hickory-
bark were sticking through them in every direction. My hands, arms, and breast were bleeding
profusely from several wounds, cut by the rough bark. When I struck the tree the breath was nearly
knocked out of me, and it required all my strength to hold on. I was now safe, and never saw nor
heard of my pursuers again. I followed this, to the bottom of the mountain, and just as I got to the
mouth of the ravine, I saw a man raise his head up from behind a log, so that I could just see the
rim of his hat. Supposing, of course, that no one but a bushwhacker would be caught in such a
suspicious place, I pulled down on him with my Spencer-rifle and took a careful aim right on the
center of his hat. I was not more than fifty yards from him, and was just closing my finger on the
trigger, when I saw a woman's bonnet raise up beside the hat, when I noiselessly lowered my gun,
and stepped behind a tree and waited to see what this could mean. Presently, a fine, athletic man
raised up, as straight as an Indian; though he seemed to be laboring under the most intense
excitement. His hands were clenched, and his eyes were fiercely glaring with passion. The next
moment, a woman stood up beside him, and set a little bucket on the log, at the same time weeping
bitterly; and as she strove to restrain her tears with her little white hands, her bonnet fell back upon
her shoulders, and exposed a beautiful face of dazzling fairness, and features of perfect regularity.
The man raised his right arm in an excited manner, and, instinctively, I clutched my trusty rifle, and
the thought flashed through my mind, "if you strike that woman you are a dead man;" but, before I
had time to give it utterance, the woman, throwing her arms around his neck, fell sobbing upon his
breast, locked in his loving embrace. Great God! how deeply my soul was agitated as I remembered
how nearly I had come to rashly firing, when the man first raised his head from behind the log!
What an escape from shedding innocent blood, and bringing a blighting, overwhelming sorrow upon
that beautiful woman, who was now clinging so affectionately to him! While I was thanking God that
I had not fired, the woman's voice broke upon the still mountain solitude, and she save utterance to
her frantic grief:
"Oh, Henry, my love, you must not, shall not go. They shall not take you from me, and drag you
away to fight a people who have never harmed us; perhaps to be killed, or thrown into a cruel
prison! No, no, you shall not go; I will feed you here in these mountains as long as I live, before they
shall take you from me," and she nestled closer to his manly bosom.
Raising his hand again, as before, he replied: "Suzie, Suzie, I will not leave you; no, I will not leave
you; but I will hover around our home, and watch over you and Willie as long as I can; but if the
worst comes, and I must fight, so help me God! I will fight for the Union of the States as long as
God lets me live." His voice, although choked with emotion, was deep and manly, and sounded
through the solemn stillness of the forest until the awakening echoes of the great mountain caught
up and repeated the "patriot's vow."
His loud, excited tones seemed to rouse a little child, that had been sleeping behind the log; for
pretty soon I heard "mamma," in childish accents, and then a little, bright-eyed, chubby-faced boy,
about three years old, ran out from the log, and caught his father with infantile affection; and
winding his little arms around his parent's knees, he looked wonderingly up at his mother, and said,
in a pleading voice: "O, papa, don't go!" The man laid one hand fondly on the child's head, and the
woman raised herself from his breast, and taking the child up, said to it: "Willie, kiss papa."
As the child stretched out its arms, and put up its little mouth, I stepped from behind my tree, and
advanced toward the group. At first they were startled at my footsteps; but when they saw it was a
Yankee soldier, they were reassured, and gave me a cordial greeting. The man then told his wife it
was time for her to go home; and bidding her to "take the soldier to the house, and give him his
dinner," he turned up in the mountain gorge, while the woman led the way out into the valley to her
dwelling—a neat little log house; and in a few minutes she laid before me an elegant supper; and
although it was the last of August, the heat was scarcely felt in this cool retreat.
I have forgotten this man's name; but, if I remember rightly, he was a son-in-law of old man Russell,
who lived in the head of Dorin's Cove, where I staid that night. He had been compelled to hide out
in the Cumberland mountains for several months, to keep from being dragged away to the rebel
army; and his wife told me how she had to take his provisions to him, and that even her steps were
watched. That she often carried his food to the mountains in the back of her bonnet, and laid it in
some place where he could find it; but that sometimes he would be two or three days without food.
I was once almost tempted to ask the old man Russell if he didn't want another son-in-law, for he
had a second good looking daughter, whose admiration for Yankee soldiers was only exceeded by
her devotion to the cause of the Union. She complained bitterly that their part of the confederacy
was not able to afford her a pair of shoes, although she had offered fabulous prices in gold for them,
and I, therefore, promised to bring her a pair the next time I came that way; but this is not the only
promise of this sort that I have left unfulfilled in that country. Of course, at the time they would be
made, I would mean it; but I seldom saw the parties a second time.
After passing a pleasant night at Russell's, I made my way to Bridgeport just as Gen. Lytle arrived
there. He had some important service to do in scouting through the mountains after some
bushwhackers, who were harboring in the country from Little Coon up to Widow's creek. Having
been in that region before, I knew just where their hiding-places were, and, of course, we soon
routed them, and I pursued my tedious journey in quest of steamboats. While scouting for Lytle, I
was introduced to Gen. Sheridan, who was then a division commander; and he then told me that the
service was for him, and that he would see me handsomely rewarded; but the General, I suppose,
has never had a chance to fulfill his promise, for I have not seen him since.
However, it makes no difference, for soldiering, like virtue, must be its own reward. The rebels
having taken all the water craft to their side of the Tennessee, General Lytle made a detail of men to
dig out a canoe in which I could cross the river. It was made in the night, and early next morning I
put it to a good use, running over to the island opposite Bridgeport, and catching a Johnny for the
General.
The reprobate, not knowing that the Yankees had a boat of their own, had paddled defiantly down
the river before Lytle's headquarters, when the General said: "Pike, go and fetch that man to me;
can't you catch him in your boat?" "You just watch the race if you don't believe it," said I, and away
I went, and soon had the Johnny standing in the presence of the General; and like all the rest of the
secesh clan that ever I caught, he exhibited the most abject humility.
 CHAPTER XXVII.
AFTER STEAMBOATS AGAIN—A MOUNTAIN NYMPH—BOB. WHITE, THE UNION BUSHWHACKER.
Leaving Bridgeport, I once more was off on my steamboat exploits, and as I was crossing over
Walden's ridge, about fifteen miles below Chattanooga, at the top of the "cut off" I heard a very
long, and loud scream, or more like an exultant yell. Thinking of nothing but bushwhackers in that
locality, I "treed" instanter, and stood with my gun at a "ready" to fire on any suspicious object. Soon
the sound of a horse's feet, coming almost toward me at a run, roused me to renewed vigilance,
that I might get the first shot; for I made sure it was some rebel cavalryman. I was not kept long in
suspense, however, for in a few seconds a magnificent horse bounded into view, mounted by a
beautiful young woman, who was riding "man fashion," or, as the little boys say, "astraddle," utterly
unconscious of observation. Her long, brown hair was streaming in the wind, as she was without
bonnet or shawl; her short sleeves and low necked dress, left a beautiful neck, plump arms, and a
voluptuous bosom, partially, but not immodestly exposed, while the skirts of her dress being drawn
up by her peculiar position on the horse, exposed limbs perfect in development, and of dazzling
whiteness. She was singing, in a clear musical voice, snatches of some song which she occasionally
stopped, to give a shrill whoop at a half wild cow she was driving before her, at a fearful rate
through the thick timber. She rode her horse with a fearless grace, and a firm hand, guiding the
spirited beast by a rope halter turned into a loop around his nose. She soon vanished from my view,
to the left, following a well beaten trail which I was confident must lead to a house. So quick did she
come and go, and so beautiful did she appear, galloping away through the green woods with such a
happy gracefulness, and fearless air, that I could almost imagine that I had seen a real nymph of the
mountain.

"It was a fearful ride in the dark, as several of the cascades were five or six feet from top
to bottom, and one, known as the "big jump," was ten feet in perpendicular hight."—
Page 325.
Following the trail she took, in about a mile and a half I came to a house. A panting horse, of
magnificent proportions, had just been turned loose in the yard to graze, and I instantly recognized
it as the one I had seen careering so proudly through the woods with the fair rider. I at once went to
the house, and at the door was welcomed by a pleasant looking matron, who invited me in, and
treated me with much civility, as soon as I told her that I was a Yankee soldier and wanted lodgings.
Soon after, the fair equestrienne came in with a bucket of milk on her head, "nigger" fashion. There
was no poetry in that, it is true; but she was really very pretty, and as she placed her bucket of milk
on the table, the elder woman addressed her:
"Eliza, here is one of our soldiers come to see us at last."
Then turning to me, she said:
"Stranger, what is your name?"
I told her my name and regiment, and asked what her husband's name was, and judge of my
astonishment when she answered "Bob White"—he whose patriotic efforts in behalf of the Union,
were a theme of admiration far and wide, in that section of Tennessee. He was what the rebels
called a Yankee bushwhacker, and was a great terror to small bands of rebel cavalry who had to pass
any where through the Sequatchie valley. He had about thirty men under his command, and
sometimes could raise as many as sixty, on special occasions.
While my hostess was preparing supper for me, she and her sister were full of curiosity to hear from
the north, and especially what our expectations were in regard to the rebellion, and our hopes of
maintaining the Federal Union. I gave them the best satisfaction I could, consistent with duty; and
they were much pleased to hear that our numbers were so great, and our army so well appointed,
and expressed the most encouraging hopes of our final success.
Supper dispatched, I went to bed, as I was very tired. I had just got well off on a scout to the land
of dreams, when I was aroused by the sound of horse's feet. The reader will understand that on
these trips I never undressed, and sometimes slept with all my accoutrements on. The two women
had put me to sleep in a room separated from theirs by an entry; and at the sound of horses, I
sprang out of bed and bounded noiselessly to the door and tried to open it quietly; but lo! it refused
to open; and on stooping down and peering through the crack between the door and the wall of the
cabin, I found it was fastened by a strong chain, which was passed through a hole in the door, and
around the facing between the logs, and was locked on the outside with a strong padlock. There was
no time to lose, so turning to the window—a single sash, held in by two nails,—I broke the latter off,
and laying the sash on the bed, I jumped out on the ground and ran behind the house as the men
hailed the inmates at the front door; and peering around the corner, I discovered a large squad of
rebel cavalry; Mrs. White answered them at the door.
"Was there a man passed here about dark, afoot and dressed in Yankee uniform?" they inquired.
"Why, yes, there was," said Mrs. White; "he stopped at my house, and got his supper, about dark,
and as soon as he was done his supper, he left to go the 'cut off' way to Chattanooga."
"Who did he say he was?" was next asked.
"Why, he told us that he was a Georgian, and that he was going home."
"You say he went the 'cut off?'" said the officer, interrogatively.
"Well, now, I don't know for certain that he did go that way, but he told us that he was going by the
'suck,' and, of course, he would be obliged to go the 'cut off' from here."
With a polite "Thank you, madam," the officer rode away, followed by his men, some twenty in
number. Waiting to see the last of them disappear over the brow of the mountain, I crept back
through the window and replaced the sash again, and was soon sound asleep. Nothing more
occurred to rouse me till midnight, except that one of the women opened the door cautiously, and
looked in, I suppose to see if I had been disturbed. I feigned to be asleep, and she closed the door
and locked it again. Near midnight, I was again awakened by the sound of approaching horses; and
as they halted at the door, I again removed the sash, and jumped out of the window. This party
hallooed and Mrs. White asked: "Who's there?" and one of the men answered: "Mack."
I peeped around the log house again, and discovered eight resolute men, all well mounted, and
armed to the teeth.
"Is that you, McArthur," said the woman.
"Yes, come out a minute," he said.
She hastily dressed herself, and throwing a shawl around her shoulders, went fearlessly out to see
them. Their conversation was carried on in a low tone—so low that I could only catch a few words
now and then.
"We heard of him down at the foot of the mountain," they said presently, in a louder tone, as if to
end an argument; "Well, tell him to come out here, we want to see him."
"Oh, boys, let him sleep," pleaded the woman, "for I know he's tired; besides, I am certain he is a
Yankee, for he was talking to me and Eliza, until he got so sleepy he couldn't hold his head up."
"Oh, there are a heap of men claims to be Yankees now," said Mack; "tell him to come out."
I now walked out to them, for I was certain they were some of Bob White's men. They were very
frank, telling me their suspicions; but I had no trouble in satisfying them that I was all right, and a
friend; and then, after inquiring of the woman whose company of rebels it was that had passed, the
whole party rode on in the same course they had gone.
This party had a good looking young woman with them, who was piloting them over in the valley, to
catch a notorious guerrilla, by the name of Pickett; and the men vowed they would hang him if they
caught him. When they had gone away, I asked Mrs. White what made her lock me up in the room:
"Why, you know," she said, "in these troublesome times a body never knows who they can trust;
and you know we had no men folks about the house, for Bob is gone over the river, on a scout for
Gen. Rosecrans."
I now got along without further disturbance till next morning, when, after a good breakfast I
resumed my journey, feeling very grateful to my generous hostess, who refused pay almost
indignantly.
At the mouth of Soddy creek is a place called Penny's Ford. The rebels were picketing on the south
bank, and on the north lived a very old woman, named Martin, in a house entirely alone. Some of
our prisoners, who had escaped from the south side of the river, crossed over at Penny's Ford, and
the old lady had fed and secreted them, till they got strong enough to travel. Of this the Johnnies
had heard, and to show their chivalry, I suppose; would amuse themselves by shooting at her. It
was at long range—about nine hundred yards—and to have hit her, would have been mere accident.
Every time she showed herself, they would vault a ball over, more, probably, to see the old woman
run, than with any other object in view. She stood out nobly, for several days; but, finally, one time,
while sitting in the door of the cabin, knitting, a ball struck the door facing, about four inches from
her head, and this so frightened her, that she closed her house, and went to live with the old man
Penny, where I heard her relate her story.
I went down the river bank, and halloed across the stream, to the Johnnies, who immediately
answered; and one of them, bolder than the rest, ran down to the edge of the water and asked
what I would have. Without answering his question, I fired a shot at him, from my rifle, putting my
sight up to eight hundred yards. It seemed a long time going, but presently the rebel stooped to
dodge the whistling bullet, and I saw that I had over shot; so I aimed again, and discharged my
piece, holding this time full on his head. He was standing erect when I did so, holding to a willow
bush, with his left hand, and his gun in his right; and after a long time the ball reached its
destination, and I had the satisfaction to see the Johnny tumble headlong on the sand, his gun flying
several steps from him. I then had it hot and heavy for a while. His company, concealed by the
woods on their side, made the balls rattle on the bank where I was, cutting the trees up cruelly, but
doing no further harm, for I was hidden in a deep ravine where I was perfectly safe; and from which
I could fire on them leisurely, whenever I got a good "sight."
After having my own fun with them for an hour, I took the road to Colonel Cliffs', on Sail creek. He
was a Colonel in our army, and I was told, at one time was on General Burnside's staff. He was at
that time away from home, on duty; but I was hospitably welcomed by his family. I stopped here for
two or three different nights, on the last being hunted out by fifteen or twenty rebels; I fortunately,
however, received notice of their coming before they got in sight of the house, and moved my
quarters promptly.
While in that part of East Tennessee, I was fortunate enough to hear a real, heartfelt sermon,
preached in favor of the Union; and the services were closed with an ardent prayer for the President
of the United States, his advisers and counsellors; for Congress and the success and welfare of our
armies in the field. There was no milk and water, nor soft solder about it; but it was a real old
fashioned, upright, square-toed Union sermon. The preacher was an old, white-haired man, and his
crowded congregation were, for most part, of venerable age. The meeting took place after night,
and as there was danger of it being disturbed or broken up by straggling rebels, I was invited to be
present. Every man was armed; and this meeting took place in a country where some men say there
were no Union men!
From this neighborhood I went to Chattanooga, which was now being invested by the army of the
Cumberland. On the north side of the river was Colonel Wilder's famous brigade, and I reported to
the Colonel, and was sent by him with a dispatch to Bridgeport, where General Rosecrans was
supposed to be. I had walked since morning from above the mouth of Soddy creek, a distance of
thirty-three miles; and the same evening I started from the camp before Chattanooga, to Bridgeport,
a distance of fifty-four miles, over a rough mountain road. At Bridgeport I found the General, and
reported to him, and learned that the cavalry were a long way in the advance of the infantry, and
that it would be impossible for me to overtake them; so, after receiving orders to "knock around
loose," I put out over Raccoon mountains. These mountains are the lower or southern range of the
Allagheny mountains, and are high, steep and rugged, while lower down the country, they are called
the Sand mountains. It is a ridge of a very irregular shape, and extends from a point where the
Tennessee forces its way between it and Walden's ridge, on the north side, to Blountville, Alabama.
Its many recesses and deep forests have always made it a constant place of resort for
bushwhackers. In it is the celebrated Nickajack cave, one of the largest in the United States. Over
this mountain a part of the army had already toiled, and the road was strewn with wrecks of
wagons, splintered wheels, broken harness, crippled horses left to die, and poor broken down men
who were unable to keep up in the impetuous march that would allow of no delay. On they were
toiling over the mountain toward Trenton, in the hope of overtaking their commands at that place;
but I fear it was a vain hope for some of them, for they seemed very much exhausted.
Trenton is a small town in Georgia, and is the county seat of Dade county. It is situated in a fine
valley between Raccoon mountain on the west, and Lookout mountain on the east; and the valley is
watered by Lookout river, and several creeks. Here General Reynolds was encamped, and I slept
there till morning, and then pushed on for the advance. I passed Sheridan's division, and the next
was General Negley's command. Learning from General Lytle, of Sheridan's division, that General
Negley was to lead the advance, I concluded to report to him for duty, and found his division
encamped on Lookout river, in the valley between Lookout and Raccoon mountains, at the foot of
Johnson's crook, a narrow and meandering defile that led up the precipitous sides of Lookout
mountain to Stevens' gap. It was a terrible undertaking to put an army up into that gap, as a handful
of men might defend it against a host. It was held by Wharton, with a Division of cavalry, mostly
Texans; and Negley was to scale the mountain with his Division and take possession of it. General
Stanley was hovering on the enemy's communications far down in Georgia, in the neighborhood of
Alpine, Broomtown, and other points, almost, and at one particular time, quite in rear of Lafayette;
and at the same time, Gen. McCook, with his corps, was toiling over Lookout at Niels' gap, between
the cavalry and Thomas' corps and Stevens' gap, his being the right of our infantry. Reynolds
crossed over with his Division, if I remember rightly, at Doherty's gap, while Crittenden's corps
moved up the railroad around the north end of the mountain, and General Wagner continued to
threaten Chattanooga in front with Wilder's and Minty's brigades of cavalry. Chattanooga lays in the
wide end of a Y, formed by Lookout on the west, and Pigeon mountains on the east; the north end
of Lookout rising about one mile and a half from the west side of the town. Pigeon mountain is a
spur of Lookout, which projects itself over to the Tennessee, about four miles east of Chattanooga.
For about one half its length, it retains the name of Pigeon mountain; while the north end of it is
called Missionary Ridge. In the Pigeon mountains are three gaps, besides the one right at its junction
with Lookout, the most southern of which is Bluebird gap, the middle being called Dug gap, while
the most northern is known McCowan's gap; and the intermediate valley between these two
mountains is named Maclamore's cove. It is, at Dug gap, about nine miles wide, running to a point
at the south end, while at the north end, at Chattanooga, it is about five and a half or six miles in
width. The railroads running from Chattanooga to Knoxville and to Atlanta, pass through Mission
Ridge at the north end; after which one keeps on up the Tennessee to Knoxville, while the other
turns down on the east side of the ridge to Lafayette, the first point to which the enemy was
compelled to retreat, and which is situated about six miles east of Dug gap, bearing a little south.
The reader will bear in mind that I knew nothing of the plan of the campaign, beyond what was
developed on the field, and what was patent to all. I had passed in two days from our left, near
Cottonport, Tenn., where I saw a part of Minty's brigade, of the 2d Division of cavalry, down to
Chattanooga, where was Colonel Wilder's famous brigade, with General Wagner, and some force of
infantry and artillery, busily engaged in shelling the place; thence to Bridgeport, where the
commanding General was with a few troops, just preparing to go to Trenton, then already in the
hands of Reynolds' Division; I also passed the 33d Ohio on the opposite side of the river, and saw
Crittenden's troops ferrying the stream about the mouth of Battle creek; and from the top of
Raccoon beheld the most of our center and right encamped opposite the respective gaps, where
they were to scale Lookout mountain, and from whence they were to be hurled like an avalanche
down, down from the giddy hights of that cloud-capped range in resistless columns into the valley,
where they were to deploy in line, and sweep across upon the unprotected flank of the enemy, who
were then in full retreat. The plan was certainly projected by a master mind, and had it been
properly executed, would have proven the death blow of Bragg's army. After having gained his
object, it seemed to be the intention of the General to draw his men in quietly, and without
bloodshed, into the fortifications around Chattanooga; and had the entire command been properly
handled, nothing could have transpired to thwart the design.
General Negley began his ascent of the mountain early in the morning of the 9th of September, I
believe, and by noon had his whole command camped on top of the mountain, and here he sent me
out to reconnoiter. It was a pretty long and dangerous tramp, but I made it safely, and discovered
that Wharton's command was on the opposite side of the gap. The advance of the division was soon
followed by the balance of Thomas' corps, and at the same time Gen. McCook was scaling the
heights at Neil's gap, twelve miles below, and Crittenden's was moving round and over the north end
of the mountain, while Gen. Stanley was threatening La Fayette from Broom Town valley, almost in
rear of the rebel army. On the 10th the army was fairly bivouacked in the clouds, on the top of
Lookout, which is very broad; in some places being four miles wide. Heavy clouds are constantly
hanging over and lapping down upon the summit, and if it be a damp day, the top and sides are
completely enveloped in the lower clouds. It is not, however, a high mountain, being only fourteen
hundred and sixty feet perpendicular, I believe, above the level of the Tennessee river.
I believe we rested a day on top, and scouted out the summit, while in the afternoon Col. Stoughton
with his regiment went down the gap to drive back the enemy, in order that our engineers could
repair the road. I was sent out again toward night, and passing through Stoughton's command and
the rebel skirmish line at a dead run under fire of both sides, I gained unharmed the top of a very
high spur of Lookout. I was aided in this by the dust raised by the rebel cavalry, while the fire was
going on, and by the darkness after the fight was over. I clambered over cliffs during the night, to
gain the top, over which, next morning, I could not look without getting on my hands and knees. It
was risky work, but it was in a good cause, and was of advantage to the service, which was enough.
At the first crowing of the chickens I was on my feet, waiting for light enough to see the valley
below. The view extended all over Maclamore's Cove, and is one of the finest landscapes I ever
beheld. Far to the left—perhaps sixteen or eighteen miles—could be seen the hights around
Chattanooga, while directly in front was the range called Pigeon mountain, together with McCowan's
gap, Dug gap, and Bluebird gap—all clearly revealed by the light in the east. I had a splendid signal
glass with which I could see very minute objects in Dug gap, and I discovered that it was well
defended by rifle pits and artillery—two batteries being distinctly visible; while in rear of the gap rose
a hill that thoroughly overlooked it, and on the crown of this hill was an extensive earthwork,
running its whole length, and I counted within it sixteen guns. On the side of this hill I could see a
great many brush shanties, with light, fleecy smoke rising above them, thus clearly indicating that
they were occupied.
From the top of the mountain I descended by a very precipitous and rocky ravine, the bed of which
in the wet season was a roaring torrent, but now shrunk to a little babbling brook, that found its
source on the top of the mountain at some boggy springs I had passed. At the foot of the mountain
I discovered a house nearly at the mouth of the gorge. I made for it, at first, with the intention of
quizzing the people, to see what they knew about the enemy's movements; but when within a few
hundred yards of the place, I discovered a man sitting in the hall or porch, which lay between the
wings. He was leaning back, with his right leg thrown over his left knee, while opposite him, and
leaning against the other wall, sat a beautiful young lady. I knew he was a Texan by his free and
easy lounging style.
Running noiselessly in the bed of the ravine, under the cover of its bank, I stepped up out of it
behind a huge tree, about sixty yards from the house. Now, if I shot the fellow there, the woman
would take conniptions, so I thought I would scare him out, and then shoot him. I stepped back into
the ravine, and hid myself, and then fired a shot in the air, and it had the desired effect. He rose,
and walking out to where his horse was tied, picked up his bridle, and began to put it on. I got up
behind my tree again, and shouted: "Don't you put that bridle on that horse!" He paid no attention,
but as he approached the animal's head I recognized him. His name was Bowers, and he had served
with me in Texas. Leisurely he adjusted his bridle, even taking time to buckle the throat-latch. Again
I shouted to him to "put down that bridle," but he paid no attention to me whatever.
As he stepped to the side of his horse, I ordered him not to mount; but slowly, and without the least
excitement, he swung himself into the saddle. I wanted to save him, and so I cried "Halt!" loud
enough to be heard half a mile; but he turned quietly from me, as if to show his contempt for
danger, and I was compelled to fire on him, or allow him to escape to the enemy, and report. Taking
a good rest, against a tree, I fired full on his back; and we were in such close proximity, that I could
see the hole made by the bullet. His horse sprang off into the woods, but he clung to the saddle,
although in the agonies of death.
Hearing others on the opposite side of the house, I at once began to play officer, and deploy
skirmishers at "double quick;" and so completely successful was the ruse, that the rebels did not
await the development of my plans, but skedaddled as rapidly as possible in the direction of Dug
gap, taking with them the wounded man, whom they left at the next house, where he died.
I missed getting his horse, which was a very fine one; as the intelligent animal, with his dying rider,
ran steadily along with the horses rode by the others for over a mile, and until they reached the
house indicated, where the wounded man was left to die. I was at the house an hour afterward, but
found that the horse and equipments had been taken off, and that an ambulance had also been sent
for the body, and that it, too, had been conveyed to the rebel camp.
After this, I hurried over to the road by which our army was to descend the rugged mountain, and
found Col. Stoughton's regiment in the valley, where they had skirmished the night before, and then
prepared my report for the General, in writing, and forwarded it to him from the skirmish lines.
 CHAPTER XXVIII.
BATTLES OF DUG GAP AND CHICKAMAUGA.
We had not been skirmishing more than an hour, before the army began to pour down the steep,
rocky, dusty road. On they came, winding to and fro, down the serpentine road, now enveloped in
clouds of fog, then emerging from the mist, their bright arms and brass trappings glittering in the
sun; now submerged beneath a dense cloud of dust, they would again remain hidden for a time, till
it was lifted off by a passing breeze, and again the mighty army, as if by magic, would stand out in
full view before the beholder, martialing for the fray below.
The rebels beheld them in terror, and they fled in confusion in the direction of Dug gap, leaving only
a small cavalry force to skirmish with our advance. Gen. Negley then pushed a regiment or two out
on the road, as far as Davis' cross roads, to feel the enemy, and ascertain his position. The
reconnoissance was gallantly conducted—the rebels disputing every foot of the ground; and as soon
as the reconnoitering party began to fall back, they hung upon its rear, until we gained our old
position, at the foot of Lookout mountain.
Early in the morning the General advanced with his whole division upon Dug gap, when the enemy's
cavalry again disputed our progress, and the same ground was once more fought over, till we
reached Davis' cross roads, at which place our army rested for an hour. The men being refreshed,
pushed on again for the gap, where the rebels were found in overwhelming force. An engagement at
once ensued, which lasted for several hours; but as the enemy was soon strongly re-enforced, Gen.
Negley ordered a retreat, and his men were drawn off, slowly and quietly, one brigade at a time.
Slowly the artillery was taken off the field, occasionally halting to throw a few shells into the
advancing enemy, till finally we regained our old camp.
Our loss in this skirmish was about forty killed, wounded and missing; but we lost nothing else; so
leisurely were our forces withdrawn, that the teamsters stopped to reload a wagon which was upset.
The 19th Illinois, and 18th Ohio Infantry, did noble work in this encounter, fighting at short range,
and repelling two or three handsome charges. They killed thirty odd men, at a single volley, near the
gap, all of whom were left on the ground by the enemy.
As we were proceeding toward the gap, I was frequently far in advance of the column, looking out
for ambuscades, and performing the other delicate duties which devolve upon a scout; and while
reconnoitering, I discovered a stone wall to the left of the road, which looked like a splendid place of
concealment, and I accordingly jumped behind a tree and scrutinized it carefully, to discover signs of
the enemy, but for some time I was unsuccessful in my efforts. Presently, however, I saw a man
partly concealed by a clump of willow bushes, at a little distance from the wall; and observing him
closely, I saw that he was motioning with his hand, as if to keep men down. In a little while I
discovered another, and then another, until I saw four men crowded under the bushes, when I
opened on them with a few shots from my Spencer rifle, and as they were but about two hundred
yards off, I soon made it too hot for them, and they hustled down to the wall, when I lit out to
report the ambuscade to General Negley. He immediately ran down a section of artillery into a
position that commanded the wall, and then led a charge in person over the intervening hill, and
down upon the rebels, who delivered a hasty volley before our men raised the hill, and then fled in
confusion, leaving several of their dead on the field. I chased one horse, with his rider, over a bluff
bank, about twenty feet high, into a creek; the rider sticking to his animal all the time, till he struck
the water. The horse mired in the quicksand, and the man was compelled to leap from his back, and
leaving him, gain the opposite bank, where he leaped a fence and disappeared in a corn field, while
I was loading my gun. I then took the fellow's horse and saddle, and broke his gun and threw it over
the fence after him, though I am not aware that he even stopped to think about it, much less to
gather up the pieces.
Our artillery was managed with great precision, and the enemy must have lost heavily. We occupied
the ground next day, and we had a considerable number of their dead to bury—the bodies having
been abandoned on the field.
A rather amusing incident occurred just before the engagement. I was on a scout up to the very foot
of the gap. The rebels, for a long time, refused to show themselves, seemingly to draw us up into
the gap, while they held another force that I had reported, ready to pounce upon our flank, when
their masked batteries in front were to riddle our column with shells. Near the gap lived a venerable
widow, who had two beautiful daughters, all Union, or at least so they told me, when they thought
me a rebel. Her house stood within easy shooting distance of the rebel sharp-shooters, and inside
their picket line, although they had no post on the road. I went into the house, and told the old lady
that I was very tired, and wanted to rest awhile, and she told me to lay down on a bed, but I
preferred the floor. I was only doing this in order to see what I could find out; and I had been there
but a little while before her little son ran up to the door and said:
"Mother, mother, here comes an officer."
I rolled over carelessly and asked where he was, and he told me in a whisper that he was out at the
end of the house. I was after him in a moment, and I jumped over the fence between him and his
men, and walked stealthily along behind him, until raising a little hill, he spied our pickets, about half
a mile off. He quickly concealed himself in a fence corner, till he had taken a good look, then turning
to go back to his own lines, he met me, with my rifle raised and my finger on the trigger.
"Just take the road before me, sir," was all I said.
He raised his hat very politely, bowed low, and remarked:
"Why, really, sir, I am very much surprised to see you here."
Finding himself a prisoner, he took it with the best possible grace. I allowed him to keep his sword
until he reached the post, and let him walk by me. He was such a perfect gentleman that I hated to
turn him over to the hard fate of a prisoner; but my good manners never saved me when I was in
their hands, and so I consoled myself with the thought that he might have had better luck. After I
reached camp with him, I ascertained that he was a second lieutenant on Colonel Corbyn's staff.
From some unaccountable cause, the army was detained in the vicinity of Stevens' gap for five days;
and during this interval, the enemy was reinforced by Longstreet's Corps, and other troops from
Virginia.
During the morning of Saturday, the 19th of September, little was done except closing up the trains,
and getting them over the mountains, before it was discovered that Bragg was attempting to flank
us on the left, when instantly our army was put in motion toward Chattanooga, to prevent him from
accomplishing his object. Our march was soon discovered by the rebels; and now began the greatest
foot race the eye of man ever beheld. My duty often caused me to ascend high points of the ridges
and hills, to see how the enemy were progressing; and wherever they moved, the tell-tale dust
would disclose their operations. Each army was intent on gaining their fortified ground near
Chattanooga; and we had an even start, and if anything, the shortest road—our army marching
down on the west, and that of the rebels on the east side of the Chickamauga river.
Great heavy clouds of dust hovered in the air, revealing the course of each army, through its entire
length; as well as disclosing the movements of the smallest bodies of troops.
About ten o'clock in the morning, Bragg discovered it would be impossible to flank our army, and
prevent us from gaining the desired point, and immediately began to close with us. His artillery
thundering on our flank, gave notice of his intentions; and General Rosecrans accepted the
challenge, and soon our batteries were answering shot for shot, and shell for shell.
This artillery dueling was very destructive for some time, particularly on our right, where the guns
thundered with uninterrupted fury. Guns were dismounted, caissons blown up, wheels splintered into
fragments, horses torn almost limb from limb, while the mangled gunners lay scattered in all
directions and wounded in every manner. Still the work of death went on. When the heavy shot
failed to strike among the gunners, it was only to pass among the boughs over their heads, and by
splintering them, carry additional destructive elements into the ranks of the supporting infantry. The
shells, shrieking through the air, burst among the men, and horses, sweeping down whole squads of
the one, or teams of the other; and when a caisson was struck, the effect was terrific. The vehicles
would be shattered to fragments, while the powder of the shells would ignite, and throw them in
every direction, bursting as they went, and sweeping scores of heroes to untimely graves.
While this was transpiring on our right, the heavens appeared rent by a sudden crash, and the earth
trembled beneath a steady, rolling sound. The battle had began on the left, and the musketry had
opened in dreadful earnest. Peal, on peal, the sound was borne to us, on the right, by the wind,
almost drowning the heavy roar of artillery near us, which of itself was well nigh deafening.
Rapidly General Rosecrans shifted his troops from right to left, to meet each new assault of the
enemy. Each time, as the roll of musketry raised above the sound of the cannon, it told us that the
battle continued to surge to the left, and that the lines of our army were being stretched to the
greatest possible length. Stout hearts began to feel a misgiving, and brave men watched the enemy
with wary eye.
McCook's corps, on the right, held its ground. Battery after battery of rebel guns had been silenced,
but they had not yet given back, keeping continually closed in upon our men; and in the evening
they charged upon Van Cleve's division, pouring in three terrible volleys; but they met with a
fearfully bloody repulse, and were compelled to fall back to their old position, after which they soon
began to retire from the field they had occupied.

"The punishment he endured must have been severe; for sometimes he would be thrown
three or four feet up in the air, and then fall back into the cart with a thump that made
him roar again."—Page 330.
Concentration on our left was the next movement in order; for on that wing the battle was yet
raging with unabated fury. Our lines were faced to the East, with the right to the South, and left to
the North; and in rear of this were our teams, and non-combatants; and these were hurried off in
hot haste, toward Chattanooga.
Sunday morning, the 20th, revealed to us the enemy in a new and stronger position, and much
nearer to Chattanooga; and at daylight, the contest burst forth again with redoubled fury, on our
devoted left—General Thomas this time taking the offensive. For hours the contest continued,
without decided advantage to either side, when suddenly the enemy concentrated in tremendous
force, on McCook's corps, rushing impetuously forward and driving it flying from the field. God grant
that I may never again behold such a scene as I there witnessed. The assaulting column charged to
within sixty or eighty paces of our lines, under a fire so murderous that they halted, and wavered, at
least five minutes, when, reinforced by another line, the foremost men were literally driven upon us.
At this critical juncture, our ammunition failed, and the enemy was upon us, pouring in withering
volleys upon our almost defenseless ranks, so that no troops in the world could have withstood the
assault. Panic stricken, the corps rushed to the rear; but they were true men, and heroic leaders
were there to rally them, and thrice they formed, and turned upon the advancing foe, who forbore to
pursue so determined an enemy. Most heroically did the fugitives cluster around their battle flags,
with tear-streaming eyes, fondly caressing the banner they were now helpless to defend.
Here and there a gallant color sergeant would halt and raise aloft the ensign of liberty, shouting out
to the men not to abandon their colors—not to give up the flag—to remember Stone river, and not to
yield, for our troops would yet be victorious, as they had been on many a hotly-contested field. Here
and there an officer pleaded frantically with the flying men; now using words of hope and
encouragement, or orders and menaces, as either were demanded by different characters; calling
upon them to remember their country and her honor, to reflect that they were Americans, and must
fight to save their banners. They could not resist the appeal, and three times they rallied and waited
determinedly for the enemy; each time in better order and determination, standing ever in well-
formed ranks, until ordered to take up a new position. Nobly did those color sergeants discharge
their duty that day, not one of whom yielded his banner, till he had first fallen beneath it. Captain
Johnson, now Colonel of the 13th Indiana Cavalry, contributed much toward rallying the men; as did
also Captain Rockhold, of the 15th Pennsylvania Cavalry, and many other officers both of the staff
and line, whose names I do not now remember. The last man I recollect seeing on the field—and I
was one of the last to leave it—was Major-General McCook, riding even into the thickest of the
enemy's fire; and it indeed appears miraculous that he escaped with his life. While this was
transpiring on the right, the thunder of battle still reached us from the left. What befell the fugitives
now, I know not; for, thinking they were taking a wrong road, I left them, and going immediately to
the left, reported to Gen. Thomas for duty. He held his ground firmly until toward night, when,
during a lull in the battle, he began to retreat. His corps was in the best of spirits, and full of
confidence in the General.
Deliberately every man supplied himself with a rail—whole brigades facing to a fence for this
purpose—each fellow shouldering the biggest one he could lay hands on; and then the brigade
would reform and resume its march, the men laughing and joking each other over their heavy work
as gayly as if they had not seen thousands of their comrades fall that day. The enemy pursued, but
the corps with its portable breastworks was invincible. Halting in a noted gap in Mission Ridge, the
troops put their rails to use by raising, in a few moments, an effective barricade. The General made
his headquarters just in the rear of the gap, and under short artillery range of the enemy; and he
maintained his position, in spite of the rebel shells, which were whistling over his head for hours
together; and here he was reinforced by two or three brigades of Granger's reserves, and renewed
the contest.
On the 21st our line reached around the crest of Mission Ridge, something like a half-moon, with the
bow toward the enemy. The battle, however, was not severe on that day, as the rebels appeared
disconcerted. They made several feints upon our lines, but our General was always ready for them,
and checked them at every point. At times their artillery would send shell after shell shrieking over
our heads, as if determined to frighten us from our position; but they fired badly, as if they had lost
their best gunners in the late terrible contest. At times they would pour volley after volley of
musketry upon us, but did but little damage, as the balls either struck our barricade, or flew
harmlessly over us, and clattered among the trees. Their next ruse was to try to turn our right with
their cavalry, and it was said that Forrest led the charge in person. Scaling the end of the ridge,
where our right was posted, they charged furiously upon the 21st Ohio infantry, and were
handsomely repulsed, without loss to our side; while eight of the enemy fell dead within a few feet
of our lines. The 21st followed them with an uninterrupted fire from their revolving rifles, until the
rebels were driven from the hill. This was about the closing demonstration; and that night the army
quietly retreated to Chattanooga, leaving their camp fires burning brightly, to deceive the rebels.
General Thomas did not leave the field until all had gone from the scene of the late conflict, but the
rear guard; and about midnight, part of General Stanley's force appeared upon the ground, to cover
the retreat. While the battle had been raging, they had been hotly engaged with the enemy's cavalry
under Forrest, and had also been beset with infantry. Their duty had been of a most dangerous
nature, and was performed in a gallant manner. Our cavalry lost many daring men during the battle,
chiefly, however, in killed and wounded, though they lost a few in prisoners.
Noiselessly the army marched to Chattanooga that night. Not a sound was to be heard save the
rumbling of the trains or the occasional word of command. When the troops reached the town the
whole aspect was changed. Uncertainty was now certainty. We had gained the point for which the
campaign was planned and for which we had struggled so hard. Determination could be read in
every face. Filing along the breastworks the rebels had constructed, men and officers took off their
coats and engaged in strengthening their position.
I now saw General Rosecrans for the first time since I left Bridgeport. He looked wearied and care-
worn, but hopeful and determined. I spoke to him and wanted to burn the jail where I had been
confined with Andrews' men, but he refused permission, telling me it would raise too much smoke
over the town and impede the aim of the artillery. His countenance did not change till he rode along
by some familiar regiments and saw their thinned ranks and worn looks, when he appeared ready to
burst into tears; at that moment the men raised a hearty cheer for "Rosecrans," when he rallied from
his momentary weakness, and galloped to the outworks in front of the town. I heard many a man
and officer swear that the town should never be surrendered—and it never was; while the rebel
columns were soon hurled, flying back for Mission Ridge, a position they deemed impregnable.
CHAPTER XXIX.
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