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Ray Lischner

Exploring C++20
The Programmer’s Introduction to C++
3rd ed.
Ray Lischner
Ellicott City, MD, USA

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.apress.com/9781484259603 . For
more detailed information, please visit
http://www.apress.com/source-code .

ISBN 978-1-4842-5960-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-5961-0

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5961-0

© Ray Lischner 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Apress Media, LLC, 1 New

York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax
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(SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
Introduction
Hi, there. Thank you for reading my book, Exploring C++ 20. My name is
Ray, and I’ll be your author today. And tomorrow. And the day after that.
We’ll be together for quite a while, so why don’t you pull up a chair and
get comfortable. My job is to help you learn C++. To do that, I have
written a series of lessons, called Explorations. Each Exploration is an
interactive exercise that helps you learn C++ one step at a time. Your job
is to complete the Explorations and, in so doing, learn C++.
No doubt you have already leafed through the book a little bit. If not,
do so now. Notice that this book is different from most books. Most
programming books are little more than written lectures. The author
tells you stuff and expects you to read the stuff, learn it, and understand
it.
This book is different. I don’t see much point in lecturing at you.
That’s not how people learn best. You learn programming by reading,
modifying, and writing programs. To that end, I’ve organized this book
so that you spend as much time as possible reading, modifying, and
writing programs.

How to Use This Book

Each Exploration in this book is a mixture of text and interactive
exercises. The exercises are unlike anything you’ve seen in other books.
Instead of multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, or simple Q&A exercises,
my lessons are interactive explorations of key C++ features. Early in the
book, I will give you complete programs to work with. As you learn
more C++, you will modify and extend programs. Pretty soon, you will
write entire programs on your own.
By “interactive,” I mean that I ask questions and you answer them. I
do my best to respond to your answers throughout the lesson text. It
sounds crazy, but by answering the questions, you will be learning C++.
To help ensure you answer the questions, I leave space in this book for
you to write your answers. I’m giving you permission to write in this
book (unless you are borrowing the book from a library or friend). In
fact, I encourage you to write all your answers in the book. Only by
answering the questions will you learn the material properly.
 Sometimes, the questions have no right answer. I pose the question
to make you ponder it, perhaps to look at a familiar topic from a new
perspective. Other times, the question has an unambiguous, correct
answer. I always give the answer in the subsequent text, so don’t skip
ahead! Write your answer before you continue reading. Then and only
then can you check your answer. Some questions are tricky or require
information that I have not yet presented. In such cases, I expect your
answer to be wrong, but that’s okay. Don’t worry. I won’t be grading
you. (If you are using this book as part of a formal class, your teacher
should grade this book’s exercises solely on whether you complete
them, and never on whether your answer was correct. The teacher will
have other exercises, quizzes, and tests to assess your progress in the
class.) And no fair looking ahead and writing down the “correct”
answer. You don’t learn anything that way.
Ready? Let’s practice.
What is your most important task when reading this book?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
This question does not have a single correct answer, but it does have
a number of demonstrably wrong answers. I hope you wrote something
similar to “Completing every exercise” or “Understanding all the
material.” Another good answer is “Having fun.”

The Book’s Organization

C++ is a complicated language. To write even the most trivial program
requires an understanding of many disparate aspects of the language.
The language does not lend itself to neat compartmentalization into
broad topics, such as functions, classes, statements, or expressions. This
book, therefore, does not attempt such an organization. Instead, you
learn C++ in small increments: a little bit of this, a little bit of that, some
more of this, and pretty soon you will have accumulated enough
knowledge to start writing nontrivial programs.
Roughly speaking, the book starts with basic expressions,
declarations, and statements that are sufficient to work with simple
programs. You learn how to use the standard library early in the book.
Next, you learn to write your own functions, to write your own classes,
to write your own templates, and then to write fairly sophisticated
programs.
You won’t be an expert, however, when you finish this book. You will
need much more practice, more exposure to the breadth and depth of
the language and library, and more practice. You will also need more
practice. And some more. You get the idea.

Who Should Read This Book

Read this book if you want to learn C++ and you already know at least
one other programming language. You don’t need to know a specific
language or technology, however. In particular, you don’t need to know
C, nor do you need to know anything about object-oriented
programming.
The C programming language influenced the design of many other
languages, from PHP to Perl to AWK to C#, not to mention C++. As a
result, many programmers who do not know C or C++ nonetheless find
many language constructs hauntingly familiar. You might even feel
confident enough to skip sections of this book that seem to cover old
ground. Don’t do that! From the start, the lessons present language
features that are unique to C++. In a few, isolated cases, I will tell you
when it is safe to skip a section, and only that section. Even when a
language feature is familiar, it might have subtle issues that are unique
to C++.
The trap is most perilous for C programmers because C++ bears the
greatest superficial similarity with C. C programmers, therefore, have
the most to overcome. By design, many C programs are also valid C++
programs, leading the unwary C programmer into the trap of thinking
that good C programs are also good C++ programs. In fact, C and C++
are distinct languages, each with their own idioms and idiosyncrasies.
To become an effective C++ programmer, you must learn the C++ way of
programming. C programmers need to break some of their established
habits and learn to avoid certain C features (such as arrays) in favor of
better C++ idioms. The structure of this book helps you get started
thinking in terms of C++, not C.
Projects
This book also contains four projects. The projects are opportunities to
apply what you have learned. Each project is a realistic endeavor, based
on the amount of C++ covered up to that point. I encourage you to try
every project. Design your project using your favorite software design
techniques. Remember to write test cases in addition to the source
code. Do your best to make the code clean and readable, in addition to
correct. After you are confident that your solution is finished, download
the files from the book’s website and compare your solution with mine.

Work Together
You can use this book alone, teaching yourself C++, or a teacher might
adopt this book as a textbook for a formal course. You can also work
with a partner. It’s more fun to work with friends, and you’ll learn more
and faster by working together. Each of you needs your own copy of the
book. Read the lessons and do the work on your own. If you have
questions, discuss them with your partner, but answer the exercises on
your own. Then compare answers with your partner. If your answers
are different, discuss your reasoning. See if you can agree on a single
answer before proceeding.
Work on the projects together. Maybe you can divide the work into
two (or more) modules. Maybe one person codes and the other person
checks. Maybe you’ll practice some form of pair programming. Do
whatever works best for you, but make sure you understand every line
of code in the project. If you have asymmetric roles, be sure to swap
roles for each project. Give everyone a chance to do everything.

For More Information

This book cannot teach you everything you need to know about C++. No
single book can. After you finish this book, I encourage you to continue
to read and write C++ programs and to seek out other sources of
information. To help guide you, this book has a dedicated website,
https://cpphelp.com/exploring/ . The website has links to
other books, other websites, mailing lists, newsgroups, FAQs, compilers,
other tools, and more. You can also download all the source code for
this book, so you can save yourself some typing.

Why Explorations?
In case you were wondering about the unusual nature of this book, rest
assured that “though this be madness, yet there is method in’t.”
The method is an approach to teaching and writing that I developed
while I was teaching computer science at Oregon State University. I
wanted to improve the quality of my teaching, so I investigated research
into learning and knowledge, especially scientific knowledge, and in
particular, computer programming.
To summarize several decades of research: everyone constructs
mental models of the world. We acquire knowledge by adding
information to our models. The new information must always be in
concert with the model. Sometimes, however, new information
contradicts the model. In that case, we must adjust our models to
accommodate the new information. Our brains are always at work,
always taking in new information, always adjusting our mental models
to fit.
As a result of this research, the emphasis in the classroom has
shifted from teachers to students. In the past, teachers considered
students to be empty vessels, waiting to be filled from the fount of the
teacher’s knowledge and wisdom. Students were passive recipients of
information. Now we know better. Students are not passive, but active.
Even when their outward appearance suggests otherwise, their brains
are always at work, always absorbing new information and fitting that
information into their mental models. The teacher’s responsibility has
changed from being the source of all wisdom to being an indirect
manager of mental models. The teacher cannot manage those models
directly, but can only create classroom situations in which students
have the opportunity to adjust their own models.
Although the research has focused on teachers, the same applies to
authors.
In other words, I cannot teach you C++, but I can create Explorations
that enable you to learn C++. Explorations are not the only way to apply
research to learning and writing, but they are a technique that I have
refined over several years of teaching and have found successful.
Explorations work because
They force you to participate actively in the learning process. It’s too
easy to read a book passively. The questions force you to confront
new ideas and to fit them into your mental model. If you skip the
questions, you might also skip a crucial addition to your model.
They are small, so your model grows in easy steps. If you try to grasp
too much new information at once, you are likely to incorporate
incorrect information into your model. The longer that
misinformation festers, the harder it will be to correct. I want to
make sure your model is as accurate as possible at all times.
They build on what you know. I don’t toss out new concepts with the
vain hope that you will automatically grasp them. Instead, I tie new
concepts to old ones. I do my best to ensure that every concept has a
strong anchor in your existing mental model.
They help you learn by doing. Instead of spending the better part of a
chapter reading how someone else solves a problem, you spend as
much time as possible working hands-on with a program: modifying
existing programs and writing new programs.
C++ is a complicated language, and learning C++ is not easy. In any
group of C++ programmers, even simple questions can often provoke
varied responses. Most C++ programmers’ mental models of the
language are not merely incomplete, but are flawed, sometimes in
fundamental ways. My hope is that I can provide you with a solid
foundation in C++, so that you can write interesting and correct
programs and, most importantly, so that you can continue to learn and
enjoy C++ for many years to come.

The C++ Standard

This book covers the current standard, namely, ISO/IEC 14882:2020
(E), Programming languages — C++. The 2020 edition of the standard is
the all-new, improved, standard, typically referred to as C++ 20. This
book reflects new idioms, new language patterns, and new code. All the
exercises have been tested on modern compilers, but not always
successfully. Most modern compilers do a decent job of conforming to
the standard, but it takes time. The standardization committee
approved the final draft in February of 2020. I am writing this in May
while we all wait for the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) to accept that final draft as standard 14882:2020. Meanwhile,
compiler writers implement different features at different rates, and
each provider makes different choices as to which features to
implement first. As I write this introduction, no compiler fully
implements C++ 20. The book’s website will have up-to-date details as
vendors release updates to their compilers.
Acknowledgments
Writing a book suits life during a pandemic. I sit at home, isolated from
the world, crafting prose today and code tomorrow. Meanwhile, editors
and reviewers fix the prose and critique the code. I never meet them in
person. I trust that they, too, work in safety and isolation during this
time of global pandemic. But before I issue the common thanks and
acknowledgments to those who worked specifically on this book, I must
first thank the unsung heroes of the pandemic who are keeping us alive,
who are keeping us fed, and who help maintain our safety and isolation.
And so I thank the many people who are unable to work in blissful
solitude as they grow, pick, pack, truck, stock, prepare, and deliver our
food and the supplies of everyday life. I thank the health-care workers
who risk their lives daily in care of our loved ones. And I thank Michael
Thomas for his technical review, my editor Mark Powers, and the staff
at Apress for turning my humble bits and bytes into a finished product.

We therefore have great cause of thankfulness,

And shall forget the office of our hand

Sooner than quittance of desert and merit,

According to the weight and worthiness.

—William Shakespeare, The Life of Henry the Fifth, I.i
Table of Contents
Part I: The Basics
Exploration 1:​Honing Your Tools
C++ Versions
Ray’s Recommendations
Clang and LLVM
GNU Compiler Collection
Microsoft Windows
Other Tools
Read the Documentation
Your First Program
Exploration 2:​Reading C++ Code
Comments
Modules
Main Program
Variable Definitions
Statements
Output
Exploration 3:​Integer Expressions
Exploration 4:​Strings
Exploration 5:​Simple Input
Exploration 6:​Error Messages
Misspelling
Bogus Character
Unknown Operator
Unknown Name
 Symbol Errors
Fun with Errors
Exploration 7:​More Loops
Bounded Loops
Initialization
Condition
Postiteration
How a for Loop Works
Your Turn
Exploration 8:​Formatted Output
The Problem
Field Width
Fill Character
std Prefix
Alignment
Exploring Formatting
Alternative Syntax
On Your Own
The format Function
Exploration 9:​Arrays and Vectors
Vectors for Arrays
Vectors
Ranges and Algorithms
Exploration 10:​Algorithms and Ranges
Algorithms
Output Iterators
Exploration 11:​Increment and Decrement
Increment
Decrement
Member Types
Back to Iterators
Exploration 12:​Conditions and Logic
I/​O and bool
Boolean Type
Logic Operators
Old-Fashioned Syntax
Comparison Operators
Exploration 13:​Compound Statements
Statements
Local Definitions and Scope
Definitions in for Loop Headers
Exploration 14:​Introduction to File I/​O
Reading Files
Writing Files
Exploration 15:​The Map Data Structure
Using Maps
Pairs
Searching in Maps
Exploration 16:​Type Synonyms
typedef and using Declarations
Common typedefs
Exploration 17:​Characters
 Character Type
Character I/​O
Newlines and Portability
Character Escapes
Exploration 18:​Character Categories
Character Sets
Character Categories
Locales
Exploration 19:​Case-Folding
Simple Cases
Harder Cases
Exploration 20:​Writing Functions
Functions
Function Call
Declarations and Definitions
Counting Words—Again
The main( ) Function
Exploration 21:​Function Arguments
Argument Passing
Pass-by-Reference
const References
const_​iterator
String Arguments
Multiple Output Parameters
Exploration 22:​Using Ranges
Transforming Data
 Predicates
Other Algorithms
Exploration 23:​Using Iterators
Transforming Data
Sorting with Iterators
Exploration 24:​Unnamed Functions
Lambdas
Naming an Unnamed Function
Capturing Local Variables
const Capture
Return Type
Exploration 25:​Overloading Function Names
Overloading
bool is_​alpha(char ch)
bool is_​alpha(std:​:s​ tring_​view str)
char to_​lower(char ch)
std:​:s​ tring to_​lower(std:​:s​ tring_​view str)
char to_​upper(char ch)
std:​:s​ tring to_​upper(std:​:s​ tring_​view str)
Exploration 26:​Big and Little Numbers
The Long and Short of It
Long Integers
Short Integers
Integer Literals
Byte-Sized Integers
Type Casting
 Make Up Your Own Literals
Integer Arithmetic
Overload Resolution
Exploration 27:​Very Big and Very Little Numbers
Floating-Point Numbers
Floating-Point Literals
Floating-Point Traits
Floating-Point I/​O
Exploration 28:​Documentation
Doxygen
Structured Comments
Documentation Tags and Markdown
@b word
@brief one-sentence-description
@c word
@em word
@file file name
@link entity text @endlink
@mainpage title
@p name
@par title
@param name description
@post postcondition
@pre precondition
@return description
@see xref
 @&​, @@, @\, @%, @<
Using Doxygen
Exploration 29:​Project 1:​Body Mass Index
Hints
Part II: Custom Types
Exploration 30:​Custom Types
Defining a New Type
Member Functions
Constructors
Overloading Constructors
Exploration 31:​Overloading Operators
Comparing Rational Numbers
Arithmetic Operators
Math Functions
Exploration 32:​Custom I/​O Operators
Input Operator
Output Operator
Error State
Exploration 33:​Assignment and Initialization
Assignment Operator
Constructors
Putting It All Together
Exploration 34:​Writing Classes
Anatomy of a Class
Member Functions
Constructor
 Defaulted and Deleted Constructors
Exploration 35:​More About Member Functions
Revisiting Project 1
const Member Functions
Exploration 36:​Access Levels
Public vs.​Private
class vs.​struct
Public or Private?​
Exploration 37:​Understanding Object-Oriented Programming
Books and Magazines
Classification
Inheritance
Liskov’s Substitution Principle
Type Polymorphism
Exploration 38:​Inheritance
Deriving a Class
Member Functions
Destructors
Access Level
Programming Style
Exploration 39:​Virtual Functions
Type Polymorphism
Virtual Functions
References and Slices
Pure Virtual Functions
Virtual Destructors
Exploration 40:​Classes and Types
Classes vs.​typedefs
Value Types
Copying
Assigning
Moving
Comparing
Resource Acquisition Is Initialization
Exploration 41:​Declarations and Definitions
Declaration vs.​Definition
inline Functions
Variable Declarations and Definitions
Static Variables
Static Data Members
Declarators
Exploration 42:​Modules
Introducing Modules
Classes and Modules
Hiding the Implementation
Modules Exporting Modules
Compiling Modules
Exploration 43:​Old-Fashioned “Modules”
Interfaces As Headers
Inline or Not Inline
Quotes and Brackets
Include Guards
 Forward Declarations
extern Variables
One-Definition Rule
Exploration 44:​Function Objects
The Function Call Operator
Function Objects
Exploration 45:​Useful Algorithms
Ranges and Iterators
Searching
Linear Search Algorithms
Binary Search Algorithms
Comparing
Rearranging Data
Copying Data
Deleting Elements
Iterators
Exploration 46:​More About Iterators
Kinds of Iterators
Input Iterators
Output Iterators
Forward Iterators
Bidirectional Iterators
Random Access Iterators
Contiguous Iterators
Working with Iterators
const_​iterator vs.​const iterator
 Error Messages
Specialized Iterators
Exploration 47:​Ranges, Views, and Adaptors
Ranges
Range Views
Range Pipelines
Range Adaptors
The drop View
The filter View
The join View
The keys View
The reverse View
The transform View
The take View
The values View
Exploration 48:​Exceptions
Introducing Exceptions
Catching Exceptions
Throwing Exceptions
Program Stack
Standard Exceptions
I/​O Exceptions
Custom Exceptions
When a Function Doesn’t Throw Exceptions
System Errors
Exceptional Advice
Exploration 49:​More Operators
Conditional Operator
Short-Circuit Operators
Comma Operator
Arithmetic Assignment Operators
Increment and Decrement
Exploration 50:​Project 2:​Fixed-Point Numbers
The fixed Class
value_type
places
places10
fixed( )
fixed(value_​type integer, value_​type fraction)
fixed(double val)
to_string()
round()
integer()
fraction()
Part III: Generic Programming
Exploration 51:​Function Templates
Generic Functions
Using Function Templates
Writing Function Templates
Template Parameters
Template Arguments
 Abbreviated Function Templates
Declarations and Definitions
Member Function Templates
Exploration 52:​Class Templates
Parameterizing a Type
Parameterizing the rational Class
Using Class Templates
Overloaded Operators
Mixing Types
Template Variables
Exploration 53:​Template Specialization
Instantiation and Specialization
Custom Comparators
Specializing Function Templates
Traits
Exploration 54:​Partial Template Specialization
Degenerate Pairs
Partial Specialization
Partially Specializing Function Templates
Value Template Parameters
Exploration 55:​Template Constraints
Constraining a Function Template
Constraining a Class Template
Standard Concepts
std::equality_comparable<T>
std::floating_point<T>
 std::integral<T>
predicate<T>
std::strict_weak_order<T>
Iterator Concepts
std::bidirection_iterator<I>
std::contiguous_iterator<I>
std::forward_iterator<I>
std::indirectly_readable<I>
std::indirectly_writable<I>
std::input_iterator<I>
std::input_or_output_iterator<I>
std::output_iterator<I>
std::permutable<I>
std::random_access_iterator<I>
std::sortable<I>
Range Concepts
std::ranges::bidirectional_range<R>
std::ranges::contiguous_range<R>
std::ranges::forward_range<R>
std::ranges::input_range<R>
std::ranges::output_range<R>
std::ranges::random_access_range<R>
std::ranges::range<R>
std::ranges::sized_range<R>
std::ranges::view<R>
 Writing Your Own Concept
Exploration 56:​Names and Namespaces
Namespaces
Nested Namespaces
Global Namespace
The std Namespace
Using Namespaces
Namespace Alias
The using Directive
The using Declaration
The using Declaration in a Class
Name Lookup
Exploration 57:​Containers
Properties of Containers
Member Types
value_​type
key_​type
reference
const_​reference
iterator
const_​iterator
size_​type
What Can Go into a Container
Inserting and Erasing
Inserting in a Sequence Container
Erasing from a Sequence Container
 Inserting in an Associative Container
Erasing from an Associative Container
Exceptions
Iterators and References
Sequence Containers
The array Class Template
The deque Class Template
The list Class Template
The vector Class Template
Associative Containers
Exploration 58:​Locales and Facets
The Problem
Locales to the Rescue
Locales and I/​O
Facets
Character Categories
Collation Order
Exploration 59:​International Characters
Why Wide?​
Using Wide Characters
Wide Strings
Wide Character I/​O
Multi-byte Character Sets
Unicode
Universal Character Names
Unicode Difficulties
Exploration 60:​Text I/​O
File Modes
String Streams
Text Conversion
Exploration 61:​Project 3:​Currency Type
Part IV: Real Programming
Exploration 62:​Pointers
A Programming Problem
The Solution
Addresses vs.​Pointers
Dependency Graphs
Exploration 63:​Regular Expressions
Parsing with Regular Expressions
Exploration 64:​Moving Data with Rvalue References
Copying vs.​Moving
Lvalues, Rvalues, and More
Implementing Move
Rvalue or Lvalue?​
Special Member Functions
Exploration 65:​Smart Pointers
Pointers and Iterators
More About unique_ptr
Copyable Smart Pointers
Smart Arrays
Pimpls
Dumb Arrays
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
No. 379 is of the 15th century. It contains the Epitome of Gemistus
Pletho of the first ten books, and the whole of the last seven books.
It is the codex which served for the copy, No. 1398, in the Imperial
Library at Paris. Formerly the property of Cardinal Bessarion.
No. 606 contains the last eight books, and was written towards the
end of the 15th century. It contains nothing which is not to be found
in other manuscripts.
Codices in the Ambrosian Library, Milan:
Codex M. 53 contains all but book ii., and is of the 15th century. The
books are not written on paper of the same size, nor in consecutive
order, although by the same hand. Book ii. is to be found in Codex
N. 289, together with portions of other authors, written by a
different transcriber, no doubt with the intention of completing this
codex. According to Kramer, the first ten books are copied from
Codex 5 of the Medici MS. The 13th, 14th, 12th books (the order in
which they stand) from the Medici MS. 19, and the 11th, 15th, 16th,
17th, from the Medici MS. 15. Partly collated by Kramer.
Codex G. 53 contains the seventeen books, and is of the end of the
15th century. Five leaves at the beginning, and two at the end, are
destroyed by damp, traces of which are to be seen throughout.
Partly collated by Kramer.
In the Library of Eton College is a codex containing the first ten
books; it was written at Constantinople. Kramer, who, however, did
not see it, conjectures that the Medici MS., Codex 15, containing the
last eight books, was formerly united to it, and completed the whole
work. Collated for Falconer.
In the Library of the Escurial is a codex completed, as we are
informed by a note at the end, a. d. 1423. Collated by Bayer for
Falconer.
The Madrid Library possesses a codex written in the latter part of the
15th century, containing the seventeen books.
In the Library at Moscow is a codex containing the seventeen books;
it was written at the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th
century. The first nine books resemble the Paris Codex, No. 1397;
the last eight, the Venetian Codex, No. 640. It came from one of the
monasteries of Mount Athos, and was not destroyed, as Groskurd
suspects, in the great fire of 1812, but is still to be found in the
Library of the Holy Synod, under No. 204 (Matt. ccv.), as I am
informed by the Archimandrite Sabba, who dates from the Kremlin,
April 4th, 1857.
A codex also is yet to be found in one of the monasteries of Mount
Athos. From the accounts of learned travellers (Zacharias, Reise in
den Orient, and Fallmerayer, in the Allgem. Zeitg. 5 Jun. 1843), it
contains nothing which can supply the deficiencies of those MSS.
with which we are acquainted.
Besides the above codices, there exist four epitomes of the
Geography of Strabo, of which,
1. The Epitome Palatina, in the Heidelberg Library, is the oldest of all
MSS. of this work. It is probably of the beginning of the 10th
century, although Dodwell places it between 976 and 996. The codex
from which it was copied appears to have been perfect, and
contained the whole of the 7th book, which is imperfect in all other
codices. It is, however, to be regretted that the author did not
confine himself to following the text of Strabo; he has not only
indulged in curtailing, transposing, and changing the words and
sentences of the original, but has sometimes also added expressions
of his own.
2. The Vatican Epitome is of more value than the preceding; the
extracts are more copious, the author seldom wanders from the text
of Strabo, and in no instance inserts language of his own. The codex
which served as the basis for the Epitome contained the 7th book
entire, and from this and the Palatine Epitome Kramer collected the
fragments of the last part of the 7th book, which appear for the first
time in his edition (see vol. i. of the Translation, p. 504). This codex
was written in the middle of the 14th century, and has suffered
much by time and carelessness; several leaves are lost, and lines of
the text at the top and bottom of the pages have been cut off in the
binding.
3. The Parisian Epitome, on which no great value is placed by
Kramer.
4. The Epitome of Gemistus Pletho, referred to above, is of great
value, and held in the highest estimation by all editors.
The first appearance of Strabo’s work in print was a Latin translation
by Guarini, of Verona, and Gregorio of Tiferno. Of this, thirteen
editions were printed, the first in 1469 or 1471, the twelfth in 1559,
and the last in 1652. It is not known from what manuscripts the
translation was taken, nor whether they now exist; but, though the
translation itself is barbarous, and in many passages erroneous, its
fidelity to the original is so apparent, that all editors to the present
time have consulted it as a manuscript.
The first edition of the Greek text was printed at Venice by Aldus in
1516, and was taken from so corrupt a manuscript that Coraÿ
compares it to the Augean stable. The second edition was a
repetition of the Aldine, accompanied by the Latin translation of
Guarini, and was published by Hopper and Heresbach, at Bâsle, in
1549. The third edition, by Xylander, in 1570, was also a repetition of
the text of Aldus; but a new Latin translation accompanied it. The
fourth and fifth editions, which do not essentially differ, were
published in 1587 and 1620, by Isaac Casaubon. He collated for his
edition four manuscripts, which he obtained from his father-in-law,
H. Stephens, and was the first to add a commentary; but it is not
known what manuscripts were made use of. The edition of
Almeloveen, 1707, being a reprint of Casaubon, with notes, and an
edition commenced by Brequigny, Paris, 1763, but not continued
beyond the first three books, can scarcely be placed among the
number of new editions. Brequigny left a French translation in
manuscript and notes in Latin, which were consulted by the French
translators.
The seventh edition was that of Thomas Falconer of Chester, and of
Brasenose College, published in 2 vols. folio, at Oxford, 1807. For the
first time since Casaubon’s last edition, nearly 200 years before,
manuscripts were collated for this edition, namely, those of Eton,
Moscow, the Escurial, and the Laurentian library; the conjectural
emendations of Tyrwhitt, and notes of the editor and others, are
added. “It has everything that is valuable in Casaubon’s edition,
besides having corrected numberless typographical errors. In the
account given of it, the public are as much wronged as we are
abused; for no view whatever is laid before them of its nature or its
merits.”18 Thos. Falconer, having prepared the greater part of the
work for the press, died in 1792. A little more than the two first
books were edited by John Parsons, Bishop of Peterborough, and
formerly Master of Balliol College, Oxford; but the whole work was,
ultimately, in 1802 given up to Thomas Falconer (nephew of the
former), of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who completed it and
wrote the preface. A complete revisal of the text, however, was not
attempted.
The eighth edition was that of Professor J. P. Siebenkees, of which
great expectations were formed. The deficiencies of his performance
are strongly commented on by Kramer. Siebenkees lived to complete
only the first six books; the remainder of the work was undertaken
by Tzchucke, and conducted with greater skill and ability than by his
predecessor. It was published in 1811, 6 vols. 8vo.
The ninth edition is that by Coraÿ, Paris, 1815-1818, 4 vols. 8vo.
Kramer passes an unfavourable opinion on it. The editor, according
to him, did not possess an aptitude for discriminating the value of
the different manuscripts he collated, and considered more what he
thought ought to have been written than what were really the
author’s words. Hence, although he was successful in restoring the
true readings of many passages, he corrupted not a few, and left
untouched many errors. Yet he was a very able scholar, and has the
merit of attempting the first critical edition of Strabo.
The tenth edition is that by Professor Gustavus Kramer, in 3 vols.
8vo, the first of which appeared in 1844, the last in 1852. The editor
has brought to his task great ability and unwearied labour; of the
many years spent in the preparation of it, were passed in Italy for
the purpose of collating manuscripts. This edition surpasses all
others in completeness, and little is left for correction by subsequent
editors.
A. Meineke published at Leipsic, in 3 vols., 1852, a reprint of
Kramer’s text, with some emendations of his own contained in his
work, “Vindiciarum Straboniarum Liber.” Berlin, 1852.
C. Müller and F. Dübner have also published the first vol., Paris,
1852, of a reprint of Kramer’s text, with Meineke’s corrections. It is
accompanied by a new Latin translation, of which the first six books
are by Dübner, and the remainder by Müller.
In modern languages, we have a translation by Alfonso Buonacciuoli,
of Ferrara, in Italian, 2 vols. 8vo, Venice, 1552. It is a very literal
translation from a manuscript, and is frequently quoted by the
French translators. Also a translation in German by Abr. Penzel, in 4
vols., Lemgow, 1775. It is not literal, and abounds with wilful
additions and alterations of the author’s meaning.
A translation in French was published at Paris in five vols. 4to, from
the year 1805 to 1819. The first three books are translated by De la
Porte du Theil and Coraÿ together. The 4th, 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th,
14th, and 15th books are by Coraÿ; the 5th, 6th, 9th, 10th, and
11th, by De la Porte du Theil; on the death of the latter, Letronne
undertook the translation of the 16th and 17th books. The whole is
accompanied by very copious notes by the translators, and others on
geographical and mathematical subjects, by Gossellin. As might be
expected from the united labour of such distinguished men, this
translation, which was undertaken at the command of Napoleon I.,
has been held in high estimation. De la Porte du Theil, for the
purpose of conveying to the reader a more accurate idea of the state
of the text of the ninth book than could be given by description or
notes, has prefaced his translation by a copy, page for page and line
for line, of the original manuscript. The number of mutilated
passages amounts to two thousand. For the purpose of restoring the
text, recourse has been had to other manuscripts, to conjectures, to
extracts from the Epitomes, and to quotations of Strabo’s work
contained in the Geographical Lexicon of Stephanus of Byzantium,
composed before the seventh century, and in the Commentaries of
Eustathius on Homer, which were written towards the end of the
twelfth century. It is an example of Kramer’s just remark, that no
work of any ancient author, which has descended to our time, has
suffered more from various causes.
A translation by F. Ambrosoli, forming part of the “Collana degli
Antichi Storici Greci,” was published in 1832, 4 vols. 8vo, Milan, and
is founded on the French translation. A translation of the third book
(Spain) by Lopez, was published at Madrid, 1788, and is well spoken
of. The best translation of the whole work—and too much cannot be
said in praise of it—is in German, by Groskurd, 4 vols. 8vo, Berlin,
1831-1834. The last volume contains a very copious index.
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge considerable obligations to the
notes and prefaces of Groskurd, Kramer, the French translators, and
others.
The part of the translation for which I am responsible commences at
chap. iv. book vii., vol. i. p. 473, to the end of the work, and is partly
based on an incomplete translation in MS. by my late father, the Rev.
Dr. T. Falconer. The previous portion is the work of Hans C. Hamilton,
Esq., F.S.A., to whom I am indebted for his continued interest in the
translation throughout, for his care in correcting the press, and for
valuable suggestions.
A complete index, which concludes the third volume, has been
compiled with the greatest regard to accuracy, by a gentleman of
tried skill and ability. It contains every geographical name mentioned
by Strabo; and the modern names, printed in italics, are also added,
as far as can be ascertained: they are not given with perfect
confidence in all cases; discussion on doubtful points would have
exceeded the limits of this work; and reference may be
advantageously made, where more minute detail is required, to the
able articles in Dr. W. Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Geography.
W. FALCONER.
Rectory, Bushey, Herts.
September 1, 1857.
STRABO’S GEOGRAPHY.
 BOOK XIV.

SUMMARY.
The Fourteenth Book contains an account of the Cyclades islands and the region
opposite to them, Pamphylia, Isauria, Lycia, Pisidia, Cilicia as far as Seleucia of
Syria, and that part of Asia properly called Ionia.

CHAPTER I.

1. There remain to be described Ionia, Caria, and the sea-coast

beyond the Taurus, which is occupied by Lycians, Pamphylians, and
Cilicians.19 We shall thus finish the description of the whole circuit of
the peninsula, the isthmus of which, we have said, consists of the
tract between the Euxine and the Sea of Issus.
2. The navigation around Ionia along the coast is about 3430 stadia.
It is a considerable distance, on account of the gulfs, and of the
peninsular form for the most part of the country, but the length in a
straight line is not great. The distance, for example, from Ephesus to
Smyrna is a journey in a straight line of 320 stadia; to Metropolis20 is
120 stadia, and the remainder to Smyrna; but this distance by sea is
little less than 2200 stadia. The extent of the Ionian coast is
reckoned from Poseidium,21 belonging to the Milesians, and the
boundaries of Caria, as far as Phocæa,22 and the river Hermus.23

3. According to Pherecydes, Miletus, Myus,24 Mycale, and Ephesus,

on this coast, were formerly occupied by Carians; the part of the
coast next in order, as far as Phocæa, and Chios, and Samos, of
which Ancæus was king, were occupied by Leleges, but both nations
were expelled by the Ionians, and took refuge in the remaining parts
of Caria.
Pherecydes says that the leader of the Ionian, which was posterior
to the Æolian migration, was Androclus, a legitimate son of Codrus
king of the Athenians, and that he was the founder of Ephesus,
hence it was that it became the seat of the royal palace of the
Ionian princes. Even at present the descendants of that race are
called kings, and receive certain honours, as the chief seat at the
public games, a purple robe as a symbol of royal descent, a staff
instead of a sceptre, and the superintendence of the sacrifices in
honour of the Eleusinian Ceres.
Neleus, of a Pylian family, founded Miletus. The Messenians and
Pylians pretend that there is some affinity between them; in
reference to which later poets say that even Nestor was a
Messenian, and that many Pylians accompanied Melanthus, the
father of Codrus, to Athens, and that all this people sent out the
colony in common with the Ionians. There is also to be seen on the
promontory Poseidium an altar erected by Neleus.

Myus was founded by Cydrelus, a spurious son of Codrus; Lebedos25

by Andropompus, who took possession of a place called Artis;
Colophon by Andræmon, a Pylian, as Mimnermus mentions in his
poem of Nanno;26 Priene by Æpytus, son of Neleus; and afterwards
by Philotas, who brought a colony from Thebes; Teos by Athamas,
its first founder, whence Anacreon calls the city Athamantis, but at
the time of the Ionian migration of the colony it received settlers
from Nauclus, a spurious son of Codrus, and after this from Apœcus
and Damasus, who were Athenians, and from Geres, a Bœotian;
Erythræ was founded by Cnopus, who also was a spurious son of
Codrus; Phocæa by Athenians, who accompanied Philogenes;
Clazomenæ by Paralus; Chios by Egertius, who brought with him a
mixed body of colonists; Samos by Tembrion, and afterwards by
Procles.
4. These are the twelve Ionian cities. At a subsequent period Smyrna
also was added to the Ionian association at the instance of the
Ephesians, for anciently they inhabited the same city, at which time
Ephesus was called Smyrna. Callinus somewhere gives it this name,
and calls the Ephesians Smyrnæans in the address to Jupiter:
“And pity the Smyrnæans;”

and in another passage,

“remember now, if ever, the beautiful thighs of the oxen [which the Smyrnæans
burnt in sacrifice].”

Smyrna was an Amazon, who got possession of Ephesus; from her

the inhabitants and the city had their name, in the same manner as
some Ephesians were called Sisyrbitæ from Sisyrba; and a certain
spot in Ephesus was called Smyrna, as Hipponax testifies:
“He lived in Smyrna, at the back of the city between Tracheia and Lepre Acta.”

The mountain Prion was called Lepre Acta; it overhangs the present
city, and has on it a portion of the wall. Even now the farms at the
back of the Prion retain the name in the term Opistholepria. The
country along the foot of the mountain about Coressus was called
Tracheia. The city was anciently built about the Athenæum, which is
now beyond the city, at the (fountain) Hypelæus. Smyrna therefore
was situated near the present gymnasium, at the back of the
present city, but between Tracheia and Lepre Acta. The Smyrnæans,
upon quitting the Ephesians, marched to the place where Smyrna
now stood, and which was in the possession of Leleges. They
expelled these people and founded the ancient Smyrna, which is
distant from the present city about 20 stadia. They were themselves
afterwards expelled by Æolians, and took refuge at Colophon; they
then returned with a body of men from the latter place, and
recovered their own city, Smyrna. Mimnermus relates this in his
poem of Nanno, and says of Smyrna, that it was always a subject of
contention;
“after leaving Pylus, the lofty city of Neleus, we came in our voyage to the long
wished-for Asia, and settled at Colophon, and hastening thence from the river
Astëeis, by the will of the gods we took Æolian Smyrna.”

So much then on this subject.

We must, however, again describe each place in particular, beginning
with the principal cities, from which the first settlements originated, I
mean Miletus and Ephesus, for these are superior to all others, and
the most celebrated.

5. Next after the Poseidium of the Milesians, at the distance of 1827

stadia from the sea-coast, is the oracle of Apollo Didymeus among
the Branchidæ. This, as well as the other temples, except that at
Ephesus, was burnt by the order of Xerxes.28 The Branchidæ
delivered up the treasures of the god to the Persian king, and
accompanied him in his flight, in order to avoid the punishment of
sacrilege and treachery.
The Milesians afterwards built a temple, which exceeded in size all
others, but it remained without a roof on account of its magnitude.
The circuit of the sacred enclosure contained within it a village with
a magnificent grove, which also extended beyond it; other sacred
enclosures contain the oracle, and what belongs to the worship of
the god.
Here is laid the scene of the fable of Branchus, and Apollo’s love for
him. The temple is adorned with the most costly offerings, the
productions of ancient art.

Thence to the city the journey is not long either by land or sea.29
6. Ephorus relates that Miletus was first founded and fortified by the
Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where at present the
ancient Miletus is situated, and that Sarpedon conducted thither
settlers from the Miletus in Crete,30 and gave it the same name; that
Leleges were the former occupiers of the country, and that
afterwards Neleus built the present city.
The present city has four harbours, one of which will admit a fleet of
ships.31 The citizens have achieved many great deeds, but the most
important is the number of colonies which they established. The
whole Euxine, for instance, and the Propontis, and many other
places, are peopled with their settlers.
Anaximenes of Lampsacus says, that the Milesians colonized both
the island Icarus and Lerus, and Limnæ on the Hellespont, in the
Chersonesus; in Asia, Abydus, Arisba, and Pæsus; on the island of
the Cyziceni, Artace and Cyzicus; in the interior of the Troad,
Scepsis. We have mentioned, in our particular description of places,
other cities which this writer has omitted.
Both the Milesians and Delians invoke Apollo Ulius, as dispensing
health and curing diseases; for οὔλειν32 is to be in health, whence
οὐλή,33 a wound healed, and the phrase in Homer,34 Οὖλέ τε καὶ
μέγα χαῖρε, “health and good welcome;” for Apollo is a healer, and
Artemis has her name from making persons ἀρτεμέας, or sound. The
sun, also, and moon are associated with these deities, since they are
the causes of the good qualities of the air; pestilential diseases, also,
and sudden death are attributed to these deities.
7. Illustrious persons, natives of Miletus, were Thales, one of the
seven wise men, the first person who introduced among the Greeks
physiology and mathematics; his disciple Anaximander, and
Anaximenes the disciple of Anaximander. Besides these, Hecatæus
the historian;35 and of our time, Æschines the orator, who was
banished for having spoken with too great freedom before Pompey
the Great, and died in exile.
Miletus shut her gates against Alexander, and experienced the
misfortune of being taken by storm, which was also the fate of
Halicarnassus; long before this time it was captured by the Persians.
Callisthenes relates, that Phrynichus the tragic writer was fined a
thousand drachmæ by the Athenians for composing a play entitled
“The taking of Miletus by Darius.” The island Lade lies close in front
of Miletus, and small islands about Tragææ,36 which afford a shelter
for pirates.
8. Next follows the Gulf of Latmus, on which is situated “Heracleia
under Latmus,”37 as it is called, a small town with a shelter for
vessels. It formerly had the same name as the mountain above,
which Hecatæus thinks was the same as that called by the poet38
the mountain of the Phtheiri, for he says that the mountain of the
Phtheiri was situated below Latmus; but some say that it was Grium,
as being parallel to Latmus, and extending from the Milesian
territory towards the east, through Caria, as far as Euromus and
Chalcetores. However, the mountain rises up in sight of39 the city.
At a little distance further, after crossing a small river near Latmus,
there is seen in a cave the sepulchre of Endymion. Then from
Heracleia to Pyrrha, a small city, is about 100 stadia by sea, but a
little more from Miletus to Heracleia, if we include the winding of the
bays.
9. From Miletus to Pyrrha, in a straight line by sea, is 30 stadia; so
much longer is the journey by sailing near the land.
10. When we are speaking of celebrated places, the reader must
endure with patience the dryness of such geographical descriptions.
From Pyrrha to the mouth of the Mæander are 50 stadia. The
ground about it is marshy and a swamp. In sailing up the river in
vessels rowed by oars to the distance of 30 stadia, we come to
Myus,40 one of the twelve Ionian cities, which, on account of its
diminished population, is now incorporated with Miletus. Xerxes is
said to have given this city to Themistocles to supply him with fish,
Magnesia with bread, and Lampsacus with wine.41
11. At four stadia from Myus is Thymbria, a Carian village, near
which is Aornum; this is a sacred cave called Charonium, which
emits destructive vapours. Above it is Magnesia42 on the Mæander, a
colony of the Magnesians of Thessaly and Crete. We shall speak of it
very soon.
12. After the mouths of the Mæander follows the shore of Priene.
Above it is Priene,43 and the mountain Mycale,44 which abounds with
animals of the chace, and is covered with forests. It is situated
above the Samian territory, and forms towards it, beyond the
promontory Trogilium,45 a strait of above 7 stadia in width. Priene is
called by some writers Cadme, because Philotus, its second founder,
was a Bœotian. Bias, one of the seven wise men, was a native of
Priene, of whom Hipponax uses this expression;
“More just in pleadings than Bias of Priene.”

13. In front of Trogilium lies an island of the same name. Thence,

which is the nearest way, is a passage across to Sunium of 1600
stadia. At the commencement of the voyage, on the right hand are
Samos, Icaria, and the Corsiæ islands;46 on the left, the Melantian
rocks.47 The remainder of the voyage lies through the middle of the
Cyclades islands. The promontory Trogilium itself may be considered
as a foot of the mountain Mycale. Close to Mycale is another
mountain, the Pactyas, belonging to the Ephesian territory, where
the Mesogis terminates.
14. From Trogilium to Samos are 40 stadia. Both this and the
harbour, which has a station for vessels, have a southern aspect. A
great part of it is situated on a flat, and is overflowed by the sea,
but a part also rises towards the mountain which overhangs it. On
the right hand, in sailing towards the city, is the Poseidium, a
promontory, which forms towards Mycale the strait of 7 stadia. It has
upon it a temple of Neptune. In front is a small island, Narthecis; on
the left, near the Heræum, is the suburb, and the river Imbrasus,
and the Heræum, an ancient temple, and a large nave, which at
present is a repository for paintings. Besides the great number of
paintings in the Heræum, there are other repositories and some
small chapels, filled with works of ancient art. The Hypæthrum also
is full of the best statues. Of these, three of colossal size, the work
of Myron, stand upon the same base. Antony took them all away,
but Augustus Cæsar replaced two, the Minerva and the Hercules,
upon the same base. He transported the Jupiter to the Capitol,
having built a chapel for its reception.

15. The voyage round the island Samos is 600 stadia.48 Formerly,
when the Carians inhabited it, it was called Parthenia, then
Anthemus, then Melamphylus,49 then Samos, either from the name
of some native hero, or from some one who conducted a colony
thither from Ithaca and Cephallenia. In it is a promontory looking
towards Drepanum in Icaria, which has the name of Ampelos, (the
Vine,) but the whole mountain, which spreads over the island, has
the same name. The island is not remarkable for good wine,50
although the islands around, as Chios, Lesbos, Cos, and almost all
the adjacent continent, produce wines of the best kind. The
Ephesian and the Metropolites are good wines, but the Mesogis, the
Tmolus, the Catacecaumene, Cnidos, Smyrna, and other more
obscure places, are distinguished for the excellence of their wines,
whether for gratification or dietetic purposes.
Samos is not very fortunate as regards the production of wine, but in
general it is fertile, as appears from its possession being a subject of
warlike contention, and from the language of its panegyrists, who do
not hesitate to apply to it the proverb,
“It produces even birds’ milk,”

as Menander somewhere says. This was the cause also of the

tyrannies established there, and of the enmity of the Athenians.
16. The tyrannies were at their height in the time of Polycrates and
his brother Syloson. The former was distinguished for his good
fortune, and the possession of such a degree of power as made him
master of the sea. It is related as an instance of his good fortune,
that having purposely thrown into the sea his ring, which was of
great value both on account of the stone and the engraving, a short
time afterwards a fisherman caught the fish which had swallowed it,
and on cutting the fish open, the ring was discovered. When the
king of Egypt was informed of this, he declared, it is said, with a
prophetic spirit, that Polycrates, who had been elevated to such a
height of prosperity, would soon end his life unfortunately; and this
was actually the case, for he was taken by the Persian satrap by
stratagem, and crucified. Anacreon, the lyric poet, was his
contemporary, and all his poetry abounds with the praises of
Polycrates.
It is said that in his time Pythagoras, observing the growing tyranny,
left the city, and travelled to Egypt and Babylon, with a view to
acquire knowledge. On his return from his travels, perceiving that
the tyranny still prevailed, he set sail for Italy, and there passed the
remainder of his life.
So much respecting Polycrates.
17. Syloson was left by his brother in a private station. But he made
a present to Darius, son of Hystaspes, of a robe which the latter saw
him wearing, and very much desired to possess. Darius was not king
at this time, but when he became king, Polycrates received as a
compensation the tyranny of Samos. He governed with so much
severity, that the city was depopulated, which gave occasion to the
proverb,
“By the pleasure of Syloson there is room enough.”

18. The Athenians formerly sent Pericles their general, and with him
Sophocles the poet, who harassed with the evils of a siege the
refractory Samians. Afterwards51 they sent thither a colony of two
thousand citizens, among whom was Neocles the father of Epicurus,
and, according to report, a school-master. It is said, that Epicurus
was educated here and at Teos, and was admitted among the
ephebi at Athens, having as his comrade in that class Menander the
comic poet. Creophylus was a native of Samos,52 who, it is said,
once entertained Homer as his guest, and received, in return, his
poem entitled “The taking of Œchalia.” Callimachus, on the contrary,
intimates in an epigram that it was the composition of Creophylus,
but ascribed to Homer on account of the story of his hospitable
entertainment by Creophylus:
“I am the work of the Samian, who once entertained in his house, as a guest, the
divine Homer. I grieve for the sufferings of Eurytus, and mourn for the yellow-
haired Ioleia. I am called Homer’s writing. O Jupiter, how glorious this for
Creophylus.”

Some say that he was Homer’s master; according to others, it was

not Creophylus, but Aristeas of Proconnesus.
19. The island of Icaria, from which the Icarian Sea has its name, is
near Samos. The island has its name from Icarus, the son of
Dædalus, who, it is said, having accompanied his father in his flight,
when both of them, furnished with wings, set out from Crete, fell on
that island, unable to sustain his flight. He had mounted too near
the sun, and the wings dropped off on the melting of the wax [with
which they were fastened].
The whole island is 300 stadia in circumference; it has no harbours,
but only anchorages, the best of which is called Histi. A promontory
stretches towards the west. There is also on the island a temple of
Diana, called Tauropolium, and a small town Œnoë; and another,
Dracanum,53 of the same name as the promontory on which it
stands, with an anchorage for vessels. The promontory is distant
from the promontory of the Samians, called Cantharius, 80 stadia,
which is the shortest passage from one to the other. The Samians
occupy it at present in its depopulated state, chiefly for the sake of
pasture which it affords for cattle.
20. Next to the Samian strait at Mycale, on the right hand on the
voyage to Ephesus, is the sea-coast of the Ephesians, a part of
which even the Samians possess. First on the sea-coast is the
Panionium,54 distant from the sea three stadia, where the Panionia,
a common festival of the Ionians, is celebrated, and a sacrifice is
performed in honour of the Heliconian Neptune. The priests are
Prienians. We have spoken of them in the description of
Peloponnesus.
Then follows Neapolis, which formerly belonged to the Ephesians,
but now belongs to the Samians, having exchanged Marathesium55
for it, the more distant for the nearer place. Next is Pygela, a small
town, containing a temple of Diana Munychia. It was founded by
Agamemnon, and colonized by some of his soldiers, who had a
disease in the buttocks, and were called Pygalgeis; as they laboured
under this complaint, they settled there, and the town had the
appropriate name of Pygela.56
Next is a harbour called Panormus, with a temple of the Ephesian
Diana; then the city.
On the same coast, at a little distance from the sea, is Ortygia, a fine
wood with trees of all kinds, but the cypress in the greatest
abundance. Through this wood flows the river Cenchrius, in which
Latona is said to have bathed after the birth of her child. For here is
laid the scene of the birth of the child, the cares of the nurse
Ortygia, the cave in which the birth took place, the neighbouring
olive tree under which the goddess first reposed when the pains of
child-birth had ceased.
Above the wood is the mountain Solmissus, where, it is said, the
Curetes stationed themselves, and with the noise of their arms
perplexed and terrified Juno, who was enviously watching in secret
the delivery of Latona, who was thus assisted in concealing the birth
of the child.
There are many temples in the place, some of which are ancient,
others of later times; in the former are ancient statues; in the latter
are works of Scopas, Latona holding a sceptre, and Ortygia standing
by her with a child in each arm.
A convention and festival are celebrated there every year. It is the
custom for young men to vie with each other, particularly in the
splendour of their convivial entertainments. The body of Curetes
celebrate their Symposia at the same time, and perform certain
mystic sacrifices.
21. The city of Ephesus was inhabited both by Carians and Leleges.
After Androclus had expelled the greatest part of the inhabitants, he
settled his companions about the Athenæum, and the Hypelæum,
and in the mountainous tract at the foot of the Coressus. It was thus
inhabited till the time of Crœsus. Afterwards, the inhabitants
descended from the mountainous district, and settled about the
present temple, and continued there to the time of Alexander. Then
Lysimachus built a wall round the present temple, and, perceiving
the inhabitants unwilling to remove thither, took advantage of a
heavy storm of rain which he saw approaching, and obstructed the
drains so as to inundate the city, and the inhabitants were glad to
leave it for another place.
He called the city Arsinoë, after the name of his wife, but the old
name prevailed. A body of elders was enrolled, with whom were
associated persons called Epicleti, who administered all the affairs of
the city.

22. Chersiphron57 was the first architect of the temple of Diana;

another afterwards enlarged it, but when Herostratus set fire to it,58
the citizens constructed one more magnificent. They collected for
this purpose the ornaments of the women, contributions from
private property, and the money arising from the sale of pillars of the
former temple. Evidence of these things is to be found in the
decrees of that time. Artemidorus says, that Timæus of
Tauromenium, in consequence of his ignorance of these decrees,
and being otherwise a calumniator and detractor, (whence he had
the name of Epitimæus, or Reviler,) avers that the Ephesians
restored the temple by means of the treasure deposited there by the
Persians. But at that time no treasure was deposited, and if any had
been deposited there, it must have been consumed together with
the temple: after the conflagration, when the roof was destroyed,
who would wish to have a deposit lying there, with the sacred
enclosure exposed to the air?
Besides, Artemidorus says, that Alexander promised to defray the
expense of its restoration, both what had been and what would be
incurred, on condition that the work should be attributed to him in
the inscription, but the Ephesians refused to accede to this; much
less, then, would they be disposed to acquire fame by sacrilege and
spoliation. He praises also the reply of an Ephesian to the king, “that
it was not fit that a god should provide temples in honour of gods.”
23. After the completion of the temple, which, he says, was the work
of Cheirocrates (the same person who built Alexandria, and also
promised Alexander that he would form Mount Athos into a statue of
him, which should represent him as pouring a libation into a dish out
of an ewer; that he would build two cities, one on the right hand of
the mountain, and another on the left, and a river should flow out of
the dish from one to the other,)59—after the completion of the
temple, he says that the multitude of other sacred offerings were
purchased by the Ephesians, at the value set on them by artificers,
and that the altar was almost entirely full of the works of Praxiteles.
They showed us also some of the performances of Thraso, namely,
the Hecatesium, a Penelope,60 and the old woman Eurycleia.
The priests were eunuchs, who were called Megabyzi. It was the
practice to send to various places for persons worthy of this office,
and they were held in high honour. They were obliged to appoint
virgins as their colleagues in their priesthood. At present some of
their rites and customs are observed, and some are neglected.
The temple was formerly, and is at present, a place of refuge, but
the limits of the sanctity of this asylum have been frequently altered;
Alexander extended them to the distance of a stadium. Mithridates
discharged an arrow from the angle of the roof, and supposed that it
fell a little beyond the distance of a stadium. Antonius doubled this
distance, and included within the range of the sanctuary a certain
portion of the city. This was attended with much evil, as it placed the
city in the power of criminals and malefactors. On this account
Augustus Cæsar abolished the privilege.
24. The city has an arsenal and a harbour. The entrance of the
harbour was made narrow, by order of the king Attalus Philadelphus,
who, together with the persons that constructed it, was disappointed
at the result. The harbour was formerly shallow, on account of the
embankment of earth accumulated by the Caÿster; but the king,
supposing that there would be deep water for the entrance of large
vessels of burden, if a mole were thrown up before the mouth of the
river, which was very wide, gave orders for the construction of a
mole; but the contrary effect took place, for the mud, being confined
within the harbour, made the whole of it shallow to the mouth.
Before the construction of the mole, the flow and ebb of the sea
cleared the mud away entirely, by forcing it outwards.
Such then is the nature of the harbour.
The city, by the advantages which it affords, daily improves, and is
the largest mart in Asia within the Taurus.
25. Among illustrious persons in ancient times natives of Ephesus
were Heracleitus, surnamed Scoteinus, or the Obscure, and
Hermodorus, of whom Heracleitus himself says:
“The Ephesians, youths and all, deserve hanging, for expelling Hermodorus, an
honest citizen,61 a citizen distinguished for his virtues, and saying, let there be no
such amongst us; if there be, let it be in another place and among other people.”

Hermodorus seems to have compiled laws for the Romans. Hipponax

the poet was an Ephesian, and the painters Parrhasius and Apelles.
In more recent times was Alexander the orator, surnamed Lychnus,
or the Lamp;62 he was an administrator of state affairs, a writer of
history, and left behind him poems which contain a description of the
heavenly phenomena and a geographical account of the continents,
each of which forms the subject of a distinct poem.
26. Next to the mouth of the Caÿster is a lake called Selinusia,
formed by the overflowing of the sea. It is succeeded by another,
which communicates with this. They afford a large revenue, of which
the kings, although it was sacred, deprived the goddess, but the
Romans restored it; then the tax-gatherers seized upon the tribute
by force, and converted it to their own use. Artemidorus, who was
sent on an embassy to Rome, as he says, recovered possession of
the lakes for the goddess, and also of the territory of Heracleotis,
which was on the point of separating from Ephesus, by proceeding
in a suit at Rome. In return for these services, the city erected in the
temple to his honour a statue of gold.
In the most retired part of the lake is a temple of a king, built, it is
said, by Agamemnon.
27. Next follows the mountain Gallesius, and Colophon, an Ionian
city, in front of which is the grove of Apollo Clarius, where was once
an ancient oracle.63 It is said that the prophet Calchas came hither
on foot, on his return from Troy with Amphilochus, the son of
Amphiaraus, and that meeting at Clarus with a prophet superior to
himself, Mopsus, the son of Mantus, the daughter of Teiresias, he
died of vexation.
Hesiod relates the fable somewhat in this manner: Calchas
propounds to Mopsus something of this kind:
“I am surprised to see how large a quantity of figs there is on this small tree; can
you tell the number?”

Mopsus answered:
“There are ten thousand; they will measure a medimnus, and there is one over,
which you cannot comprehend.”

Thus he spoke; the number and measure were exact. Then Calchas
closed his eyes in the sleep of death.
But Pherecydes says, that Calchas proposed a question respecting a
pregnant sow, and asked how many young she had; the other
answered, “three, one of which is a sow.” Upon his giving the true
answer, Calchas died of vexation. According to others, Calchas
propounded the question of the sow, and Mopsus that of the fig-
tree; that Mopsus returned the true answer, and that Calchas was
mistaken, who died of vexation, according to some oracular
prophecy.
Sophocles, in his “Helen Claimed,” says that he was destined by fate
to die when he should meet with a prophet superior to himself. But
this writer transfers the scene of the rivalry, and of the death of
Calchas, to Cilicia.
These are ancient traditions.
28. The Colophonians once possessed a considerable armament,
consisting both of ships and of cavalry. In the latter they were so
much superior to other nations, that in any obstinate engagement,
on whichever side the Colophonian horse were auxiliaries, they
decided it; whence came the proverb, “he put the Colophon to it,”
when a person brought any affair to a decisive issue.64
Among some of the remarkable persons born at Colophon were
Mimnermus, a flute-player and an elegiac poet; Xenophanes, the
natural philosopher, who composed Silli in verse. Pindar mentions
one Polymnastus also, a Colophonian, as distinguished for his skill in
music:
“Thou knowest the celebrated strains of Polymnastus, the Colophonian:”

and some writers affirm that Homer was of that city. The voyage
from Ephesus in a straight line is 70 stadia, and including the
winding of the bays, 120.
29. Next to Colophon is the mountain Coracium, and a small island
sacred to Artemis, to which it is believed that the hinds swim across
to bring forth their young.

Then follows Lebedos,65 distant from Colophon 120 stadia. This is

the place of meeting and residence66 of the Dionysiac artists (who
travel about) Ionia as far as the Hellespont. In Ionia a general
assembly is held, and games are celebrated every year in honour of
Bacchus. These artists formerly inhabited Teos,67 a city of the
Ionians, next in order after Colophon, but on the breaking out of a
sedition they took refuge at Ephesus; and when Attalus settled them
at Myonnesus,68 between Teos and Lebedos, the Teians sent a
deputation to request the Romans not to permit Myonnesus to be
fortified, as it would endanger their safety. They migrated to
Lebedos, and the Lebedians were glad to receive them, on account
of their own scanty population.
Teos is distant from Lebedos 120 stadia. Between these two places
is the island Aspis,69 which some writers call Arconnesus. Myonnesus
is situated upon high ground resembling a peninsula.
30. Teos is situated upon a peninsula, and has a port. Anacreon, the
lyric poet, was a native of this place; in his time, the Teians, unable
to endure the insults and injuries of the Persians, abandoned Teos,
and removed to Abdera, whence originated the verse—
“Abdera, the beautiful colony of the Teians.”

Some of them returned in after-times to their own country. We have

said that Apellicon was of Teos, and Hecatæus also, the historian.
There is another port to the north, at the distance of 30 stadia from
the city, Gerrhæïdæ.70

31. Next follows Chalcideis, and the isthmus of the peninsula71 of

the Teians and Erythræans; the latter inhabit the interior of the
isthmus. The Teians and Clazomenians are situated on the isthmus
itself. The Teians occupy the southern side of the isthmus, namely,
Chalcideis;72 the Clazomenians, the northern side, whence they are
contiguous to the Erythræan district. At the commencement of the
isthmus is Hypocremnus, having on this side the Erythræan, and on
the other, the Clazomenian territory. Above Chalcideis is a grove,
dedicated to Alexander, the son of Philip, and a festival called
Alexandreia is proclaimed and celebrated there by the common body
of the Ionians.
The passage across the isthmus from the Alexandrine grove and
Chalcideis, as far as the Hypocremnus, is 50 stadia (150?). The
circuit round by sea is more than 1000 stadia. Somewhere about the
middle of the voyage is Erythræ,73 an Ionian city, with a port, having
in front four small islands, called Hippoi (the Horses).
32. But before we come to Erythræ, the first place we meet with is
Eræ,74 a small city belonging to the Teians.

Next is Corycus, a lofty mountain; and below it, Casystes, a port;75

then another, called the port of Erythræ, and afterwards many
others.
It is said that the whole sea-coast along the Corycus was the haunt
of pirates, who were called Corycæans, and who had contrived a
new mode of attacking vessels. They dispersed themselves among
the ports, and went among the merchants who had just arrived, and
listened to their conversation respecting the freight of their ships,
and the places whither they were bound. The pirates then collected
together, attacked the merchants at sea, and plundered the vessels.
Hence all inquisitive persons and those who listen to private and
secret conversation we call Corycæans, and say proverbially,
“The Corycæan must have overheard it,”

when any one thinks that he has done or said anything not to be
divulged, but is betrayed by spies or persons anxious to be informed
of what does not concern them.
33. Next to Corycus is Halonnesus, a small island, then the
Argennum,76 a promontory of the Erythræan territory, situated close
to Poseidium, belonging to the Chians, and forming a strait of about
60 stadia in width. Between Erythræ and Hypocremnus is Mimas,77 a
lofty mountain, abounding with beasts of chase, and well wooded.
Then follows Cybelia, a village, and a promontory called Melæna,78
(or Black,) which has a quarry whence millstones are obtained.
34. Erythræ was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient inspired
prophetess. In the time of Alexander there was another Sibyl, who
was also a prophetess, whose name was Athenais, a native of the
same city; and in our age there was Heracleides the Herophilian
physician, a native of Erythræ, a fellow-student of Apollonius
surnamed Mus.
35. The coasting circumnavigation of Chios is 900 stadia. It has a
city79 with a good port, and a station for eighty vessels. In the
voyage round the island, a person sailing from the city, with the
island on his right hand, first meets with Poseidium,80 then Phanæ,81
a deep harbour, and a temple of Apollo, and a grove of palm trees;
then Notium, a part of the coast affording a shelter for vessels; next
Laïus,82 which is also a place of shelter for vessels; hence to the city
is an isthmus of 60 stadia. The circumnavigation is 360 stadia, as I
have before described it. Next, the promontory Melæna,83 opposite
to which is Psyra,84 an island distant from the promontory 50 stadia,
lofty, with a city of the same name. The island is 40 stadia in
circumference. Next is the rugged tract, Ariusia, without harbours,
about 30 stadia in extent. It produces the best of the Grecian wines.
Then follows Pelinæum,85 the highest mountain in the island. In the
island is a marble quarry.

Among illustrious natives of Chios were Ion86 the tragic writer,

Theopompus the historian, and Theocritus the sophist. The two
latter persons were opposed to each other in the political parties in
the state. The Chians claim Homer as a native of their country,
alleging as a proof the Homeridæ, as they are called, descendants
from his family, whom Pindar mentions:
“Whence also the Homeridæ, the chanters of the rhapsodies, most frequently
begin their song.”87

The Chians once possessed a naval force, and aspired to the

sovereignty of the sea, and to liberty.88
From Chios to Lesbos is a voyage of about 400 stadia, with a south
wind.

36. After the Hypocremnus is Chytrium, a place where Clazomenæ89

formerly stood; then the present city, having in front eight small
islands, the land of which is cultivated by husbandmen.
Anaxagoras, the natural philosopher, was a distinguished
Clazomenian; he was a disciple of Anaximenes the Milesian, and
master of Archelaus the natural philosopher, and of Euripides the
poet.
Next is a temple of Apollo, and hot springs, the bay of Smyrna, and
the city Smyrna.
37. Next is another bay, on which is situated the ancient Smyrna, at
the distance of 20 stadia from the present city. After Smyrna had
been razed by the Lydians, the inhabitants continued for about four
hundred years to live in villages. It was then restored by Antigonus,
and afterwards by Lysimachus, and at present it is the most
beautiful city in Ionia.
One portion of Smyrna is built up on a hill, but the greater part is in
the plain near the harbour, the Metroum, and the Gymnasium. The
division of the streets is excellent, and as nearly as possible in
straight lines. There are paved roads, large quadrangular porticos,
both on a level with the ground and with an upper story.
There is also a library, and the Homereium, a quadrangular portico,
which has a temple of Homer and a statue. For the Smyrnæans,
above all others, urge the claims of their city to be the birth-place of
Homer, and they have a sort of brass money, called Homereium.90
The river Meles flows near the walls. Besides other conveniences
with which the city is furnished, there is a close harbour.
There is one, and not a trifling, defect in the work of the architects,
that when they paved the roads, they did not make drains beneath
them; the filth consequently lies on the surface, and, during rains
particularly, the receptacles of the filth spread it over the streets.
It was here that Dolabella besieged and slew Trebonius, one of the
murderers of divus Cæsar; he also destroyed many parts of the city.

38. Next to Smyrna is Leucæ,91 a small city, which Aristonicus

caused to revolt, after the death of Attalus, the son of Philometor,92
under pretence of being descended from the royal family, but with
the intention of usurping the kingdom. He was, however, defeated in
a naval engagement by the Ephesians, near the Cumæan district,
and expelled. But he went into the interior of the country, and
quickly collected together a multitude of needy people and slaves,
who were induced to follow him by the hope of obtaining their
freedom, whom he called Heliopolitæ. He first surprised Thyateira,93
he then got possession of Apollonis, and had an intention of making
himself master of other fortresses, but he did not maintain his
ground long. The cities sent immediately a large body of troops
against him, and were supported by Nicomedes the Bithynian and
the kings of Cappadocia. Afterwards five deputies of the Romans
came, then an army, and the consul Publius Crassus. These were
followed by M. Perperna, who took Aristonicus prisoner, sent him to
Rome, and thus put an end to the war. Aristonicus died in prison;
Perperna died of some disease, and Crassus fell near Leucæ, in a
skirmish with some people who had attacked him from an
ambuscade. Manius Aquillius the consul came afterwards, with ten
lieutenants; he regulated the affairs of the province, and established
that form of government which continues at present.

After Leucæ follows Phocæa,94 situated on a bay. I have mentioned

this place in the description of Massalia.95 Then follow the confines
of the Ionians and the Æolians. I have already spoken of these.96
In the interior of the Ionian maritime territory there remain to be
described the places about the road leading from Ephesus, as far as
Antioch97 and the Mæander.
This tract is occupied by a mixed population of Lydians, Carians, and
Greeks.
39. The first place after Ephesus is Magnesia, an Æolian city, and
called Magnesia on the Mæander, for it is situated near it; but it is
still nearer the Lethæus, which discharges itself into the Mæander. It
has its source in Pactyes, a mountain in the Ephesian district. There
is another Lethæus in Gortyne, a third near Tricca, where Asclepius
is said to have been born, and the fourth among the Hesperitæ
Libyans.98

Magnesia lies in a plain, near a mountain called Thorax,99 on which

it is said Daphitas the grammarian was crucified, for reviling the
kings in a distich—
“O slaves, with backs purpled with stripes, filings of the gold of Lysimachus, you
are the kings of Lydia and Phrygia.”

An oracle is said to have warned Daphitas to beware of the

Thorax.100
40. The Magnesians appear to be the descendants of Delphians who
inhabited the Didymæan mountains in Thessaly, and of whom
Hesiod says,
“or, as the chaste virgin, who inhabits the sacred Didymæan hills in the plain of
Dotium, opposite Amyrus, abounding with vines, and bathes her feet in the lake
Bœbias—”

At Magnesia also was the temple of Dindymene, the mother of the

gods. Her priestess, according to some writers, was the daughter,
according to others, the wife, of Themistocles. At present there is no
temple, because the city has been transferred to another place. In
the present city is the temple of Artemis Leucophryene, which in the
size of the nave and in the number of sacred offerings is inferior to
the temple at Ephesus; but, in the fine proportion and the skill
exhibited in the structure of the enclosure, it greatly surpasses the
Ephesian temple; in size it is superior to all the temples in Asia,
except that at Ephesus and that at Didymi.
Anciently the Magnetes were utterly extirpated by Treres, a
Cimmerian tribe, who for a long period made successful inroads.
Subsequently Ephesians got possession of the place.101 Callinus
speaks of the Magnetes as still in a flourishing state, and successful
in the war against the Ephesians. But Archilochus seems to have
been acquainted with the calamities which had befallen them:
“bewail the misfortunes of the Thasians, not of the Magnetes;”

whence we may conjecture that Archilochus was posterior to

Callinus. Yet Callinus mentions some other earlier inroad of the
Cimmerians, when he says—
“and now the army of the daring Cimmerians is advancing,”

where he is speaking of the capture of Sardis.

41. Among the illustrious natives of Magnesia were Hegesias the
orator, who first introduced the Asiatic fervour, as it was called, and
corrupted the established Attic style of eloquence; Simon (Simus?)
the lyric poet, who also corrupted the system and plan of former
lyric poets, by introducing the Simodia; it was still more corrupted by
the Lysiodi and Magodi;102 Cleomachus the pugilist, who was
enamoured of a certain cinædus, and a female servant, who was
maintained by the cinædus, imitated the sort of dialect and the
manners of the cinædi. Sotades was the first person that employed
the language of the cinædi, and he was followed by Alexander the
Ætolian; but these were only prose writers. Lysis added verse, but
this had been done before his time by Simus.
The theatres had raised the reputation of Anaxenor, the player on
the cithara, but Antony elevated him as high as possible, by
appointing him receiver of the tribute from four cities, and by giving
him a guard of soldiers for the protection of his person. His native
country also augmented his dignity, by investing him with the sacred
purple of Jupiter Sosipolis, as is represented in the painted figure in
the forum. There is also in the theatre a figure in brass, with this
inscription:
“It is truly delightful to listen to a minstrel such as he is, whose voice is like that of
the gods.”103

The artist who engraved the words was inattentive to the space
which they would occupy, and omitted the last letter of the second
verse, ΑΥΔΗΙ, (voice,) the breadth of the base not being large
enough to allow its insertion; this afforded an occasion of accusing
the citizens of ignorance, on account of the ambiguity of the
inscription; for it is not clear whether the nominative ΑΥΔΗ, or the
dative ΑΥΔΗΙ, is to be understood, for many persons write the dative
cases without the Ι, and reject the usage, as not founded on any
natural reason.

42. After Magnesia is the road to Tralles;104 travellers have on the

left hand Mesogis,105 and on the right hand, and from the road itself,
the plain of the Mæander, which is occupied in common by Lydians,
Carians, Ionians, Milesians, Mysians, and the Æolians of Magnesia.
The character of the sites of places is the same even as far as
Nysa106 and Antioch.
The city of Tralles is built upon ground in the shape somewhat of a
trapezium. It has a citadel strongly fortified, and the places around
are well defended. It is as well peopled as any of the cities in Asia,
and its inhabitants are wealthy; some of them constantly occupy
chief stations in the province, and are called Asiarchs. Among the
latter was Pythodorus, originally a native of Nysa; but, induced by
the celebrity of the place, he migrated hither. He was one of the few
friends of Pompey who were fortunate. His wealth was kingly, and
consisted of more than two thousand talents, which he redeemed
when it was confiscated by divus Cæsar, on account of his
attachment to Pompey, and left it undiminished to his children.
Pythodoris, who is at present queen in Pontus, and whom we have
mentioned before, is his daughter. Pythodorus flourished in our
times, and also Menodorus, an eloquent man, and a person of
dignified and grave demeanour; he was priest of Jupiter Larisæus.
He was circumvented by the adherents of Domitius Ænobarbus,
who, on the credit of informers, put him to death, for attempting, as
was supposed, the revolt of his fleet.
Tralles produced also celebrated orators, Dionysocles, and after him
Damasus, surnamed Scombrus.
It is said to have been founded by Argives and a body of Tralli
Thracians,107 from whom it had its name. It was governed for a
short time by tyrants, sons of Cratippus, about the period of the
Mithridatic war.
43. Nysa is situated near the Mesogis, resting for the most part
against the mountain. It is as it were a double town, for a kind of
torrent watercourse divides it into two parts, and forms a valley, one
part of which has a bridge over it, connecting the two towns; the
other is adorned with an amphitheatre; underneath it is a passage
through which the waters of the torrents flow out of sight.

Near the theatre are situated108 two heights; below one lies the
gymnasium for the young men; below the other is the forum, and a
place of exercise for older persons. To the south below the city lies
the plain, as at Tralles.
44. On the road between Tralles and Nysa is a village of the
Nysæans, not far from the city Acharaca, in which is the Plutonium,
to which is attached a large grove, a temple of Pluto and Proserpine,
and the Charonium, a cave which overhangs the grove, and
possesses some singular physical properties. The sick, it is said, who
have confidence in the cures performed by these deities, resort
thither, and live in the village near the cave, among experienced
priests, who sleep at night in the open air, on behoof of the sick, and
direct the modes of cure by their dreams. The priests invoke the
gods to cure the sick, and frequently take them into the cave,
where, as in a den, they are placed to remain in quiet without food
for several days. Sometimes the sick themselves observe their own
dreams, but apply to these persons, in their character of priests and
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