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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Understanding
Motor
Controls
Fourth Edition

Stephen L. Herman

Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
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 Understanding Motor Controls, © 2020, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Fourth Edition Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Stephen L. Herman
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01    Print Year: 2019

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Table of Contents

Preface xiii
Safety Overview 1
General Safety Rules 2
Effects of Electric Current on the Body 3
On the Job 4
Protective Clothing 6
Ladders and Scaffolds 8
Fires 10
Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters 10
Grounding 12
Review Questions 12

Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components 15

Chapter 1 General Principles of Motor Control 16

Installation of Motors and Control Equipment 16
Types of Control Systems 19
Functions of Motor Control 20
Review Questions 23

Chapter 2 Symbols and Schematic Diagrams 24

Sensing Devices 35
Review Questions 39

Chapter 3 Manual Starters 40

Manual Push Button Starters 43
Troubleshooting45
Review Questions 46

Chapter 4 Overload Relays 47

Dual Element Fuses 47
Thermal Overload Relays 47
Magnetic Overload Relays 53
Overload Contacts 56
Protecting Large Horsepower Motors 58
Review Questions 62

iii

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iv Table of Contents

Chapter 5 Relays, Contactors, and Motor Starters 63

Relays63
Electromagnet Construction 64
Contactors71
Mechanically Held Contactors and Relays 74
Mercury Relays 76
Motor Starters 76
Review Questions 84

Chapter 6 The Control Transformer 86

Grounded and Floating Control Systems 89
Transformer Fusing 89
Review Questions 92

Section 2 Basic Control Circuits 93

Chapter 7 Start–Stop Push Button Control 94

Review Questions 106

Chapter 8 Multiple Push Button Stations 107

Review Questions 111

Chapter 9 Forward–Reverse Control 113

Review Questions 123

Chapter 10 Jogging and Inching 124

Inching Controls 127
Review Questions 130

Chapter 11 Timing Relays 132

Pneumatic Timers 133
Clock Timers 134
Cam Or Sequence Timers 134
Electronic Timers 135
Review Questions 141

Chapter 12 Sequence Control 142

Stopping the Motors In Sequence 143
Review Questions 153

Section 3 Sensing Devices 157

Chapter 13 Pressure Switches and Sensors 158

Differential Pressure  159
Typical Application  159
Pressure Sensors  163
Review Questions 166

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 Table of Contents v

Chapter 14 Float Switches and Liquid Level Sensors 167

Mercury Bulb Float Switch 167
The Bubbler System 168
Review Questions 173

Chapter 15 Flow Switches 174

Review Questions 178

Chapter 16 Limit Switches 179

Micro Limit Switches 179
Subminiature Micro Switches 181
Limit Switch Application 181
Review Questions 183

Chapter 17 Temperature Sensing Devices 184

Expansion of Metal  184
Resistance Temperature Detectors  188
Expansion Due to Pressure  191
Review Questions 192

Chapter 18 Hall Effect Sensors 193

Principles of Operation 193
Hall Generator Applications 194
Review Questions 197

Chapter 19 Proximity Detectors 198

Applications198
Metal Detectors 198
Mounting199
Capacitive Proximity Detectors 200
Ultrasonic Proximity Detectors 201
Review Questions 202

Chapter 20 Photodetectors 203

Applications203
Types of Detectors 203
Mounting208
Photodetector Application 210
Review Questions 213

Chapter 21 Reading Large Schematic Diagrams 214

Review Questions 219

Chapter 22 Installing Control Systems 220

Component Location 220
Point-to-Point Connection 221
Using Terminal Strips 222
Review Questions 225

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vi Table of Contents

Section 4 Starting and Braking Methods 227

Chapter 23 Across-the-Line Starting 228

Direct Current Motors 231
Review Questions 233

Chapter 24 Resistor and Reactor Starting for AC Motors 234

Resistor Starting 234
Reactor Starting 234
Step Starting 236
Review Questions 240

Chapter 25 Autotransformer Starting 241

Open and Closed Transition Starting 243
Review Questions 246

Chapter 26 Wye-Delta Starting 247

Wye-Delta Starting Requirements 248
Dual Voltage Connections 249
Connecting the Stator Leads 250
Closed Transition Starting 253
Overload Setting 256
Review Questions 256

Chapter 27 Part Winding Starters 258

Overload Protection 258
Dual Voltage Motors 259
Motor Applications 259
Three-Step Starting 260
Automatic Shutdown 261
Review Questions 263

Chapter 28 Direct Current Motors 264

Field Windings 264
Armature Windings 264
Series Motors 265
Shunt Motors 265
Compound Motors 267
Field Loss Relay 267
External Shunt Field Control 268
Controlling Compounding 269
Cumulative and Differential Compounding 270
Testing the Motor for Cumulative or
Differential Compounding 271
Direction of Rotation 271
Determining the Direction of Rotation 272
Review Questions 274

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 Table of Contents vii

Chapter 29 Single -Phase Motors 275

Centrifugal Switch 276
Hot-Wire Starting Relay 277
Current Relay 279
Solid-State Starting Relay 279
Potential Starting Relay 281
Dual Voltage Motors 282
Reversing the Direction of Rotation 282
Multispeed Motors 283
Multispeed Fan Motors 285
Review Questions 286

Chapter 30 Braking287
Mechanical Brakes 287
Dynamic Braking 287
Dynamic Braking for Alternating Current Motors 289
Plugging289
Review Questions 297

Section 5 Wound Rotor, Synchronous,

and Consequent Pole Motors 299

Chapter 31 Wound Rotor Motors 300

Manual Control of a Wound Rotor Motor 301
Timed Controlled Starting 302
Wound Rotor Speed Control 304
Frequency Control 304
Review Questions 306

Chapter 32 Synchronous Motors 308

Starting a Synchronous Motor 308
Excitation Current 309
The Brushless Exciter 309
Direct Current Generator 309
Automatic Starting for Synchronous Motors 310
The Field Contactor 310
Out-of-Step Relay 310
The Polarized Field Frequency Relay 310
Power Factor Correction 311
Applications313
Review Questions 314

Chapter 33 Consequent Pole Motors 315

Three-Speed Consequent Pole Motors 319
Four-Speed Consequent Pole Motors 319
Review Questions 329

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viii Table of Contents

Section 6 Variable Speed Drives 331

Chapter 34 Variable Voltage and Magnetic Clutches 332

Voltage Control Methods 332
Magnetic Clutches 333
Eddy Current Clutches 334
Review Questions 336

Chapter 35 Solid-State DC Motor Controls 337

The Shunt Field Power Supply 337
The Armature Power Supply 337
Voltage Control 338
Field Failure Control 338
Current Limit Control 339
Speed Control 340
Review Questions 343

Chapter 36 Variable Frequency Control 344

Alternator Control 344
Solid-State Control 344
Some Related Problems 345
IGBTs346
Advantages and Disadvantages of lGBT Drives 347
Inverter Rated Motors 347
Variable Frequency Drives Using SCRs and GTOs 348
Features of Variable Frequency Control 349
Review Questions 352

Section 7 Motor Installation 355

Chapter 37 Motor Installation 356

Motor Nameplate Data  356
Manufacturer’s Name  356
RPM  357
Determining Motor Current  367
Determining Conductor Size for a Single Motor  371
Overload Size  373
Determining Locked-Rotor Current  374
Short-Circuit Protection  375
Starter Size  377
Example Problems  380
Multiple Motor Calculations  382
Review Questions  386

Section 8 Programmable Logic Controllers 387

Chapter 38 Programmable Logic Controllers 388

Differences between PLCs and PCs  388
Basic Components  388
Review Questions 396

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 Table of Contents ix

Chapter 39 Programming a Programmable Logic Controller 397

Circuit Operation 397
Developing a Program 398
Converting the Program 399
Entering a Program 402
Programming Considerations 402
Review Questions 403

Chapter 40 Analog Sensing for Programmable

Logic Controllers 404
Installation405
The Differential Amplifier 406
Review Questions 407

Section 9 Developing Control Circuits

and Troubleshooting 409

Chapter 41 Developing Control Circuits 410

Developing Control Circuits 410
Review Questions 421

Chapter 42 Troubleshooting422
Safety Precautions  424
Voltmeter Basics  424
Test Procedure Example 1  426
Test Procedure Example 2  428
Test Procedure Example 3  429
Motors  432
Review Questions 440

Chapter 43 Direct Drives and Pulley Drives 442

Directly Coupled Drive Installation 442
Pulley Drives 443
Review Questions 445

Chapter 44 Semiconductors446
Conductors446
Insulators446
Semiconductors447
Review Questions 450

Chapter 45 The PN Junction 451

The PN Junction 451
Review Questions 454

Chapter 46 The Zener Diode 455

The Zener Diode 455
Review Questions 457

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x Table of Contents

Chapter 47 Light-Emitting Diodes and Photodiodes 458

LED Characteristics 458
Testing LEDs 458
LED Lead Identification 459
Seven-Segment Displays 459
Connecting the LED in a Circuit 460
Photodiodes461
Photovoltaic462
Photoconductive462
LED Devices 462
Review Questions 463

Chapter 48 The Transistor 464

The Transistor 464
Review Questions 466

Chapter 49 The Unijunction Transistor 467

The Unijunction Transistor 467
Review Questions 469

Chapter 50 The SCR 470

The SCR in a DC Circuit 470
The SCR in an AC Circuit 471
Phase Shifting the SCR 472
Testing the SCR 473
Review Questions 474

Chapter 51 The Diac 475

The Diac 475
Review Questions 476

Chapter 52 The Triac 477

The Triac Used as an AC Switch 477
The Triac Used for AC Voltage Control 478
Phase Shifting the Triac 478
Testing the Triac 479
Review Questions 480

Chapter 53 The 555 Timer 481

Circuit Applications 483
Review Questions 487

Chapter 54 The Operational Amplifier 488

Basic Circuits 490
Circuit Applications 491
Review Questions 497

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 Table of Contents xi

Section 10 Laboratory Exercises 499

Laboratory Exercises 500
Foreword 500
Parts List for Laboratory Exercises 500
Suppliers 501

Exercise 1 Basic Control 503

Review Questions 512

Exercise 2 START–STOP Push Button Control 513

Review Questions 524

Exercise 3 Multiple Push Button Stations 525

Review Questions 530

Exercise 4 Forward–Reverse Control 533

Review Questions 540

Exercise 5 Sequence Control 542

Review Questions 549

Exercise 6 Jogging Controls 551

Review Questions 560

Exercise 7 On-Delay Timers 563

Review Questions 568

Exercise 8 Off-Delay Timers 570

Review Questions 576

Exercise 9 Designing a Printing Press Circuit 578

Review Questions 583

Exercise 10 Sequence Starting and Stopping

for Three Motors 584
Review Questions 591

Exercise 11 Hydraulic Press Control 592

Review Questions 600

Exercise 12 Design of Two Flashing Lights 601

Review Questions 603

Exercise 13 Design of Three Flashing Lights 604

Review Questions 606

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xii Table of Contents

Exercise 14 Control for Three Pumps 607

Review Questions 614

Exercise 15 Oil Pressure Pump Circuit for a Compressor 615

Review Questions 618

Exercise 16 Autotransformer Starter 619

Review Questions 623

Appendix 624
Identifying the Leads of a Three-Phase, Wye-Connected,
Dual-Voltage Motor 624
Glossary 629
Index 632

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Preface

A Note from the Author

I have taught the subject of motor control for over 30 years. I have tried different methods
and found that some are more successful than others. Understanding Motor C ­ ontrols is the
accumulation of this knowledge. I am sure other methods may work equally well, but the
methods and information presented in this textbook have worked the best for me. My goal
in writing this textbook is to present the subject of motor control in a way that the average
student can understand. I have three main objectives:
• Teach the student how to interpret the logic of a schematic diagram.
• Teach the student how to properly connect a circuit using a schematic diagram.
• Teach the student how to troubleshoot a control circuit.
Understanding Motor Controls assumes that the student has no knowledge of m ­ otor con-
trols. The student is expected to have knowledge of basic Ohm’s law and basic circuits, such as
series, parallel, and combination. The book begins with an overview of safety. A discussion of
schematics (ladder diagrams) and wiring diagrams is presented early. The discussion of sche-
matics and wiring diagrams is intended to help students understand the written language of
motor controls. Standard NEMA symbols are discussed and employed throughout the book
when possible. The operation of common control devices is presented to help students under-
stand how these components function and how they are used in motor control circuits. Basic
control circuits are presented in a manner that allows students to begin with simple circuit
concepts and progress to more complicated circuits.
The textbook contains examples of how a schematic or ladder diagram is converted into
a wiring diagram. A basic numbering system is explained and employed to aid students
in making this conversion. This is the most effective method I have found of teaching a
student how to make the transition from a circuit drawn on paper to properly connecting
components in the field.
Understanding Motor Controls also covers solid-state controls for both DC and AC
­motors. Variable frequency drives and programmable logic controllers are covered in de-
tail. I explain how to convert a ladder diagram into a program that can be loaded into a
PLC. The book contains many troubleshooting problems that help the student understand
the logic of a control system. Circuit design is also used to help the s­ tudent develop the
concepts of circuit logic.
Understanding Motor Controls contains 16 hands-on laboratory exercises that are
­designed to use off-the-shelf motor control components. A list of materials and suggested
vendors is given for the components used in the exercises. The laboratory exercises begin
with very basic concepts and connections and progress through more complicated circuits.

xiii

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xiv Preface

Supplements
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end-of-chapter review questions, test banks, and Chapter presentations done in Power-
Point, and testing powered by Cognero.
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Contact Cengage Learning or your local sales representative to obtain an instructor
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Acknowledgments
Wes Mozley, Albuquerque Tech
Ralph Potter, Bowling Green Technical College
Richard Schell, Luzerne County Community College
Terry Snarr, Idaho State University
Ron Stadtherr, Ridgewater College
William Quimby, Shelton State Community College
Stephen Vossler, Lansing Community College
Keith Dinwiddie, Ozarks Community College

New for the Fourth Edition

Extended information for sizing overload relay heaters.
Additional review questions to selected chapters.
Upgraded and additional illustrations.
Extended explanation for how an electronic on-delay timer operates.
Extended information on float switch circuits.
Extended coverage of photodetectors.
Extended coverage of wye-delta starting.
Extended coverage of direct current motors.
The addition of electronic components and circuits frequently used in motor control
applications

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Safety Overview

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 Safety Overview

Objectives After studying this chapter the student will be able to:
• State basic safety rules. • Discuss lockout and tagout procedures. • Discuss classes of fires.
• Describe the effects of electric current on • Discuss types of protective clothing. • Discuss ground-fault circuit
the body. • Explain how to properly place a straight interrupters.
• Discuss the origin and responsibilities ladder against a structure. • Discuss the importance of grounding.
of OSHA. • Discuss different types of scaffolds.
• Discuss material safety data sheets.

S
afety is the job of each individual. You should be con- taking time to think before acting. Many technicians have
cerned not only with your own safety but with the been killed by supposedly “dead” circuits. Do not depend
safety of others around you. This is especially true for on circuit breakers, fuses, or someone else to open a cir-
persons employed in the electrical field. Some general rules cuit. Test it yourself before you touch it. If you are working
should be followed when working with electric equipment on high-voltage equipment, use insulated gloves and meter
or circuits. probes to measure the voltage being tested. Think before
you touch something that could cost you your life.

General Safety Rules Avoid Horseplay

Never Work on an Energized Jokes and horseplay have a time and place but not when
someone is working on an electric circuit or a piece of mov-
Circuit If the Power Can Be ing machinery. Do not be the cause of someone’s ­being
Disconnected injured or killed and do not let someone else be the cause
of your being injured or killed.
When possible, use the following three-step check to make
certain that power is turned off.
1. Test the meter on a known live circuit to make sure the
meter is operating.
Do Not Work Alone
2. Test the circuit that is to become the de-energized cir- This is especially true when working in a hazardous location
cuit with the meter. or on a live circuit. Have someone with you who can turn off
the power or give artificial respiration and/or cardiopul-
3. Test the meter on the known live circuit again to make monary resuscitation (CPR). Several electric shocks can
certain the meter is still operating. cause breathing difficulties and can cause the heart to go
Install a warning tag at the point of disconnection so into fibrillation.
people will not restore power to the circuit. If possible, use
a lock to prevent anyone from turning the power back on.
Work with One Hand When
Think Possible
Of all the rules concerning safety, this one is probably the The worst kind of electric shock occurs when the current
most important. No amount of safeguarding or idiot proof- path is from one hand to the other, which permits the
ing a piece of equipment can protect a person as well as current to pass directly through the heart. A person can

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    Safety Overview 3

survive a severe shock between the hand and foot but it A current of 2 to 3 milliamperes (mA) (0.002 to 0.003
would cause death if the current path was from one hand amperes) usually causes a slight tingling sensation, which
to the other. increases as current increases and becomes very noticeable
at about 10 milliamperes (0.010 amperes). The tingling sen-
sation is very painful at about 20 milliamperes. Currents
Learn First Aid between 20 and 30 milliamperes cause a person to seize
the line and be unable to let go of the circuit. Currents
Anyone working on electric equipment, especially those between 30 and 40 milliamperes cause muscular paralysis,
working with voltages greater than 50 volts, should make an and those between 40 and 60 milliamperes cause breathing
effort to learn first aid. A knowledge of first aid, ­especially difficulty. When the current increases to about 100 milliam-
CPR, may save your own or someone else’s life. peres, breathing is extremely difficult. Currents from 100 to
200 milliamperes generally cause death because the heart
usually goes into fibrillation, a condition in which the heart
Avoid Alcohol and Drugs begins to “quiver” and the pumping action stops. Currents
above 200 milliamperes cause the heart to squeeze shut.
The use of alcohol and drugs has no place on a work site.
When the current is removed, the heart usually returns to
Alcohol and drugs are not only dangerous to users and
a normal pumping action. This is the operating principle
those who work around them; they also cost industry mil-
of a defibrillator. The voltage considered to be the most
lions of dollars a year. Alcohol and drug abusers kill thou-
dangerous to work with is 120 volts, because that generally
sands of people on the highways each year and are just as
causes a current flow of between 100 and 200 milliamperes
dangerous on a work site as they are behind the wheel of a
through most people’s bodies. Large amounts of current
vehicle. Many industries have instituted testing policies to
screen for alcohol and drugs. A person who tests positive
generally receives a warning the first time and is fired the 0.100–0.200 (DEATH) THIS RANGE GENERALLY CAUSES
AMPERES FIBRILLATION OF THE HEART. WHEN THE
second time. HEART IS IN THIS CONDITION, IT VIBRATES AT
A FAST RATE LIKE A "QUIVER" AND CEASES TO
PUMP BLOOD TO THE REST OF THE BODY.

Effects of Electric Current

on the Body 0.060–0.100 (EXTREME DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING)
AMPERES
Most people have heard that it is not the voltage that
kills but the current. This is true, but do not be misled
into thinking that voltage cannot harm you. Voltage is the
force that pushes the current though the circuit. It can
be compared to the pressure that pushes water through 0.040–0.060 (BREATHING DIFFICULTY)
a pipe. The more pressure available, the greater the vol- AMPERES
ume of water flowing through the pipe. Students often ask
how much current will flow through the body at a particu-
lar voltage. There is no easy answer to this question. The
0.030–0.040 (MUSCULAR PARALYSIS)
amount of current that can flow at a particular voltage
AMPERES
is determined by the resistance of the current path. Dif-
ferent people have different resistances. A body has less 0.020–0.030 (UNABLE TO LET GO OF THE CIRCUIT)
resistance on a hot day when sweating, because salt water AMPERES
is a very good conductor. What one eats and drinks for
0.010–0.020 (VERY PAINFUL)
lunch can have an effect on the body’s resistance as can AMPERES
the length of the current path. Is the current path between
0.009–0.010 (MODERATE SENSATION)
two hands or from one hand to one foot? All of these fac- AMPERES
tors affect body resistance.
Figure S–1 illustrates the effects of different amounts
0.002–0.003 (SLIGHT TINGLING SENSATION)
of current on the body. This chart is general—some ­people
AMPERES
may have less tolerance to electricity and others may have
a greater tolerance. Figure S–1 The effects of electric current on the body.

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4 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

can cause severe electric burns that are often very serious Employer Responsibilities
because they occur on the inside of the body. The exterior
of the body may not look seriously burned, but the inside Section 5(a)1 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act
may be severely burned. basically states that employers must furnish each of their
employees a place of employment that is free of recog-
nized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious
injury. This places the responsibility for ­compliance on
On the Job employers. Employers must identify hazards or potential
hazards within the work site and eliminate them, con-
OSHA trol them, or provide employees with suitable protection
from them. It is the employee’s responsibility to follow
OSHA is an acronym for Occupational Safety and Health the safety procedures set up by the employer.
Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. Created by To help facilitate these safety standards and procedures,
Congress in 1971, its mission is to ensure safe and healthful OSHA requires that an employer have a competent per-
workplaces in the United States. Since its creation, son oversee implementation and enforcement of these
workplace fatalities have been cut in half, and occupational standards and procedures. This person must be able to
injury and illness rates have declined by 40%. Enforcement recognize unsafe or dangerous conditions and have the
of OHSA regulations is the responsibility of the Secretary authority to correct or eliminate them. This person also
of Labor. has the authority to stop work or shut down a work site
OSHA standards cover many areas, such as the handling until safety regulations are met.
of hazardous materials, fall protection, protective cloth-
ing, and hearing and eye protection. Part 1910 Subpart S
deals mainly with the regulations concerning electrical
safety. These regulations are available in books and can be
Msds
accessed at the OSHA website at www.osha.org. MSDS stands for material safety data sheets, which are
provided with many products. They generally warn users
of any hazards associated with the product. They outline
Hazardous Materials the physical and chemical properties of the product; list
precautions that should be taken when using the product;
It may become necessary to deal with some type of haz- and list any potential health hazards, storage consideration,
ardous material. A hazardous material or substance is any flammability, reactivity, and, in some instances, radioactiv-
substance that if exposed to may result in adverse effects ity. They sometimes list the name, address, and telephone
on the health or safety of employees. Hazardous materials number of the manufacturer; the MSDS date and emer-
may be chemical, biological, or nuclear. OSHA sets stan- gency telephone numbers; and, usually, information on
dards for dealing with many types of hazardous materials. first aid procedures to use if the product is swallowed or
The required response is determined by the type of haz- comes in contact with the skin. Safety data sheets can be
ard associated with the material. Hazardous materials are found on many home products such as cleaning products,
required to be listed as such. Much information concern- insecticides, and flammable liquids.
ing hazardous materials is generally found on material
safety data sheets (MSDS). (A sample MSDS is shown in
Table S-1 at the end of this unit) If you are working in an Trenches
area that contains hazardous substances, always read any It is often necessary to dig trenches to bury conduit. U
­ nder
information concerning the handling of the material and some conditions, these trenches can be deep enough to
any safety precautions that should be observed. After a bury a person if a cave-in occurs. Safety regulations for the
problem exists is not the time to start looking for informa- shoring of trenches is found in OSHA Standard 1926 Sub-
tion on what to do. part P App C titled “Timber Shoring for Trenches.” These
Some hazardous materials require a Hazardous Mate- procedures and regulations are federally mandated and
rials Response Team (HAZMAT) to handle any problems. must be followed. Some general safety rules should be fol-
A HAZMAT is any group of employees designated by the lowed, such as:
employer that are expected to handle and control an actual
or potential leak or spill of a hazardous material. They are 1. Do not walk close to trenches unless it is necessary. This
expected to work in close proximity to the material. A can cause the dirt to loosen and increase the possibility
HAZMAT is not always a fire brigade, and a fire brigade of a cave-in.
may not necessarily have a HAZMAT. On the other hand, 2. Do not jump over trenches if it is possible to walk around
HAZMAT may be part of a fire brigade or fire department. them.

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    Safety Overview 5

Figure S–2 Place a barricade around a trench and use a ladder Figure S–3 A confined space is any space having a limited
to enter and exit the trench. means of entrance or exit.

3. Place barricades around trenches (Figure S–2). Lockout and Tagout Procedures
4. Use ladders to enter and exit trenches.
Lockout and tagout procedures are generally employed
to prevent someone from energizing a piece of equipment
by mistake. This could apply to switches, circuit breakers,
Confined Spaces or valves. Most industries have their own internal policies
and procedures. Some require that a tag similar to the one
Confined spaces have a limited means of entrance or
shown in Figure S–4 be placed on the piece of equipment
exit (Figure S–3). They can be very hazardous workplaces,
being serviced; some also require that the equipment be
often containing atmospheres that are extremely harmful
locked out with a padlock. The person performing the
or deadly. Confined spaces are very difficult to ventilate
work places the lock on the equipment and keeps the key
because of their limited openings. It is often necessary for
in his or her possession. A device that permits the use of
a worker to wear special clothing and use a separate air sup-
multiple padlocks and a safety tag is shown in Figure S–5.
ply. OSHA Section 12: “Confined Space Hazards” lists rules
This is used when more than one person is working on the
and regulations for working in a confined space. In addition,
same piece of equipment. Violating lockout and tagout
many industries have written procedures that must be fol-
procedures is considered an extremely serious offense in
lowed when working in confined spaces. Some general rules
most industries and often results in immediate termination
include the following:
of employment. As a general rule, there are no first-time
1. Have a person stationed outside the confined space to warnings.
watch the person or persons working inside. The outside After locking out and tagging a piece of equipment, it
person should stay in voice or visual contact with the should be tested to make certain that it is truly ­de-energized
inside workers at all times. He or she should check air before working on it. A simple three-step procedure is gen-
sample readings and monitor oxygen and explosive gas erally recommended for making certain that a piece of elec-
levels. tric equipment is de-energized. A voltage tester or voltmeter
that has a high enough range to safely test the voltage is
2. The outside person should never enter the space, even
employed. The procedure is as follows:
in an emergency, but should contact the proper emer-
gency personnel. If he or she enters the space and 1. Test the voltage tester or voltmeter on a known
become incapacitated, no one would be available to ­energized circuit to make certain the tester is working
call for help. properly.
3. Use only electric equipment and tools that are approved 2. Test the circuit you intend to work on with the volt-
for the atmosphere found inside the confined area. It age tester or voltmeter to make sure that it is truly
may be necessary to obtain a burning permit to operate de-energized.
tools that have open brushes and that spark when they 3. Test the voltage tester or voltmeter on a known ener-
are operated. gized circuit to make sure that the tester is still working
properly.
4. As a general rule, a person working in a confined space
should wear a harness with a lanyard that extends to the This simple procedure helps to eliminate the possibility of
outside person, so the outside person could pull him or a faulty piece of equipment indicating that a circuit is de-
her to safety if necessary. energized when it is not.

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6 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

Protective Clothing
Maintenance and construction workers alike are usually
required to wear certain articles of protective clothing, dic-
tated by the environment of the work area and the job being
performed.

Head Protection
Some type of head protection is required on almost any work
site. A typical electrician’s hard hat, made of nonconductive
plastic, is shown in Figure S–6. It has a pair of safety goggles
attached that can be used when desired or necessary.

Eye Protection
Eye protection is another piece of safety gear required on
almost all work sites. Eye protection can come in ­different
forms, ranging from the goggles shown in ­Figure S–6 to
the safety glasses with side shields shown in Figure S–7.
Common safety glasses may or may not be prescription
glasses, but almost all provide side protection (Figure S–7).
Sometimes a full face shield may be required.

Hearing Protection
Section III, Chapter 5 of the OSHA Technical Manual
includes requirements concerning hearing protection. The
need for hearing protection is based on the ambient sound
Figure S–4 Safety tag used to tagout equipment. level of the work site or the industrial location. Workers

Figure S–5 The equipment can be locked out by several different Figure S–6 Typical electrician’s hard hat with attached safety
people. goggles.

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    Safety Overview 7

Figure S–8 Leather gloves with rubber inserts.

Figure S–7 Safety glasses provide side protection.

are usually required to wear some type of hearing protec-

tion when working in certain areas, usually in the form of
earplugs or earmuffs.

Fire-Retardant Clothing
Special clothing made of fire-retardant material is required
in some areas, generally certain industries as opposed to
all work sites. Fire-retardant clothing is often required for
maintenance personnel who work with high-power sources
such as transformer installations and motor-control cen-
ters. An arc flash in a m
­ otor-control center can easily catch
a person’s clothes on fire. The typical motor-control center
can produce enough energy during an arc flash to kill a per-
son 30 feet away.

Figure S–9 Kevlar gloves protect against cuts.

Gloves
Another common article of safety clothing is gloves. Electri-
cians often wear leather gloves with rubber inserts when it is
necessary to work on energized circuits (Figure S–8). These SHOULDER D-RING
STRAPS
gloves are usually rated for a certain amount of voltage. They
should be inspected for holes or tears before they are used.
LANYARD
Kevlar gloves (Figure S–9) help protect against cuts when CHEST
stripping cable with a sharp blade. STRAP
LEG
Safety Harness STRAPS

Safety harnesses provide protection from falling. They

buckle around the upper body with leg, shoulder, and chest
straps; and the back has a heavy metal D-ring (Figure S–10).
A section of rope approximately 6 feet in length, called a
lanyard, is attached to the D-ring and secured to a stable
structure above the worker. If the worker falls, the lanyard Figure S–10 Typical safety harness.

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8 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

limits the distance he or she can drop. A safety harness the sections. Two end sections are connected by X braces
should be worn: that form a rigid work platform (Figure S–13). Sections of
scaffolding are stacked on top of each other to reach the
1. When working more than 6 feet above the ground or
desired height.
floor
2. When working near a hole or drop-off
3. When working on high scaffolding Rolling Scaffolds
A safety harness is shown in Figure S–11. Rolling scaffolds are used in areas that contain level floors,
such as inside a building. The major difference between a
rolling scaffold and those discussed previously is that it is
Ladders and Scaffolds equipped with wheels on the bottom section that permit it
to be moved from one position to another. The wheels usu-
It is often necessary to work in an elevated location. When ally contain a mechanism that permits them to be locked
this is the case, ladders or scaffolds are employed. Scaf- after the scaffold is rolled to the desired location.
folds generally provide the safest elevated working plat-
forms. They are commonly assembled on the work site
from standard sections (Figure S–12). The bottom sections
usually contain adjustable feet that can be used to level

Figure S–12 Typical section of scaffolding.

Figure S–11 Safety harness. Figure S–13 X braces connect scaffolding sections together.

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    Safety Overview 9

Hanging or Suspended Scaffolds Like straight ladders, step ladders are designed to withstand
a certain load capacity. Always check the load capacity
Hanging or suspended scaffolds are suspended by cables before using a ladder. As a general rule, ladder manufactur-
from a support structure. They are generally used on the ers recommend that the top step not be used because of the
sides of buildings to raise and lower workers by using hand danger of becoming unbalanced and falling. Many people
cranks or electric motors. mistakenly think the top step is the top of the ladder, but it
is actually the last step before the ladder top.
Straight Ladders
Ladders can be divided into two main types, straight and 3 FT.
step. Straight ladders are constructed by placing rungs
between two parallel rails (Figure S–14). They generally
contain safety feet on one end that help prevent the
ladder from slipping. Ladders used for electrical work
are usually wood or fiberglass; aluminum ladders are
avoided because they conduct electricity. Regard-
less of the type of ladder used, you should check
its load capacity before using it. This information is
found on the side of the ladder. Load capacities of LADDER 20 FT.
200 pounds, 250 pounds, and 300 pounds are common. Do
not use a ladder that does not have enough load c­ apacity
to support your weight plus the weight of your tools and
the weight of any o ­ bject you are taking up the ladder
with you.
Straight ladders should be placed against the side of a
building or other structure at an angle of approximately 76˚
76° (Figure S–15). This can be accomplished by moving
the base of the ladder away from the structure a distance
5 FT.
equal to one fourth the height of the ladder. If the ladder is
20 feet high, it should be placed 5 feet from the base of the Figure S–15 A ladder should be placed at an angle of
structure. If the ladder is to provide access to the top of ­approximately 76°.
the structure, it should extend 3 feet above the structure.
HIGHEST USABLE STEP
Step Ladders TOP STEP
LADDER TOP
Step ladders are self-supporting, constructed of two sec-
tions hinged at the top (Figure S–16). The front section has
two rails and steps, the rear portion two rails and braces.

SPREADER

Figure S–14 Straight ladder. Figure S–16 Typical step ladder.

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10 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

Fires example, a current of 10 amperes flows in both the hot and

neutral conductors.
For a fire to burn, it must have three things: fuel, heat, and A ground fault occurs when a path to ground other
oxygen. Fuel is anything that can burn, including materi- than the intended path is established (Figure S–18).
als such as wood, paper, cloth, combustible dusts, and even ­Assume that a person comes in contact with a defec-
some metals. Different materials require different amounts tive electric appliance. If the person is grounded, a cur-
of heat for combustion to take place. If the temperature of rent path can be established through the person’s body.
any material is below its combustion temperature, it will not In the example shown in Figure S–18, it is assumed that
burn. Oxygen must be present for combustion to take place. a current of 0.1 ampere is flowing through the person.
If a fire is denied oxygen, it will extinguish. This means that the hot conductor now has a current of
Fires are divided into four classes: A, B, C, and D. 10.1 amperes but the neutral conductor has a current of only
Class A fires involve common combustible materials 10 amperes. The GFCI is designed to detect this current dif-
such as wood or paper. They are often extinguished by ference to protect personnel by opening the circuit when
lowering the temperature of the fuel below the combus- it detects a current difference of approximately 5 milliam-
tion temperature. Class A fire extinguishers often use peres (0.005 ampere). The National Electrical Code® (NEC ®)
­water to extinguish a fire. A fire extinguisher listed as 210.8 lists places where ground-fault protection is required
Class A only should never be used on an electrical fire.
Class B fires involve fuels such as grease, combustible liq-
10 A
uids, or gases. A Class B fire extinguisher generally employs
carbon dioxide (CO2), which greatly lowers the temperature HOT
of the fuel and deprives the fire of oxygen. Carbon dioxide
extinguishers are often used on electrical fires, because
they do not destroy surrounding equipment by coating it
with a dry powder.
Class C fires involve energized electric equipment. A Class C
fire extinguisher usually uses a dry powder to smother the
fire. Many fire extinguishers can be used on multiple types of 10 A
fires; for example, an extinguisher labeled ABC could be used NEUTRAL
on any of the three classes of fire. The important thing to
remember is never to use an extinguisher on a fire for which
it is not rated. Using a Class A extinguisher filled with water Figure S–17 The current in both the hot and neutral conductors
on an electrical fire could be fatal. should be the same but flowing in opposite directions.
Class D fires consist of burning metal. Spraying w ­ ater on
some burning metals actually can cause the fire to increase.
Class D extinguishers place a powder on top of the burning
metal that forms a crust to cut off the oxygen supply to 10.1 A
the metal. Some metals cannot be extinguished by placing HOT
powder on them, in which case the powder should be used
to help prevent the fire from spreading to other combus-
tible materials.

10 A
Ground-Fault Circuit NEUTRAL

Interrupters
Ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) are used to pre-
vent people from being electrocuted. They work by sensing
the amount of current flow on both the ungrounded (hot)
and grounded (neutral) conductors supplying power to a
device. In theory, the amount of current in both conductors Figure S–18 A ground fault occurs when a path to ground other
should be equal but opposite in polarity (Figure S–17). In this than the intended path is established.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
    Safety Overview 11

in dwellings. The National Electrical Code® and NEC ® are

registered trademarks of the N
­ ational Fire Protection Asso-
ciation, Quincy, MA.

Gfci Devices
Several devices can be used to provide ground-fault
protection, including the ground-fault circuit breaker
­(Figure S–19). The circuit breaker provides ground-fault
protection for an entire circuit, so any device connected
to the circuit is ground-fault protected. A second method
of protection, ground-fault receptacles (Figure S–20), pro-
vide protection at the point of attachment. They have some
advantages over the GFCI circuit breaker. They can be con-
nected so that they protect only the devices connected to
them and do not protect any other outlets on the same
circuit, or they can be connected so they provide protec-
tion to other outlets. Another advantage is that, because
they are located at the point of attachment for the device,
there is no stray capacitance loss between the panel box
and the equipment is being protected. Long wire runs often
cause nuisance tripping of GFCI circuit breakers. A third
ground-fault protective device is the GFCI extension cord
(Figure S–21). It can be connected into any standard electric
outlet, and any devices connected to it are then ground-
fault protected. Figure S–20 Ground-fault receptacle.

Figure S–19 Ground-fault circuit breaker. Figure S–21 Ground-fault extension.

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12 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

Grounding to the case of the appliance and forces the case to exist at
ground potential. If an ungrounded conductor comes in con-
Grounding is one of the most important safety consider- tact with the case, the grounding conductors conduct the
ations in the electrical field. Grounding provides a low resis- current directly to ground. The third prong on a plug should
tance path to ground to prevent conductive objects from never be cut off or defeated. Grounding requirements are far
existing at a high potential. Many electric appliances are pro- too numerous to list in this chapter, but NEC® 250 covers the
vided with a three-wire cord. The third prong is connected requirements for the grounding of electrical systems.

Review Questions 9. A padlock is used to lock out a piece of

equipment. Who should have the key?
10. A ladder is used to reach the top of a building
1. What is the most important rule of electrical 16 feet tall. What distance should the bottom of
safety? the ladder be placed from the side of the
building?
2. Why should a person work with only one hand
when possible? 11. What is a ground fault?
3. What range of electric current generally causes 12. What is the approximate current at which a
death? ground-fault detector will open the
circuit?
4. What is fibrillation of the heart?
13. Name three devices used to provide ground-fault
5. What is the operating principle of a defibrillator? protection.
6. Who is responsible for enforcing OSHA 14. What type of fire is Class B?
regulations?
15. What section of the NEC® covers grounding?
7. What is the mission of OSHA?
8. What is an MSDS?

Table S–1 Heavy Duty Clear LO-VAC PVC Cement.

Section 1 Identity of Material

Trade Name OATEY HEAVY DUTY CLEAR LO-VOC PVC CEMENT
Product Numbers 31850, 31851, 31853, 31854
Formula PVC Resin in Solvent Solution
Synonyms PVC Plastic Pipe Cement
Firm Name & Mailing Address  ATEY CO., 4700 West 160th Street, P.O. Box 35906 Cleveland,
O
Ohio 44135, U.S.A. http://www.oatey.com
Oatey Phone Number 1-216-267-7100
Emergency Phone Numbers  or Emergency First Aid call 1-303-623-5716 COLLECT. For chemical
F
transportation emergencies ONLY, call Chemtrec at 1-800-424-9300
Prepared By Charles N. Bush, Ph.D.

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    Safety Overview 13

Table S–1 Continued

Section 2 Hazardous Ingredients

Ingredients % Cas Number Sec 313
Acetone 0–5% 67-64-1 No
Amorphous Fumed Silica 1–3% 112945-52-5 No
(Non-Hazardous)
Proprietary (Nonhazardous) 5–15% N/A No
PVC Resin (Nonhazardous) 10–16% 9002-86-2 No
Cyclohexanone 5–15% 108-94-1 No
Tetrahydrofuran 30–50% 109-99-9 No
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 20–35% 78-93-3 Yes

Section 3 Known Hazards Under U.S. 29 CFR 1910.1200

Hazards Yes No Hazards Yes No
Combustible Liquid x Skin Hazard x
Flammable Liquid x Eye Hazard x
Pyrophoric Material x Toxic Agent x
Explosive Material x Highly Toxic Agent x
Unstable Material x Sensitizer x
Water Reactive Material x Kidney Toxin x
Oxidizer x Reproductive Toxin x
Organic Peroxide x Blood Toxin x
Corrosive Material x Nervous System Toxin x
Compressed Gas x Lung Toxin x
Irritant x Liver Toxin x
Carcinogen NTP/IARC/OSHA x

Section 4 Emergency and First Aid Procedures—Call 1-303-623-5716 Collect

Skin If irritation arises, wash thoroughly with soap and water. Seek medical attention if irritation per-
sists. Remove dried cement with Oatey Plumber’s Hand Cleaner or baby oil.
Eyes If material gets into eyes or if fumes cause irritation, immediately flush eyes with water for
15 minutes. If irritation persists, seek medical attention.
Inhalation  ove to fresh air. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. If not breathing, give artificial respiration.
M
Keep victim quiet and warm. Call a poison control center or physician immediately. If respira-
tory irritation occurs and does not go away, seek medical attention.
Ingestion  O NOT INDUCE VOMITING. This product may be aspirated into the lungs and cause chemical
D
pneumonitis, a potentially fatal condition. Drink water and call a poison control center or physi-
cian immediately. Avoid alcoholic beverages. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
person.

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14 Safety, Basic Electricity, and Ohm’s Law

Table S–1 Continued

Section 5 Fire Fighting Measures

Precautions  o not use or store near heat, sparks, or flames. Do not smoke when using. Vapors may
D
accumulate in low places and may cause flash fires.
Special Fire For Small Fires: Use dry chemical, CO2, water, or foam extinguisher.
Fighting Procedures For Large Fires: Evacuate area and call Fire Department immediately.
Section 6 Accidental Release Measures
Spill or Leak Remove all sources of ignition and ventilate area. Stop leak if it can be done without risk.
Procedures  ersonnel cleaning up the spill should wear appropriate personal protective equipment,
P
including respirators if vapor concentrations are high. Soak up spill with absorbent material
such as sand, earth, or other noncombusting material. Put absorbent material in covered,
labeled metal containers. Contaminated absorbent material may pose the same hazards as
the spilled product.
Section 7 Handling and Storage

Precautions HANDLING & STORAGE: Keep away from heat, sparks, and flames; store in cool, dry place.
OTHER: Containers, even empty, will retain residue and flammable vapors.
Section 8 Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Protective EYES: Safety glasses with side shields.
Equipment RESPIRATORY: NIOSH-approved canister respirator in absence of adequate ventilation.
Types  LOVES: Rubber gloves are suitable for normal use of the product. For long exposures to pure
G
solvents chemical resistant gloves may be required. OTHER: Eye wash and safety shower
should be available.
Ventilation L OCAL EXHAUST: Open doors and windows. Exhaust ventilation capable of maintaining emis-
sions at the point of use below PEL. If used in enclosed area, use exhaust fans. Exhaust fans
should be explosion-proof or set up in a way that flammable concentrations of solvent vapors
are not exposed to electrical fixtures or hot surfaces.
Section 9 Physical and Chemical Properties
NFPA Hazard Signal Health 2 Stability 1 Flammability 3 Special None
HMIS Hazard Signal Health 3 Stability 1 Flammability 4 Special None
Boiling Point 151 Degrees F/66 C
Melting Point N/A
Vapor Pressure 145 mmHg @
20 Degrees C
Vapor Density (Air = 1) 2.5
Volatile Components 70–80%
Solubility In Water Negligible
PH N/A
Specific Gravity 0.95 6 0.015
Evaporation Rate (BUAC = 1) = 5.5 2 8.0
Appearance Clear Liquid
Odor Ether-Like
Will Dissolve In Tetrahydrofuran
Material Is Liquid
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 Section 1

Basic Control Circuits

and Components

Chapter 1 Chapter 4
General Principles of Motor Control Overload Relays
Chapter 2 Chapter 5
Symbols and Schematic Diagrams  elays, Contactors, and Motor Starters
R

Chapter 3 Chapter 6
Manual Starters The Control Transformer

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Chapter

1 General Principles
of Motor Control

Objectives After studying this chapter the student will be able to:
• State the purpose and general principles • Discuss considerations when installing • Discuss surge protection for control
of motor control. motors or control equipment. systems.
• Discuss the differences between • Discuss the basic functions of a control
m
­ anual and automatic motor control. system.

S
everal factors should be considered when selecting speed, and brake to a stop. The advent of connecting indi-
the motor needed to perform a specific task and the vidual power sources to each machine changed the world
control components that govern the operation of the of motor control forever.
motor. An electrician should not only be capable of properly
installing a motor, but he or she should also be capable of
maintaining the equipment and troubleshooting a control
circuit when necessary. This textbook is designed to give
Installation of Motors
students the skills they need to succeed in an industrial
environment.
and Control Equipment
Many years ago, machines were operated by a line shaft When installing electric motors and equipment, several fac-
(Figure 1–1). A central prime mover, whether a steam tors should be considered. When a machine is installed, the
engine, electric motor, or water wheel, powered all the motor, machine, and controls are all interrelated and must
machines by connecting them to the line shaft with belts. be considered as a unit. Some machines have the motor or
Although this concept worked, the number of machines motors and control equipment mounted on the machine
that could be operated at the same time was limited and itself when it is delivered from the manufacturer, and the
control of the machine processes was very difficult. Some electrician’s job is generally to make a simple power con-
applications not only called for the machine to start and nection to the machine. A machine of this type is shown
stop but also to reverse direction, increase or decrease in ­Figure 1–2. Other types of machines require separately

LINE SHAFT

STEAM ENGINE

Figure 1–1 Power machines driven by a line shaft.

16

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 Chapter 1 General Principles of Motor Control 17

Copyright By Anna Vaczi/Shutterstock.com

Figure 1–2 Machine was delivered with self-contained motors and controls.

mounted motors that are connected by belts, gears, or chains. Motor Connections
Some machines also require the connection of pilot-sensing
devices such as photo switches, limit switches, or pressure When connecting motors, several factors should be consid-
switches. ­Regardless of how easy or complex the connec- ered, such as horsepower, service factor (SF), marked tem-
tion is, several factors must be considered. perature rise, voltage, full load current rating, and NEMA Code
letter. This information is found on the motor nameplate. The
conductor size, fuse or circuit breaker size, and overload size
Power Source are generally determined using the National Electrical Code®
One of the main considerations when installing a m ­ achine (NEC®) and/or ­local codes. Local codes generally supersede
is the power source. Does the machine require single-phase the NEC® and should be followed when they apply. Motor
or three-phase power to operate? What is the horsepower installation based on the NEC® will be covered in this textbook.
of the motor or motors to be connected? What is the
amount of in-rush current that can be expected when the
motor starts? Will the motor require some type of reduced
Controller Type
voltage starter to limit in-rush current? Is the existing power Different operating conditions require different types
supply capable of handling the power requirement of the of control. Some machines simply require the motor to
machine or will it be necessary to install a new power system? start and stop. Some machines require a soft start, which
The availability of power can vary greatly from one area means bringing the motor up to speed over a period of
of the country to another. Companies that supply power time instead of all at once. This is especially true of gear-
to heavily industrialized areas can generally permit larger driven machines or motors that must start heavy inertia
motors to be started across-the-line than companies that loads, such as flywheels or centrifuges. Other machines
supply power to areas that have light industrial needs. may require variable speed or the application of a brake
In some areas the power company may permit a motor of when the motor is stopped. Inching and jogging may also
several thousand horsepower to be started across-the-line, be a consideration. Regardless of the specific conditions, all
and in other areas the power company may require a control systems should be able to start and stop the motor
reduced voltage starter for motors rated no more than and also provide overload protection for the motor and
100 horsepower. short-circuit protection for the circuit.

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18 Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components

Environment
Another consideration is the type of environment in which
the motor and control system operates. Can the controls be
housed in a general-purpose enclosure s­ imilar to the one
shown in Figure 1–3, or is the system subject to moisture
or dust? Are the motor and controls to be operated in a
hazardous area that requires explosion-proof enclosures
similar to that shown in Figure 1–4? Some locations may
contain corrosive vapor or liquid, or extremes of tempera-
ture. All of these conditions should be considered when
selecting motors and control components.

Codes and Standards

Another very important consideration is the safety of the
operator and persons that work around the machine. In
1970, the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) was
established. In general, OSHA requires employers to pro-
vide an environment that is free of recognized hazards that
are likely to cause serious injury.

Figure 1–4 Magnetic starter in an explosion-proof enclosure.

Another organization that exhibits much influence

on the electrical field is Underwriters Laboratories (UL).
Insurance companies established UL in an effort to
reduce the number of fires caused by electrical equip-
ment. UL tests equipment to determine if it is safe under
different conditions. Approved equipment is listed in its
annual publication, which is kept current with bimonthly
supplements.
A previously mentioned document is the National
­Electrical Code®. The NEC® is published by the National
Fire Protection Association. The NEC® establishes rules
Courtesy Schneider Electric USA, Inc.

and specifications for the installation of electrical equip-

ment. The NEC® is not a law unless it is made law by a local
authority.
Two other organizations that have a great influence
on control equipment are the National Electrical Manu-
facturers Association (NEMA) and the International
­Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Both of these organi-
Figure 1–3 Manual starter in a general-purpose ­enclosure. zations will be discussed later in the textbook.

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 Chapter 1 General Principles of Motor Control 19

Types of Control Systems is shown in Figure 1–6. A schematic and wiring diagram of
a START–STOP push button station is shown in Figure 1–7.
Motor control systems can be divided into three m ­ ajor A schematic diagram shows components in their electri-
types: manual, semiautomatic, and automatic. Manual con- cal sequence without regard for physical location. A ­wiring
trols are characterized by the fact that the operator must diagram is basically a pictorial representation of the con-
go to the location of the controller to initiate any change trol components with connecting wires. Although the two
in the state of the control system. Manual ­controllers circuits shown in Figure 1–7 look different, electrically they
are generally very simple devices that connect the motor are the same.
directly to the line. They may or may not provide overload Automatic control is very similar to semiautomatic con-
protection or low voltage release. Manual control may be trol, in that pilot-sensing devices are employed to operate
accomplished by simply connecting a switch in series with a magnetic contactor or starter that actually controls the
the motor (Figure 1–5). motor. With automatic control, however, an operator does
Semiautomatic control is characterized by the use of not have to initiate certain actions. Once the control con-
push buttons, limit switches, pressure switches, and other ditions have been set, the system continues to operate on
sensing devices to control the operation of a magnetic con- its own. A good example of an automatic control system is
tactor or starter. The starter actually connects the motor to the heating and cooling system found in many homes. Once
the line and the push buttons and other pilot devices control the thermostat has been set to the desired temperature, the
the coil of the starter. This permits the actual control panel heating or cooling system operates without further atten-
to be located away from the motor or starter. The operator tion of the home owner. The control circuit contains sensing
must still initiate certain actions, such as starting and stop- devices that automatically shut the system down in the event
ping, but he or she does not have to go to the location of the of an unsafe condition such as motor overload, excessive cur-
motor or starter to perform the action. A typical control panel rent, or no pilot light or ignition in gas heating systems.

NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR
N
O

FF
O

CIRCUIT
BREAKER

HOT CONDUCTOR

SWITCH

SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR CONTROLLED BY A SWITCH

CIRCUIT
BREAKER
SWITCH
MOTOR

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure 1–5 Pictorial and schematic diagram of a single-phase motor controlled by a switch.

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20 Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components

Copyright By Navin Tar/Shutterstock.com

Figure 1–6 Typical operator’s control panel.

Functions of Motor Stopping

Another function of the control system is to stop the ­motor.
Control The simplest method is to disconnect the m ­ otor from the
power line and permit it to coast to a stop. Some condi-
Motor control systems perform some basic functions. The tions, however, may require that the motor be stopped more
ones listed are by no means the only ones, but are very quickly, or that a brake hold a load when the motor is stopped.
common. These basic functions will be discussed in greater
detail in this book. It is important to not only understand
these basic functions of a control system but also to know Jogging or Inching
how control components are employed to achieve the
desired circuit logic. Jogging and inching are methods employed to move a
motor with short jabs of power—generally to move a motor
or load into some desired position. The difference between
Starting jogging and inching is that jogging is accomplished by
Starting the motor is one of the main purposes of a ­motor momentarily connecting the motor to full line voltage and
control circuit. Several methods can be employed depend- inching is accomplished by momentarily connecting the
ing on the requirements of the circuit. The simplest method motor to reduced voltage.
is across-the-line starting. This is ­accomplished by con-
necting the motor directly to the power line. Some situ-
ations, however, may require the motor to start at a low
Speed Control
speed and accelerate to full speed over some period of time. Some control systems require variable speed. There are sev-
This situation is often referred to as ramping. In other situ- eral ways to accomplish variable speed. One of the most com-
ations, it may be necessary to limit the amount of current mon is with variable frequency control for alternating current
or torque during s­ tarting. Some of these methods will be motors, or by controlling the voltage applied to the armature
discussed later in the textbook. and fields of a direct current motor. Another method may

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 Chapter 1 General Principles of Motor Control 21

L1 L2 L3

M OLHTR
T1
M OLHTR
T2
MOTOR
M OLHTR T3

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

FUSE START
STOP OL
M

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A START–STOP PUSH BUTTON CONTROL

L1 L2 L3

CIRCUIT BREAKER

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

FUSE

MOTOR
STARTER
M
FACTORY-MADE
CONNECTION
START

STOP

WIRING DIAGRAM OF A START-STOP PUSH BUTTON CONTROL

MOTOR

Figure 1–7 Schematic and wiring diagram of a START-STOP push button control.

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22 Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components

involve the use of a direct current clutch. These methods will concern in control systems that employ computer con-
be discussed in more detail later in this textbook. trolled devices, such as programmable logic controllers
and measuring instruments used to sense temperature,
pressure, and so on. Coils connected to alternating cur-
Motor and Circuit Protection rent often have a metal oxide varistor (MOV) connected
One of the major functions of most control systems is to across the coil (Figure 1–9). Metal oxide varistors are
provide protection for both the circuit components and the voltage-sensitive resistors. They have the ability to change
motor. Fuses and circuit breakers are generally employed their resistance value in accord with the amount of volt-
for circuit protection, and overload relays are used to pro- age applied to them. The MOV will have a voltage rating
tect the motor. The different types of overload relays will greater than that of the coil they are connected across.
be discussed later. An MOV connected across a coil intended to operate
on 120 volts, for example, will have a rating of about
Surge Protection 140 volts. As long as the voltage applied to the MOV is
below its voltage rating, it will exhibit an extremely high
Another concern in many control circuits is the voltage amount of resistance, generally several million ohms.
spikes or surges produced by collapsing magnetic fields The current flow through the MOV is called leakage
when power to the coil of a relay or contactor is turned current and is so small that it does not affect the operation
off. These collapsing magnetic fields can induce voltage of the circuit.
spikes that are hundreds of volts (Figure 1–8). These high If the voltage across the coil becomes greater than the
voltage surges can damage electronic components con- voltage rating of the MOV, the resistance of the MOV sud-
nected to the power line. Voltage spikes are of greatest denly changes to a very low value, generally in the range
of 2 to 3 ohms. This effectively short-circuits the coil and
prevents the voltage from becoming any higher than the
voltage rating of the MOV (Figure 1–10). Metal oxide varis-
tors change resistance value very q ­ uickly—generally in the
600 VOLTS range of 3 to 10 nanoseconds. When the circuit voltage
drops below the MOV’s voltage rating, it will return to its
high resistance value. The MOV dissipates the energy of the
voltage spike as heat.
Diodes are used to suppress the voltage spikes produced
by coils that operate on direct current. The diode is con-
nected reverse bias to the voltage connected to the coil,
Figure 1–11. During normal operation, the diode blocks the
flow of current, permitting all the circuit current to flow

AC CONTACTOR COIL

120 VOLTS
120VAC

MOV

Figure 1–9 A metal oxide varistor is used to eliminate v­ oltage

Figure 1–8 Voltage spikes can be hundreds of volts. spikes on alternating current coils.

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 Chapter 1 General Principles of Motor Control 23

140 VOLTS

120 VOLTS
+

24 VDC

Figure 1–10 The metal oxide varistor limits the voltage spike to Figure 1–11 A diode is used to prevent voltage spikes on direct
140 volts. current coils.

through the coil. When the power is disconnected, the mag- Safety
netic field around the coil collapses and induces a voltage
into the coil. Because the induced voltage is opposite in Probably the most important function of any control
polarity to the applied voltage, (Lenz’s Law), the induced system is to provide protection for the operator and
voltage causes the diode to become forward biased. A sili- persons that may be in the vicinity of the machine. Pro-
con diode exhibits a forward voltage drop of approximately tection varies from one type of machine to another
0.7 volt. This limits the induced voltage to a value of about depending on the specific function of the machine. Many
0.7 volt. The energy of the voltage spike is dissipated as machines are provided with both mechanical and electrical
heat by the diode. safeguards.

Review Questions 5. What is the simplest of all starting methods for a

motor?
6. Explain the difference between jogging and
1. When installing a motor control system, list four inching.
major factors to consider concerning the power
system. 7. What is the most common method of controlling
the speed of an alternating current motor?
2. Where is the best place to look to find specific
information about a motor, such as horsepower, 8. What agency requires employers to provide
voltage, full load current, service factor, and full a workplace free of recognized hazards for its
load speed? employees?

3. Is the National Electrical Code® a law? 9. What is meant by the term ramping?

4. Explain the difference between manual control, 10. What is the most important function of any
semiautomatic control, and automatic control. ­control system?

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Chapter

2 Symbols and
Schematic Diagrams

Objectives After studying this chapter the student will be able to:
• Discuss symbols used in the drawing of normally closed, normally open held • State rules that apply to schematic
schematic diagrams. closed, and normally closed held open. or ladder diagrams.
• Determine the difference between • Draw standard NEMA ­control symbols. • Interpret the logic of simple ladder
switches that are drawn normally open, diagrams.

W
hen you learned to read, you were first taught a contacts (Figure 2–1). Because the movable contact is not
set of symbols that represented different sounds. touching the stationary contacts, the circuit is open and cur-
This set of symbols is called the alphabet. Sche- rent cannot flow from one stationary contact to the other.
matics and wiring diagrams are the written language of The normally closed push button symbol is characterized
motor controls. Before you can learn to properly determine by drawing the movable contact below and touching the
the logic of a control circuit, it is necessary to first learn the two stationary contacts as shown in Figure 2–1. Because
written language. Unfortunately, there is no actual standard the movable contact is touching the two stationary contacts
used for motor control symbols. Different manufacturers there is a complete circuit and current can flow from one
and companies often use their own set of symbols for their stationary contact to the other.
in-house schematics. Also, schematics drawn in other coun-
tries may use an entirely different set of symbols to rep-
resent different control components. European schematics
Normally Closed Push Buttons
often contain symbols adopted by the International Elec- The movable contact of the normally closed push button
trotechnical Commission (IEC). Although symbols can vary makes contact with the two stationary contacts when no
from one manufacturer to another, or from one country to pressure is applied to the button as shown in ­Figure 2–2.
another, once you have learned to interpret circuit logic, it Because the movable contact touches the two stationary
is generally possible to determine what the different sym- contacts, a complete circuit exists and current can flow from
bols represent by the way they are used in the schematic. one stationary contact to the other. If pressure is applied to
The most standardized set of symbols in the United States the button, the movable contact moves away from the two
is provided by the National Electrical Manufacturer’s Asso- stationary contacts and opens the circuit. When pressure
ciation (NEMA). It is these symbols that will be discussed is removed from the button, a spring causes the movable
in this chapter. contact to return and bridge the two stationary con-
tacts. The normally closed push button symbol shown in
Figure 2–1 is characterized by drawing the movable contact
Push Buttons below and touching the two stationary contacts.
One of the most commonly used symbols in control sche-
matics is the push button. Push buttons can be shown as
normally closed or normally open. Most are momentary
Normally Open Push Button
contact devices in that they make or break connection The normally open push button is similar to the normally
as long as pressure is applied to them. When pressure is closed except that the movable contact does not make
removed, they return to their normal position. Push buttons connection with the two stationary contacts in its normal
contain both movable and stationary contacts. The station- position (Figure 2–3). The normally open push button sym-
ary contacts are connected to terminal screws. The normally bol is characterized by drawing the movable contact above
open push button symbol is characterized by drawing the and not touching the two stationary contacts as shown
movable contact above and not touching the stationary in ­Figure 2–1. When the button is pressed, the movable

24

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 Chapter 2 Symbols and Schematic Diagrams 25

NORMALLY OPEN
PUSH BUTTON
MOVABLE CONTACT NORMALLY CLOSED
PUSH BUTTON
MOVABLE CONTACT

STATIONARY CONTACTS STATIONARY CONTACTS

NORMALLY OPEN PUSH BUTTONS ARE DRAWN WITH NORMALLY CLOSED PUSH BUTTONS ARE DRAWN
THE MOVABLE CONTACT ABOVE AND NOT TOUCHING WITH THE MOVABLE CONTACT BELOW AND
THE STATIONARY CONTACTS. TOUCHING THE STATIONARY CONTACTS.

Figure 2–1 NEMA standard push button symbols.

DIRECTION OF FORCE DIRECTION OF FORCE

BUTTON
MOVABLE
BUTTON CONTACT

STATIONARY
TERMINAL
TERMINAL SCREW STATIONARY CONTACT
SCREW
CONTACT

SPRING

MOVABLE
CONTACT
SPRING Figure 2–3 The movable contact does not bridge the two s­ tationary
contacts.

Figure 2–2 The movable contact bridges the two stationary contacts.
acting push buttons contain four terminal screws, two for the
normally closed contacts and two for the normally open con-
contact moves down and bridges the two stationary con- tacts. When connecting these push buttons, it is important to
tacts to form a complete circuit. When pressure is removed make certain that the wires are connected to the correct set
from the button, a spring returns the movable contact to its of contacts. A schematic symbol for a double acting push but-
original position and a circuit no longer exists between the ton is shown in Figure 2–5. The symbol for double acting push
two stationary contacts. buttons can actually be drawn in several ways (Figure 2–6).
The symbol on the left is drawn with two movable contacts
connected by a common shaft. When the button is pressed,
Double Acting Push Buttons the top movable contact breaks away from the two station-
Another very common push button found throughout indus- ary contacts at the top to open the circuit, and the bottom
try is the double acting push button. Double ­acting push movable contact bridges to two bottom stationary contacts
buttons contain both normally open and normally closed to complete the circuit.
contacts (Figure 2–4). When pressure is applied to the The symbol on the right is very similar to the one on the
button, the movable contacts break connection with the left in that it shows two separate movable contacts. The
two normally closed stationary contacts, creating an open right-hand symbol, however, connects the two push button
circuit. The movable contacts then bridge the two normally symbols together with a dashed line. When components are
open stationary contacts, creating a complete circuit. When connected together with a dashed line in a schematic dia-
pressure is removed from the button, a spring causes the gram, it indicates that the components are mechanically con-
movable contacts to return to their normal position. Double nected together. If one is pressed, all that are connected by

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
26 Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components

DIRECTION OF FORCE

BUTTON

NC NC

MOVABLE CONTACT

SPRING Figure 2–7 Double acting push buttons have four terminal screws.
NO NO

Figure 2–4 Double acting push buttons contain both normally

open and normally closed contacts. When the emergency stop button is pressed, three normally
closed push buttons open to disconnect power to all three
motors, and a normally open push button energizes control
NORMALLY CLOSED CONTACTS relay CR. The normally closed CR contact opens and discon-
nects power to the main control circuit. A normally open CR
contact is used as a holding contact to maintain connection
to CR coil after the emergency stop button is released, and
a separate normally open CR contact closes to turn on a red
indicator light. The red light indicates that the emergency
stop was activated. The circuit will remain in this condition
until the reset button is pressed. In this circuit, four sepa-
NORMALLY OPEN CONTACTS rate push buttons are controlled at the same time. Push but-
tons that contain multiple contacts are often called stacked
push buttons. Stacked push buttons are made by connecting
Figure 2–5 Double acting push button.
multiple contact units together, and controlling them with
a single push button (Figure 2–9).

DASHED LINE INDICATES

Mushroom Head Push Buttons
MECHANICAL CONNECTION The button portion of most push buttons generally
exhibits a small surface area and some are slightly
­recessed to help prevent accidental activation as shown
in Figure 2–7. Mushroom head push buttons, however,
have a button with a large surface area that extends
Figure 2–6 Other symbols used to represent double acting push above the button to make them very accessible. They
buttons. are often used as an emergency stop button. A mush-
room head push button is shown in Figure 2–10. The
schematic symbol for a mushroom head push ­button is
the dashed line are pressed at the same time. A typical double shown in Figure 2–11.
acting push button is shown in Figure 2–7.

Push-Pull Buttons
Stacked Push Buttons Another push button that has found wide use is the push-
A circuit employing the use of multiple push buttons is pull button (Figure 2–12). Some push-pull buttons contain
shown in Figure 2–8. This circuit illustrates the control both normally open and normally closed contacts similar to
of three separate motors. An emergency stop button can double acting push buttons, but the contact arrangement is
be used to de-energize all three motors at the same time. different. Push-pull button can provide both the start and

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Chapter 2 Symbols and Schematic Diagrams 27

START 1
CR EMERGENCY STOP STOP 1 OL
M1

M1

START 2
STOP 2 OL
M2

M2

START 3
STOP 3 OL
M3

M3
RESET

CR

CR

R
CR

Figure 2–8 An emergency stop button stops all three motors.

Courtesy of Wholesale Electric Supply, Mount Pleasant, TX

Figure 2–9 Stacked push buttons are made by ­connecting

­multiple contact sets together. Figure 2–10 Mushroom head push button.

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
28 Section 1 Basic Control Circuits and Components

NORMALLY OPEN CONTACTS

NORMALLY CLOSED CONTACTS

Figure 2–13 The push-pull button contains one set of normally

closed contacts and one set of normally open contacts.
Figure 2–11 Schematic symbol for a mushroom head push button.

L1 L2 L3

M
MOTOR
M

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

FUSE

OL
M
M

PUSH-PULL BUTTON

Figure 2–14 A push-pull button is used in a start-stop control

circuit.

Figure 2–12 Push-pull button. Push-pull button that contain two normally open con-
tacts or two normally closed contacts are also available. The
symbol for a push-pull button that contains two normally
stop function in one push button, eliminating the space open contacts is shown in Figure 2–15. Push-pull buttons
needed for a second push button. The symbol for a push- of this type are often used for run-jog controls. A run-jog
pull button of this type is shown in Figure 2–13. A circuit circuit using a push-pull button is shown in Figure 2–16.
employing a push-pull button in a start-stop control circuit To make the motor run, pull the button. When the button
is shown in Figure 2–14. When the button is pulled, the nor- is pulled, a circuit is completed to control relay CR, caus-
mally closed contact remains closed, and the normally open ing both CR contacts to close. One CR contact maintains
contact bridges the two stationary contacts to complete a the circuit around the normally open contacts of the push-
circuit to the coil of M starter. A set of normally open M pull button, and the other supplies power to the coil of M
contacts close to maintain the circuit when the button is starter. A separate stop button is used to stop the motor.
released. When the button is pushed, the normally closed If the push-pull button is pressed, a circuit is completed
contacts open and open the circuit to the coil of M starter. directly to M starter coil. Because there are no M contacts

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Chapter 2 Symbols and Schematic Diagrams 29

Figure 2–15 Push-pull buttons also contain two normally open

contacts.

L1 L2 L3 Figure 2–17 Illuminated push button.

M
MOTOR

M
LOW VOLTAGE LAMP

CONTROL TRANSFORMER

FUSE
CR

LENS CAP

RUN
CR

STOP CR
TRANSFORMER TERMINALS
OL
JOG
M
Figure 2–18 Illuminated push buttons generally employ a small
PUSH-PULL BUTTON
transformer to reduce the control voltage to a lower value.

Figure 2–16 A push-pull button with two normally open contacts

is used to control a run-jog circuit.

to hold the circuit, when the button is released the circuit

to M coil is open and the motor stops running.

Illuminated Push Buttons

Illuminated push buttons are another example of provid-
Figure 2–19 Schematic symbol for an illuminated push button.
ing a second function in a single space (Figure 2–17). They
are often used to indicate that a motor is running, stopped,
or tripped on overload. Most illuminated push buttons are
equipped with a small transformer to reduce the control
Hand-Off-Automatic Switches
voltage to a much lower value (Figure 2–18). Lens caps of Hand-off-automatic (HOA) switches are generally
different colors are available. The schematic symbol for an used to select the function of a motor controller either
illuminated push button is shown in ­Figure 2–19. manually or automatically. They can be a stand-alone

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Utom Walamo kloster har den grekiskt-katolska propagandan vetat
att på finskt område förskaffa sig tillfälle till ännu en
klosteranläggning. Det är ön Konevits, jemväl belägen i Ladoga sjö,
ungefär 4 à 5 mil sydost om staden Kexholm och nära fasta landet.
Här grundlades år 1393 ett grekiskt kloster. För närvarande för detta
ett tynande lif. På Konevits finnes dessutom ett slags nunnekloster,
ett internat för qvinnor, som vilja draga sig tillbaka från verlden. Men
äfven detta är föga anlitadt. Ön, som är betydligt mindre än Walamo
och på intet vis kan jemföras med denna i naturlig rikekom eller
fägring, har icke kunnat tillocka sig så många munkar som Walamo.
Man råkar ofta munkar från Konevits iklädda en fattig botgörares
skepnad, vandrande vidt omkring för att insamla gåfvor till sitt
kloster, förebärande någon begången synd, hvilken på detta sätt bör
godtgöras. Vi betvifla icke att oftast någon begången synd, ett brott
kanske, ligger till grund för dessa vandringar, men vi äro icke fullt
öfvertygade om att syndernas förlåtelse följer på de till klostret
insamlade medlens aflemnande, isynnerhet som vi icke påminna oss
ha hört omtalas något extrakraftigt helgon på Konevits, hvaremot
Waldam (som ryssarue falskt uttala namnet) är bekant för sina
"undergörande helgon".

Numera föra munkarne ett ganska tyst lif i socialt hänseende, men
så har icke alltid varit fallet. Ryssarne skryta gerna med att
kristendomen tidigare genom Ryssland kommit till Finland, än öfver
Sverige. Hvad de öster och nordost om Ladoga bosatte finnarne
vidkommer kan detta icke nekas. Men hvilken har väl vinsten häraf
varit? Får man dömma af det "andliga öde", som drabbat de inom
storfurstendömet Finland genom proselytmakeri till grekiska kyrkan
omdöpta finnarne, så har man just icke mycket skäl att glädja sig åt
kristendomens ankomst österifrån. Utom att öfver allt i de socknar,
der grekiskt-katolska finnar lefva till ett större antal, okunnighet och
rå vidskepelse bibehållit sig såsom folkets förnämsta karaktersdrag,
ha dessutom de goda sidorna af den finska nationalkarakteren:
ärlighet, rättframhet, pålitlighet och gästfrihet, i det närmaste fått
gifva vika för sina motsatser, eller: oärlighet, dolskhet och kryperi
samt en prejande schackraranda hos befolkningen. Till sådana
socknar kunna räknas Salmis och Suistamo, nordost om Ladoga,
vidare Suojärvi samt ej obetydliga delar af Imbilaks, Sordavala,
Parikkala, Kronoborg, Hiitola (Tiurola kapell), Pyhäjärvi, Rautus,
Walkjärvi m.fl.

Det fanns en tid, under kejsar Nikolai regering, då den ryska

religionspropagandan dref ett fräckt spel i östra Finland. Detta tillgick
sålunda. Liksom här, måste äfven i Finland hvarje person som ville
ingå äktenskap ha gått till nattvarden, men detta åter kunde icke ske
med mindre han kunde läsa i bok. Om nu en ung bondgosse eller
qvinna af lättja icke lärt sig läsa samt följaktligen tredskat med sin
nattvardsgång, men det oaktadt ville gifta sig, så stötte de på hinder
från presterkapets sida. Hvad var då lättare och beqvämare än att
vända sig till en rysk prest, låta döpa om sig och sedan afsluta
äktenskapet? De ryska presterna arbetade ifrigt i denna riktning.
Följden har blifvit en talrik icke läskunnig befolkning i flera af de
nämnde socknarne, ty finska, deras modersmål, ha de icke lärt sig
att läsa och läsa ryska behöfva de icke för att utöfva sin kult. Af
öfvertygelse har säkerligen ingen i Finland bytt om religion. Tvärtom
torde icke så få greker gerna vilja gå öfver till lutherska läran, men
detta är helt enkelt - förbjudet. Hvilken uppbyggelse de grekiskt-
katolske finnarne ha af sin religionsutöfning kan man redan sluta
deraf, att på sin höjd måhända en tjugondedel af dessa förstår
ryska. Hela kyrkogången är således för dem inskränkt till
iakttagandet af några kyrkliga ceremonier, såsom korstecknet m.m.
Hvad kan man vänta af sådana menniskor? Åtminstone icke någon
högre kultur, och icke heller torde fosterlandskärleken kunna slå rot
hos menniskor, hvilka icke ens förstå de böners innehåll, som de, på
obegriplig rotvälska pladdra fram, och i hvilka i sanning, kejsarens
namn torde vara det enda (och ofta återkommande) ljudfall, hvars
betydelse de fatta.

En tafla af detta sorgliga slag företer det "andliga lifvet" i en icke

obetydlig del af östra Finlands gränssocknar — ett verk af ryska
presterliga propagandan. Härtill kommer att naturligtvis grekiska
föräldrars barn — äfven om blott den ene maken är af grekisk
trosbekännelse — icke få döpas till den lutherska trosläran. Eländet
är oförbätterligt under nu bestående förordningar och ljusare tider
torde under den nu rådande "förryskningsregimen" föga stå att
förvänta.

Under dessa sorgliga förhållanden lefver en del af den

beklagansvärda finska befolkningen i de för öfrigt af naturen rikt
begåfvade Ladogatrakterna. Om derföre besökarens öga tjusas af de
sköna naturbilderna som Walamo erbjuder, och vackra, poetiska vyer
uppgå för hans själ vid åskådandet af all den skönhet, som omgifver
honom, så blekna dock de senare till ett intet och ögat fuktas af en
bitter tår vid tanken på huru många tusen själar blifvit bokstafligen
snärjda i mörkrets band af just de personer, som råda om och lefva i
Walatnos vackra nejder. Man blir frestad att önska all den materiella
odling, man skådar omkring sig — ett verk af munkarnes trägna
arbete — djupt ned till Ladogas botten — ty hvilket sorgligt öde har
icke just denna munkinstitution bringat öfver dessa trakter, hvilkas
befolkning icke mera kan säga sig ega ett fosterland?

Och att drömma om att Walamo någonsin kunde blifva finskt —

det är fåviskt, ty lika lätt kan man drömma om att rycka en af de
skönaste juveler ur den ryska kyrkans krona eller släcka glorian, som
omger den "rätta tron", uppburen af czar och folk i fast förening.

3.

Vi ha ofvanföre sökt gifva en kort teckning af det religiösa lifvet i

denna del af Finland; återstår ännu att kasta en flyktig blick på
dessa orters sociala förhållanden. Vi måste tyvärr i detta afseende
tillägga att allt äfven på detta område är uselt bestäldt, liksom att
Finland jemväl härför har att tacka Ryssland.

Det är en sorglig tafla som vi nu gå att upprulla, en tafla vittnande

om medeltidsråhet och förakt för den enskildes rätt. Beklagligen har
densamma dock ännu den dag som är i dag ett sig värdigt
motstycke i Rysslands förfaringssätt emot de "eröfrade folken." För
lagkränkningar skyr icke den czariska makten tillbaka. — Hvad vi här
vilja berätta är följande: Då denna del af Finland underlades
czarrikets växande makt, skänkte dess kejsare och i synnerhet
kejsarinnor (Anna, Elisabeth, Catharina II) den eröfrade jorden åt
sina gunstlingar. Sålunda blefvo bönderna, "urbefolkningen", så godt
som lifegna. Häri låg då ingenting underligt från rysk sida, ty ett
enahanda förhållande egde ju rum i Ryssland. Men det bittra låg deri
att finnarne derförinnan åtnjutit svensk lag och rätt. De arma
menniskorna som byggde och bodde i dessa trakter kände sig
derföre olyckliga, hvilket de ock i sanning äro äfven i dag. Det hör
icke till uppgiften af denna lilla skizz från för oss redan främmande
trakter att ingå i ett närmare skärskådande af dessa förhållanden,
men vi ha velat omnämna dem för att läsaren rätt må kunna fatta
den sorgliga bild af ett för detta framtidsland vi nu gå att teckna. För
att koncentrera framställningan i en så liten ram som möjligt ställa vi
staden Kexholm och dess lif i förgrunden af vår teckning.
 Aflidne professor Hwassers tanke (se den lilla bekanta skriften om
Borgå landtdag) att Finland och det finska folket vore den brygga, på
hvilken civilisationen skulle bana sig en väg till Ryssland, var en
snillrik tanke — men hvilken icke förverkligats. Sjelfva tanken kom
för sent, den kom efter det barbariet redan slagit civilisationen ur
brädet, åtminstone i de trakter om hvilka här närmast är fråga.

Hvarje tänkande menniska skall finna att Ladogabassinen

ursprungligen varit särdeles väl egnad till utgångspunkt för
spridandet af kultur till Europas orient. Den gamla hansestaden
Nowgorod vid Ilmen vittnar nogsamt härom. Men Iwan "den
förskräckliges" hemska bragd vid eröfringen af denna kulturens
utpost (22,000 innevånare dränktes i för tillfället i floden Wolchow
uppslagna vak) var det ryska elementets första seger i Europa.
Sedan dess har civilisationen i dessa trakter af verlden fört ett
tynande lif och betydelsen af ett framtidsland för kulturen har vikit
från Ladogas vackra kuster. Men betraktelser af detta slag skulle leda
oss för långt ifrån vår vida mindre uppgift. Alltså retour till Kexholm.

Hvad det är lämpligt att säga "retour" då man talar om den

staden, Kexholm! Det är verkligen en bakåtgående stad, isynnerhet
om man i tanken går tillbaka till hvad denna stad kunnat blifva,
oaktadt all sin litenhet och sitt afsides läge.

Det finnes tusentals småstäder på jorden, hvilka dock hvar för sig
ega någon betydelse för det land de tillhöra. Brackenburg i Tyskland
och Rottenborough i England betyda något, om än aldrig så litet, i
och för sitt land, men Kexholm betyder platt intet för Finland, — det
är en rysk stad. Då ministerstatssekreteraren för Finland, grefve
Rehbinder, i tiden gjorde det dystra förslaget att för alltid från
"storfurstedömet Finland" skilja den del af "Gamla Finland", hvarom
här är fråga — då anade han kanske att denna landsdel var en social
och politisk kräfta för det öfriga landet. Få orter i Finland äro så
passande som Kexholm att afge en profbit på den sociala disharmoni
som åtföljt det ryska systemet i Finland, emedan ortens yttre
fysionomi kan förete en så trogen, det vill säga själlös bild af den
lycka som Ryssland erbjuder sina eröfrade provinser. Ett ordspråk i
de ryska Östersjöprovinserna lyder: "Dit ryssar komma, der blir det
tyst." Och tyst har det i sanning blifvit här.

Kexholm är en gammal stad, som anlagts af svenskarne redan i

trettonde århundradet, eller riktigare sagdt, småningom uppkommit
omkring ett af svenskarne i fordna tider på en ö vid Wuoksenelfvens
utlopp uppfördt fäste, det nu så kallade "slottet". Stadens läge är
flackt, men var icke fult medan Wuoksen ännu hade sitt förnämsta
aflopp förbi densamma. Men sedan denna elf fällts genom Suvanto
sjö (år 1857) och tagit en sydligare riktning, är utloppsarmen invid
Kexholm blott ett "grundt vatten". Det ypperliga laxfisket har
upphört och hela staden har fått en egendomligt tråkig fysionomi.
Ett vördnadsvärdt minnesmärke, det gamla slottet från svenska tider,
uppreser sig midt ibland modern torftighet. Det gamla har häfdat sin
anborna kraft och motstått seklernas påtryckning, det nya har
deremot icke förstått sig sjelf, utan antagit ömkliga former och för
ett tynande lif. Stadens handel är dock icke så alldeles obetydlig,
men hvarenda köpman är ryss, eller hvad ännu vida vidrigare är, en
russifierad finne.

"Ser du någonstädes ett gladt anlete?" Ingalunda. Med skygga,

misstrogna blickar stiga de nedslagna bönderna — hela befolkningen
vidtomkring Kexholm består af s.k. donations- eller frälsebönder —
in i salubodarne. De utbjuda sin uppsamlade videbark åt
handlanden; underbjudas, prejas, men erhålla dock till slut sin liqvid
— i varor. Kontanta pengar förekomma mera sällan vid denna
handel, som i förbigående nämndt alldeles icke är obetydlig. Staden
Kexholm allena utför af denna vara öfver hufvud taget årligen för
ungefär 200-300,000 riksdaler till Petersburg, der den användes vid
garfverierna. Ryskt mjöl utgör det förnämsta bytesmedlet.

Der kommer ett slags herreman åkande i flygande fart och vid
ljudet af en väldig "Waldai-klocka". Hans trespann — den ryska
"troikan" — stannar ångande utanför en salubod. Det är förvaltaren
från något af de stora frälsegodsen i trakten. De omkringstående
bönderna blotta ödmjukt sina hufvuden — det är ju en af deras
värsta busar som de skåda framför sig — en påminnelse för oss om
det feodala ok som hvilar öfver hela denna landsträcka.

Och språket i den goda staden sedan! Ryskan och en förskämd

finska öfverväga hos mängden af invånare; — svenska hör man
sällan och alltid rysligt rådbråkad. "Jag kom utaf landet med min
kappa ifrån siden." Det egentliga salongsspråket är ett slags hemsk
tyska. Bröderna Grimm skulle säkerligen ha stått alldeles handfallna
inför massan af dessa underliga ljud, finska och ryska ord mod tysk
ändelse och böjning etc. etc., som här strömma emot en.

Kexholm har dock sina minnen, ehuru dessa icke äro af det glada
slaget. Det gamla slottet begagnades nämligen såsom ett slags
statsfängelse och mer än en förnäm ryss har förvisats till detta
finska "Pustosersk". Underliga historier äro i omlopp i den lilla staden
om sådana statsfångar. Sålunda omtalas isynnerhet såsom särdeles
märkvärdig den "namnlöse" ("besimennij" på ryska). Denne man
anlände någon qväll på 1820-talet med ett fyrspann för en heltäckt
vagn, åtföljd af en kosack-eskort till slottet. En af de fastaste celler i
ett sidotorn öppnades och fången, hvars ansigte "ingen fick se",
inspärrades. Vagn och eskort återvände till S:t Petersburg. På slottet
kallades fången "den namnlöse". Icke nog med att han i sjelfva
verket var utstruken ur de lefvandes antal, han skulle icke ens få
hafva lefvat — han hade intet namn. Hans cell var trång. Så satt han
i många, många år. Slutligen en dag kommer en hemlig ordre från
Petersburg. Den hemlighetsfulle mannen får lemna sin cell, röra sig
fritt, men icke lemna staden Kexholms område. Det var en mun med
ett särdeles förnämt utseende och skick och talade flytande väl, vida
flera språk än man kunde rådbråka i Kexholm. "Den namnlöse" var
sällskaplig men ytterst förbehållsam. Han umgicks i några "hus" i
Kexholm. Hans ålder kände ingen; gammal såg han icke ut men var
alldeles gråhårig då han trädde ur sin cell. Han dog som "namnlös"
efter att ha vistats elfva (?) år i Kexholm. Denne nye "jernmask", ty
äfven den "namnlöse" ansågs stå den regerande familjen alltför
nära, utgör ett älsklingsämne för samtal i Kexholms societet. Äfven
andra "politiska fångar" omtalas, till och med svenskar och finnar,
men berättelserna om dem äro så sväfvande och osäkra, att vi här
förbigå desamma.

4. En vacker hufvudstad i ett litet land.

Liksom då uppå en molnhöljd himmel, vid den framträdande

solens ljusblick, en i rik färgskiftning glänsande regnbåge
uppspringer — så helsar oss också ofta på historiens blad, midt
ibland scener af nöd hos ett hårdt pröfvadt folk, en ljusglimt af ett
högre lif, en regnbåge i de gladaste färgtoner. Den gamle Noah hade
icke så orätt i sitt allegoriska antagande. Dessa glada ljusglimtar i ett
folks historia, dessa färgrika regnbågar, vid hvilka öga och själ gerna
hvila och ur hvilkas skimmer de hemta ny lifskraft för bildningens
ofta flämtande lampa, de äro i sanning en borgen för att jordens folk
icke äro ämnade att dränka sin tillvaro i nödens tåreflod.

En sådan regnbåge på det finska folkets nu töcken- och

molnhöljda himmel är det fattiga Finlands vackra hufvudstad, det
ljusspridande och förhoppningsfulla, glada Helsingfors.

Få städer i norden ha, då man tager med i betraktande de

politiska, sociala och merkantila förhållandena, så hastigt blomstrat
upp, som det visserligen bland storstäder icke stora Helsingfors, men
hvilken dock på intet vis numera kan rubriceras såsom en stor
småstad. I de europeiskt-nordiska länderna har det öfver hufvud
taget visat sig att det ingalunda är invånarantalet i en stad, som
betingar dess betydelse, vare sig i nationelt eller politiskt hänseende.
Folkkarakteren i nordens civiliserade länder är i allmänhet i
förhållande till det yttre lifvets vilkor intensivare än söderns.

I det sociala lifvet göra sig i norden i allmänhet samma driffjedrar

gällande som i det politiska, nämligen öfvertygelse och ihärdighet.
Utan ett lugnt medvetande om sin sändning, vore nordens folk icke
mäktige nog att upprätthålla sin frihet. Utan ihärdighet i viljan egde
de icke nog kraft att, ehuru jemförelsevis fattige på materiella
hjelpmedel, kunna uthärda täflan med mera lyckligt lottade nationers
inre utveckling. De ha dock bra nog löst dessa uppgifter, på några få
undantag när, hvilka mera betingats af vissa tryckande yttre
förhållanden, än haft sin grund i någon framstående svaghet i folk-
karakteren. En på sådant skäl delvis hämmad snabbare
utvecklingsprocess kan dock, enligt hvad historien gifver vid hand,
när lyckligare omständigheter inträda, godtgöras inom ganska kort
tid. Emellertid bär de nordiska städernas utvecklingshistoria en tydlig
prägel af detta folkens mera kontemplativa skaplynne. De nordiska
folken ha icke sträfvat och äflats med att lysa genom praktfulla
städers anläggning. För dem voro och äro städerna medel,
häfstänger, att höja sjelfva folkets välstånd och befrämja dess
bildning, icke blott skapelser af nationel fåfänga eller herrskarenyck.
Vi undantaga här S:t Peterburg, skapelsen af Peter den förstes för
Sverige så olycksbringande snille, men vi anse icke heller ryssarne
för ett nordiskt, utan för ett orientaliskt folk.

Hvad nu särskildt Finland, hvarom frågan gäller, vidkommer, så bör

man först taga i betraktande, att i våra dagar städernas ställning till
folkens sociala lif öfver hela verlden undergått en stor förändring,
som i betydlig mån närmar sig nordens ursprungliga uppfattning.
Det är som skulle en flägt af amerikansk verldsåskådning ha inverkat
på de europeiska folken. Städerna betyda på långt när icke så
mycket, i och för sig sjelfva, som fordom. Utvecklade förbindelser
och en större internationel rörelse och inverkan ha fastmera, om vi
få begagna oss af ett handelsuttryck, gjort städerna till agenter
folken emellan. Då det gäller att bedömma en orts vigt och
betydelse för sitt land, frågas det i allmänhet numera icke om den är
stor, folkrik m.m., utan frågan gäller i hvilken mån representerar
denna stad sitt folks allmänna lif i det ena eller andra afseendet. Vår
tid utmärker sig nämligen å ena sidan lika mycket genom sitt
sträfvande att decentralisera det allmänna lifvet, hvad
adminastration och politik vidkommer, såsom af den
öfverhandtagande selvgovernments-principen och de moderna
nationalitetsidéerna nogsamt framgår, som den å andra sidan af alla
krafter arbetar uppå att å vissa lämpliga platser centralisera vissa
facer af nationernas inre framåtskridande.
 Vidare bör man taga i beräkning, att i nordens vidtutsträckta och
glest befolkade länder sällan någon stad kan i sig förena alla vilkor
för att kunna vara sitt lands emporium i alla afseenden. De
merkantila intressena uppsöka vanligtvis en annan plats för sin
verksamhet i stort än de vetenskapliga, åtminstone bestämmes
deras centralisation å någon viss ort af alldeles andra motiver. Det
rent politiska lifvet utvecklar sig naturligtvis i främsta rummet i ett
lands s.k. hufvudstad och de administrativa intressena träda gerna i
dettas fotspår. Isynnerhet gäller detta i länder med ännu outvecklade
kommunikationer och till dessas natur hör Finland utan gensägelse.

Helsingfors' fysionomi saknar, ty staden är hvad handeln

vidkommer den tredje i ordningen inom landet, alldeles detta uttryck
af merkantilt lif som t.ex. trycker en allt annat nivellerande stämpel
på Wiborg och äfven ger gamla Åbo stad en viss bestämd prägel.
Helsingfors har nämligen en ganska ringa export, och en i det stora
hela obetydlig rederirörelse (2,738 läster inklusive 10 ångfartyg).
Dess handel består förnämligast af en stor import. En främling som
kommer till Helsingfors vet i början icke hvad han skall tänka om
staden annat än att dess läge är ett af de vackrare i Europa, att den
är väl byggd och ser särdeles ung ut — kanske man till och med
märker en viss brådska i dess utveckling. Det inre lifvets
bestämmande momenter göra sig icke genast så tydligt gällande,
som i de flesta andra städer af samma rang. Väl ser man talrika
uniformer, något militär också och en artig mängd
embetsmannakokarder, men intet af dessa element är på ett
bestämdt sätt öfvervägande. Snart orienterar man sig dock — och
staden vinner, ju förtrognare man blir med dess lif och seder.

Helsingfors är en ung stad. Väl anlades densamma redan af Gustaf

Wasa vid Wandaåns mynning, en half mil åt nordost och flyttades till
sin nuvarande plats ungefär hundra år derefter, i medlet af sjuttonde
århundradet. Men de få minnen af någon vigt, som den har att
bjuda uppå, göra dess äldre historia föga intressant. Staden, ehuru
från början favoriserad och ämnad att bli sitt vis à vis Rewals
konkurrent i handeln på Ryssland, mäktade emellertid icke höja sig
till någon större betydelse inom detta gebit — och något annat kom
tillsvidare icke i fråga. Det är först närmare två hundra år senare,
som Helsingfors börjar gå uppåt med raskare steg. Sedan år 1812
bestämd till säte för finska regeringen, blef staden detta äfven år
1819. Icke ett fullt årtionde härefter eller 1828 flyttades akademiens
säte ifrån det Sverige så nära belägna Åbo, från "Minnenas stad", till
det då jemförelsevis likgiltiga Helsingfors. Den czariska politiken
misstog sig icke i alla afseenden. Hon flyttade derföre också
universitetet. Detta var nog praktiskt från en absolut mot-svensk
ståndpunkt betraktadt, ty det är längre från Helsingfors än från Åbo
till Stockholm och Upsala. Men oaktadt geografien i vårt tidehvarf
trädt i ett alldeles nytt stadium hvad afstånd vidkommer, och dessa
följaktligen icke mera betyda så mycket som fordom, så kan likväl
icke nekas, att Helsingfors är mindre svenskt än Åbo: det är deremot
mera finskt än Aurastaden och detta i mera än ett afseende, ehuru
allmogen i Abo-trakten talar finska. Helsingfors' finska befolkning är
också i jemt tilltagande, och medan man ännu på fyratiotalet högst
sällan hörde ett finskt ord på gatorna eller af den tjenande klassen,
hör detta deremot nu till de allra vanligaste företeelser. Man bör
härvid besinna att Helsingfors är omslutet af idel svenska talande
socknar, men inflyttningarne från det inre landet äro ganska talrika.

Att staden efter de nämnde stora förändringarne till sin förmån

snart skulle erhålla ett nytt utseende var gifvet, och 25 år efter
styrelseverkets flyttning stod Helsingfors der såsom en vacker och
aktningsbjudande stad, räknade då redan (1845) 17,000 invånare,
medan den 1820 icke ännu egt mera än c:a 7,000. Men det är först
under de två senaste årtionden, från 1846-1866, som Helsingfors
blifvit hvad det nu är samt erhållit sin egendomliga karakter såsom
Finlands hufvudstad. Icke allenast att staden under denna tid ökat
sin befolkning till inemot 30,000 invånarne, alltså nära nog
fördubblat densamma, utan inom dessa år utvecklar den också sin
egentliga betydelse såsom den moderna intelligensens, bildningens
och rättvisans stamort i Finland. Den finska historien stod
någorlunda stilla från 1809 till 1840-talet; men från denna tidpunkt
började skönjas ett tyst och lugnt, men allvarligt och ihärdigt
kulturarbete, som uppstod inom det finska folket. Detta arbete i
ljusets tjenst hade sin källa och utgångspunkt i Helsingfors. Det är
sitt universitet Finland har att tacka härför. Den vaknande
nationalitetskänslans "heliga flamma" underhölls här renast och
klarast midt under hotande faror och för dess utveckling framställda
hinder. Om någonsin ett universitet inför sitt folk har gjort skäl för
sin titel af intelligensens och ljusets härd, så är detta fallet med det
finska under de senaste 20 åren. Mycket har till dess stora
inflytande, hvartill vi längre fram skola återkomma, äfven den
omständigheten bidragit, att universitetet uppslagit sina bopålar i
landets hufvudstad. Akademien har sålunda blifvit det allmänna lifvet
i Finlands hjerta, hvars högre eller svagare pulsering bäst återgifvit
de inom folket lefvande opinionerna, isynnerhet så länge ännu inga
landtdagar fingo ega rum på andra sidan Bottenhafvet.

Här kunde det kanske vara lämpligt att i bredd med universitetets
blott medelbara inflytande egna ett flyktigt ögonkast åt styrelsens
eller, såsom man i Ryssland uttrycker sig, "de lokala
myndigheternas" omedelbara betydelse i Helsingfors. Den är icke
ringa. Helsingfors är i många afseenden en byråkratisk stad; men
denna byråkrati är tillsvidare ännu så nationel, att den nära nog är
det bästa Finland eger i praktisktpolitisk väg. Den älskar att stödja
sig på de gamla svenska grundlagarne. Universitetsungdomen, ur
hvars leder alla Finlands embetsmän, utom dess guvernörer och
generalguvernörer, i tiden utgått, utöfvar dessutom ett egendomligt
inflytande på allt offentligt lif i Helsingfors. Ehuru man väl i högre
kretsar ler åt ungdomens omdömen, så — skäms man dock för dess
tadel.

Men låtom oss kasta en blick på stadens yttre företeelse.

Från hvilken sida man än nalkas densamma framställer sig alltid

en vacker vy. Bäst presenterar sig dock staden från sjösidan sedan
man passerat det ryktbara Sveaborg, denna förförda jungfrufästning,
som 1808, utan något slags bombardement, gaf sig till fånga och
1853, oaktadt en 30 timmars härjande eld ur nutidens förfärliga
kanonor, ej ens blef stort skadad hvad dess vallar vidkommer, öppnar
sig för det tjusta ögat panoramat af det vackra Helsingfors. Här ha vi
till venster Ulrikasborgs på klippor anlagda, med talrika och
smakfulla "villor" utsirade park, äfvensom astronomiska observatoriet
samt katolska och tyska kyrkorna; till höger åter, å den s.k.
Skatudden, f.d. finska flottans kasernbyggnader, det finska markka-
mynthuset och den nya i färg- och metallglans skimrande ryska
kyrkan. Och framför oss — hvilken tafla: åtminstone för ett finskt
hjerta:

"Jag ser dina torn, dina stolta fasader

Sig ordna i hvita och glänsande rader",

sjunger Topelius om Helsingfors. O ja, man kan dikta en sång om

denna vackra "lättfärdiga mö, som på klipporna skalkas". Det första
ögat fäster sig vid är den på ett högt berg placerade, hela staden
dominerande, Nikolaikyrkan, från hvars kupol man skall njuta
förmånen att kunna få se det "lyckliga" Estlands kust och den gamla
staden Rewal. Men sänker sig blicken något från detta vårdtornlika
andaktstempel, så möter den väl en vida mera jordisk, men likväl
vackrare syn. Vi antaga att vi anlände om morgonen. Framför oss
utbreder sig ett torg, "Salutorget", 275 alnar långt och 195 alnar
bredt, infattadt på ena sidan af nära nog palatslika, stora och i
modern stil uppförda stenhus, och på en annan begränsadt af en
med vackra träd planterad "esplanad", en grön, frisk oas i detta kaos
af sten. Tvänne sidor af torget stöta med sina stenkajer omedelbart
till vattnet. Det är morgon. Båt vid båt i flera rader trängas vid
kajerna och torget hvimlar af folk, en sannskyldig myrstack. Och lika
intresserade som myror och betänkta på sitt lekamliga underhåll se
också alla dessa menniskor ut. Det är nämligen "torgdags" nu och
hela Helsingfors förser sig för dagen med allt hvad till lifvets nödtorft
hörer, från salt strömming ända till sparris och tidiga bär, från
träskålar och lerkrukor till doftande blommor och barnleksaker. Det
är en brokig, larmande och dock väl ordnad tafla, som i
morgonsolens glans tager sig högst liffull ut. Till venster om torget
börjar den nämnda "Esplanaden", en särdeles täck anläggning, som,
så snart träden hunnit växa till, skall kunna täfla med de flesta af sitt
slag i norden. Dock äfven nu redan äro dess skuggrika lindalléer en
af stadens behagligaste platser och en af dess största prydnader
samt tillika af oberäkneligt gagn, i det att staden på sitt smalaste
ställe genom denna 1,300 alnar långa och 150 fot breda
trädplantering delas i två hälfter. Detta är af mycken vigt vid
möjligen förefallande större eldsvådor, en hemsökelse, hvaraf
Helsingfors före sin pånyttfödelse talrika gånger lidit, och hvilken
olycka alltid är i dubbel mån hotande i en stad, der så många trähus
förekomma som fallet är i Helsingfors. De vackra "esplanaderna" äro
derföre icke blott "til lyst" för den finska hufvudstaden.
 Man kan tryggt jemföra denna promenad med "Unter den Linden"
i Berlin, och om äfven någon son af den tyska konungastaden skulle
harmas deröfver, måste vi dock säga rent ut, att Helsingfors'
"Esplanader" med sina breda, yppiga gräsplaner på sidan om
alléerna se vida friskare ut, än de damhöljda lindgångarne i det på
sand byggda Berlin. På hvardera sidan om den gröna oasen löpa
tvenne af stadens mest trafikerade gator, och midt i sjelfva
promenaden, som för kommunikationens skull gcnomskäres af några
tvärgator, reser sig på en fri plats det vackra och för finska
förhållanden verkligen ståtliga teaterhuset, som oaktadt branden år
1863, nu, åter restaureradt, står i all sin smakfulla enkelhet, ett
värdigt konstens tempel i den skönhetsälskande, flärdfria Norden.
Kostnaderna för denna byggnad torde, inklusive dess nästan totala
återuppbyggande efter branden, uppgå till cirka 800,000 finska
mark, ungefär 535,000 rdr. Teatern har rum för 900 åskådare samt
innehåller dessutom en "kejserlig loge", vackra foyéer, bufeter,
garderober, boningsrum m.m. och en större restaurationslokal — en
"opris" i Helsingfors också. I allmänhet har Helsingfors i denna väg,
restaurationer nämligen, något syskontycke med det frejdade
Stockholm. Till och med har Helsingfors i det så kallade "Kapellet",
beläget i "första esplanaden", ett litet, men mycket litet, motstycke
till den berömda "Strömparterren" i Sveriges residensstad. Det lilla
näpna "Kapellet", (i parentes kostar detsamma staden ungefär
24,000 rdr) är allmänna mötesplatsen för hela den fashionabla
verlden i den finska hufvudstaden. Restaurationslokalen, som jemväl
kan begagnas vintertid, är prydd med fresker af den finske målaren
A. v. Becker. Talriga statyetter samt en äfven i öfrigt prydlig
inredning, bidraga att göra denna lokal ganska inbjudande.
Restauratören på stället betalar också ett årligt arrende till staden af
icke mindre än 8,000 finska mark, 5,400 rdr, — mycket nog i
Helsingfors, då, om vi icke missminna oss, för Strömparterren i
Stockholm årligen erlägges endast 6,050 rdr! Af allt detta kan nu väl
äfven främlingen se att stadens fysionomi i allmänhet är glad. Föga
prakt möter ögat, men en viss estetisk smak nästan öfverallt. Hvad
som dock i väsentlig mån ger Helsingfors prägeln af endast
hufvudstaden i ett litet och till på köpet fattigt land, det är
butikernas, handelsbodarnes enkla utstyrsel emot hvad t.ex.
Stockholm har att uppvisa i denna väg. Väl räknar Helsingfors icke
mindre än ungefär 200 handlande och måhända öfver 100 butiker,
och detta tyckes nog bevisa en stor omsättning, men man är nöjd
med mindre ståt, då — man icke kan hafva det bättre.

Totalintrycket af det hela är imellertid behagligt, och man glömmer

kanske för lätt att man befinner sig i det "fattiga Finland", men man
glömmer också vid anblicken af den lifliga rörelsen omkring sig —
och detta hedrar såväl stad som land — att man promenerar norr
om sextionde graden nordlig bredd, i ett land så föga kändt, och
tyvärr ännu mindre erkändt af utländingar, — och dock väl förtjent
såväl af att kännas som ock erkännas t.ex. framför några små tyska
furstendömen, hvilkas namn, representerande arealen af en finsk
socken, dock ofta göra så mycket buller i verlden, — men ett buller
som egentligast kan jemföras med de tomma tunnornas. Den
nämnda ringa kunskapen om Finland skall dock med tiden något ge
sig och håller redan på att undergå en förändring. I annat fall hade
t.ex. finska statsverkets utländska lån stött på ganska naiva, men
oöfverstigliga hinder i baron v. Rothschilds okunnighet om att ett
storfurstendöme Finland, med egen finansförvaltning, fanns till. Så
var dock icke fallet och nu cirkulera och "paradera" de finska
"statspapperen" (sic!) på nästan alla Europas börser — också ett
egendomligt steg framåt, i alla fall ett sätt att göra sig bemärkt, en
puff på verldsmarknaden för Finlands tillvaro som ett konstitutionelt
samhälle — med sjelfbeskattningsrätt. "Hony soit qui mal y pense."

Men vi återgå till våra observationer under promenaden genom

staden. I monumentväg har Helsingfors intet att uppvisa, om man
icke såsom ett sådant vill antaga en af fyra eller fem skilda stycken
stenpelare, som af ett tacksamt land (eller stad) upprestes på det
ställe der för första gången en rysk kejsarinna, nämligen år 1833,
satte foten på finsk jord.

Om nu också det helsingforska monumentet, trots alla sina delars

mångfald, dock förefaller något enfaldigt i det estetiskt bildade
Helsingfors, så lider dock staden å andra sidan ingen brist på vackra
offentliga byggnader och glada trädgårdsanläggningar, bevis på den
kärlek, hvarmed det finska folket omfattat sin hufvudstad och försökt
att, begagnande dess fördelaktiga och sköna naturliga läge, göra
detsamma till en af nordens vackraste städer. Betänker man vidare
den korta tidrymd, inom hvilket flertalet af alla dessa
försköningsverk sammanfaller, så måste man i sanning beundra
Helsingfors' raska framsteg och detta så mycket mera, som af
stadens egna inkomster, i följd af de dryga kostnaderna för
kommunalstyrelsen, brandkåren med redskap, inqvarteringstungan
m.m. icke något synnerligt öfverskott kan påräknas för försköningar.
Det är också till större delen privata bolag som utfört dessa.

Ibland Helsingfors' publika byggnader utmärka sig, utom den

redan nämnda nya teatern, flera för arkitektonisk skönhet, bland
dem universitetet, riddarhuset och bibliotheket. Den stora
Nikolaikyrkan deremot, senatshuset och kejserliga palatset äro icke
särdeles framstående genom sin formskönhet.
 Helsingfors' vackra läge blir ännu vackrare genom de talrika
trädgårdsanläggningar, som af enskilta bolag företagits i stadens
omedelbara grannskap. Ulrikasborgs brunnspark med sina höga
klippstränder, mot hvilka Finska vikens vågor, obehindrade af någon
skärgård, svalla i alla sin ursprungliga kraft, lockade också fordom
talrika brunnsgäster, isynnerhet från Petersburg, hitöfver. Dessa
orientaliska sommarbesök ha nu, i följd af de ryska pengarnes dåliga
kurs i Finland, nästan alldeles upphört, till stor afsaknad för stadens
galanterihandlare. Men den vackra, från år till år i fägring tilltagande
parken står derföre ingalunda öde och tom. Ungefär hvad
Djurgården är för Stockholm det är Ulrikasborg för Helsingfors, och
den öfver sommaren i staden qvarstannande allmänheten fyller, de
blida Juli- och Augustiqvällarne, icke allenast gångarne i denna
vackra park, utan lomnar ej heller det idylliska Kaisaniemi (Karins
udde) och det trefliga Thölö lottlösa.

Till en beskrifning af Helsingfors hör vidare, att staden har

förmånen af gaslysning och en statspostinrättning samt snart torde
komma i åtnjutande af en allmän vattenledning. En jernväg förbinder
staden med upplandet och genom ett öfver hela landet utspändt
telegrafnät, tyvärr rysk statstillhörighet, står Helsingfors icke allenast
i kommunikation med den civiliserade verlden (såväl öfver Torneå
som ock S:t Petersburg) — utan hvad nästan ännu mera är — äfven
med alla Finlands städer, en i många afseenden särdeles vigtig
omständighet. Helsingfors telegrafstation är äfven ganska betydligt
anlitad i det i medeltal dagligen något öfver 100 depescher
expedieras, till största delen privata och affattade på svenska
språket. Stadens ångbåtstrafik är icke obetydlig. Direkt förbindelse
underhålles med S:t Petersburg, Stockholm, Rewal och Lübeck samt
alla finska kuststäder. I stadens omgifning röra sig flitigt flere af
dessa små täcka ångslupar, som blifvit så moderna på senare tider.
 Något som är särdeles betecknande för Helsingfors är mängden af
privata föreningar, underhållna skolor och välgörenhetsanstalter.
Detta vittnar om ett allvarligt sträfvande efter bildning och en
uppoffrande menniskokärlek, något som i sanning i Finland är af
behofvet påkalladt i dessa nödens år. Det är tillika anmärkningsvärdt
huru hastigt och enigt Helsingfors' invånare beflita sig att i behofvets
stund inrätta provisionella sjuk- eller arbetshus, barnhem och
barnträdgårdar, "soppkokningsanstalter" m.m. dylikt. Detta är ett
talande bevis för en stigande allmän-anda, den bästa garanti för ett
folks tidsenliga utveckling. I detta afseende föregår alltså
hufvudstaden landet med ett berömvärdt — och behöfligt godt
exempel. Kommunallifvet kan således, för att gälla en finsk stad,
anses vara ganska utveckladt, hvartill i icke så obetydlig grad
föreningar af den art som en "frivillig brandkår" och en
"handtverkare-sångförening" m.fl. torde ha bidragit, äfvensom den
uppmärksamhet, hvarmed den småningom sig allt mer och mer
utvecklande periodiska pressen följt de kommunala frågorna. Komne
på tal härom, må vi i förbigående nämna att i Helsingfors år 1865
utkommo tidningar och tidskrifter, af hvilka fyra voro dagblad, alla på
svenska språket, samt på finska 2 veckoblad och 2 tidskrifter, den
ena illustrerad. De senare åren uppvisa visserligen ett mindre antal
tidningar i Helsingfors, men man kan äfven i många andra afseenden
anse år 1867 såsom ett öfvergångsstadium. Det skulle dock föra oss
för långt att här ingå i en relation om den periodiska pressens
ställning i landet.

Hvad konstlifvet i Helsingfors vidkommer står nu väl detta, i följd

af landets ringa resurser, i allmänhet icke på någon glänsande fot.
Men den genom universitetets inflytande estetiskt förädlade
skönhetskänslan har utbildat en nobel smak, som t.ex. vis à vis
teatern, uttalar sig i en stor förkärlek för en gedigen repertoar. Väl
anslogo äfven här Orphei uppsluppna toner och den "Sköna
Helenas" visor. Men medan Helsingfors med sina nära 30,000
invånare endast 13 gånger kunde "'fylla hus", och det till på den lilla
Arkadiateatern, för */Evoe! Dessa gudinnor/*, så mäktade
Stockholm med sin högst fem gånger större befolkning tio gånger
oftare applådera dessa toner och det på den näst största af sina
teatrar, de mindre scenerna att förtiga.

För allt som gjorts för skön konst, specielt hvad teatern beträffar,
står Finland och särskildt staden Helsingfors i stor tacksamhetsskuld
till professor Fredrik Cygnaeus, mannen som endast lefvat för det
sköna på jorden. Tidigt förtrogen i konstens rike, der Rom, Florens
och Paris voro hans själs hvilopunkter, förenade sig alla strålar af
hans varma hjerta i det ädla sträfvandet att äfven i Suomis torftiga
bygd sprida konstens idealiserande ljus, landets söner till
vederqvickelse och uppmuntran i deras bistra strid emot hårda öden
och en karg natur. Han skapade Helsingfors' nya och vackra teater åt
sina landsmän: "en källa för vandraren i öknen, ett månsken på
nattlig färd." — Vi tro oss icke öfverdrifva, om vi säga att det är
Cygnaeus, som i främsta rummet i Helsingfors väckt intresset för
skön konst till en lefvande verklighet, I alla fall är det han som
förstått att skaffa understöd af hvarjehanda slag åt nästan alla
Finlands nuvarande unga konstnärer. Estetices professor (numera
emeritus) är han verkligen representanten af Helsingfors' estetiska
ståndpunkt, som med sina några fel dock förenar en viss förtjenst,
hvilket lätt kan betecknas med de få orden: "Kärlek till konsten —
ehuru landet tuggar barkbröd." Det är heroiskt att i en sådan
situation ännu kunna svärma för idealer — men se deri
dokumenterar sig just kärleken till det sköna. Det materiella har
aldrig kunnat skrämma Cygnaeus; han är optimist — så är
Helsingfors också. Parallelt mod den "finska" konstföreningen har
här derföre äfven uppstått ett "konstnärsgille"', som med sina
atheniensiskt glada årsfester med skämt och löje söker dölja
torftigheten i stadens konstsamlingar. Men huru fattig på konstverk
Helsingfors nu än är, så eger den dock i skulpturväg något som man
kan glädja sig öfver. Det är en den finska nationalkänslan särdeles
anslående skapelse, bildhuggaren Sjöstrands fris i universitetets
vestibul.

Kompositionen föreställer, enligt ett tema ur Kalevala,

Wäinämöinens sång för den lyssnande mennisko- och djurverlden,
och inlöstes af stadens unga fruntimtimmer för en summa af ungefär
5,500 riksdaler. Frisen var ursprungligen ämnad att pryda första
radens loger i det nya Thalia-templet. Teaterbolaget afsade sig dock,
eget nog, denna gåfva och hon tillföll alltså universitetet. Det är
alltså nu från dettas galleri, som "Wäinämöinens sång" helsar en
välkommen, då man inträder i vetenskapens allvarliga lärosalar.

Vi komma nu till universitetet, dess verksamhet och inflytande,

icke i vetenskapligt afseende, utan i social och nationel riktning.
Akademiens vetenskapliga betydelse har mycken likhet med Upsalas,
isynnerhet idkas de naturvetenskapliga studierna med mycken ifver.
Men en väsentlig skilnad, och det Helsingfors universitet till förmån,
uppstår deraf att denna högskola är belägen i landets hufvudstad.
Denna omständighet ger till och med den akademiska ungdomen en
viss prägel af politisk betydelse.

Kort efter universitetets flyttning till Helsingfors utvecklade sig vid

detsamma ett ganska friskt litterärt lif. Snellman m.fl. voro unga än.
Af någon nationel tendens igenfinnes den tiden dock blott få, om
några spår alls; likväl förmärktes äfven då redan en viss opposition
emot de föråldrade teoriernas herravälde såsom nogsamt af
Kunebergs "Morgonblad" kan ses; men till praktiskt ingripande i lifvet
och omformning af allmänna opinionen hade tiden ännu icke mognat
— då.

De första åren af fyratiotalet gåfvo dock uppslag till ett nytt lif vid
universitetet. Hela Europa jäste af de vaknande nationalitetsidéerna.
Då slog stålet rätt i flintan och en gnista sprang upp — ovärderlig för
Finlands folk. Det var nemligen det klara medvetandet af dess
egendomliga nationalitet som då trädde fram i dagen. O, den som
varit med om dessa första tider af ett vaknande högre lif! Huru
svällda af ädla känslor voro icke de bröst, som fingo lifvas af den
gryende morgonrodnadens förstlingsstrålar och huru skön log icke
framtiden då för den finska ynglingens blickar. Det var en skön
förhoppning, den har icke svikit, den kan icke svika — men icke blef
det uppå ett haf af ljus som denna nya idés kämpar trädde ut.
Tvärtom deras stig har varit ganska törnströdd.

Der gingo den tiden två rika andar fram, de gå för allan tid, som
två ljusa trådar genom det finska folkets utvecklingsprocess:
Lönnroth och Castrén. Med Kalevalas, den finska national-epopéns
framträdande i dagsljuset inför en bildad verld, tillförsäkrade sig den
finska nationaliteten en plats inom litteraturen; och vetenskapens
intyg om de finska folkstammarnes forntida herravälde öfver större
delen af gamla verldens nord, dref nationalkänslan upp ur sin
dvallika slummer. Nu kände Finland sina anor — framtiden låg i
folkets egen hand. Som två väldiga strömmar, hvardera med sitt eget
flodsystem, gingo Lönnroth och Castrén sina banor fram. Stundens,
dagens lif och frågor med sina mera praktiska tendenser rörde dem
föga. Men mäktigt verkade deras ädla föredöme på ungdomens
öppna sinne och ett skönt lif sprang upp i de akademiska kretsarne.
Studenterna anförda af den skarpsynte tänkaren Robert Tengström
och den då ännu entusiastiske Herman Kellgren, lifvades till en
patriotism, som spridde sin verksamhet åt alla håll af allmännyttig
art. Karakteristiskt för detta första uppvaknande af den finska
nationalkänslan är dess synnerliga sympati för Sverige. — Den tidens
nationalitetsförfäktare hade höga vyer med en stark lutning åt en
friare social utveckling och folkbildning. Språkfrågan, i all sin
sedermera framträdande nakenhet, betraktades förnämligast såsom
en häfstång för högre, allmänneligare idéer. Å s.k. "högre ort" väckte
också dessa nationalitetssträfvanden föga sympati och de mest
restriktiva åtgärder vidtogos emot deras utveckling. Man ville qväfva
det uppspirande lifvet i sin brodd. "Heu vatum ignarae mentes!" Man
kan krossa personer men icke idéer genom bullor och förordningar.
Så gick det ock här. Censuren är icke den makt, som reglerar ett
folks utveckling.
 Sedan denna tid daterar sig egentligen universitetets sociala och
nationella betydelse i Finland. Tengström och Kellgren slumra
längesedan i sina förtidiga grafvar, nationalitetsidéen har genomgått
många strider, varit underkastad många fluktuationer; men
ungdomens riktiga takt, måhända då och då vilseledd för stunden,
har dock vetat att segrande gå ur alla frestelser och öfvervinna allt
motstånd.

Se der en svag teckning af universitetets apostlaverksamhet i

Finland. Hvad under då om ett tacksamt folk anser denna ädla
verksamhets hufvudsäte, Helsingfors, såsom sina förhoppningars
Zion. När finska folket en gång väl hunnit växa till sig, då skall det
nog veta att äfven i yttre måtto uppresa minnesstoder åt de män,
som mest bidragit till dess seger öfver ett oblidt öde. Om derföre
Helsingfors ännu icke har några monument att uppvisa, så är det
endast en tidsfråga när sådana, i brons och marmor, skola pryda de
vackra allmänna platserna i staden, bärande på sina piedestaler de
för Finland evigt värderade namnen:

Runeberg. Lönnroth. Castrén.

Reseskizzer från Polen och Ryssland.

1. I Polen.
 Jag ber till en början läsaren följa mig till den gamla, goda men
oroliga staden Warschau, det vill säga om han vill följa mig till det
olyckliga Polens i alla fall ännu i så många afseenden ytterst
eleganta hufvudstad. Till och med ännu den dag som är i dag, och
efter alla de hemska händelser som i den senaste tiden ha öfvergått
dettä den polska nationalitetens palladium, fruktar czaren vid
Newans strand just denna egendomligt polska elegans, som
utmärker och i ännu högre grad för några år sedan utmärkte det
ädla polska folkets vackra hufvudstad.

Och hvari består då denna egendomliga, specifikt polska elegans?

Tvärtemot hvad vi här säga talar man ju, och detta tyvärr med rätta,
tidt och ofta derom att de polska städerna se hvad man kallar — sit
venia verbo — rätt snuskiga ut.

Den polska elegansen uppbäres i främsta rummet af de polska

fruntimren. Och det är dessa tjusande varelser czaren fruktar. Deras
inflytande på männen är stort och hela Europa beundrar de sköna,
eleganta polskorna — som nu så djupt sörja sitt Ilions fall. Men det
är måhända just denna sorg, så värdigt buren, som förläner allt
polskt en viss aristokratisk pregel.

Låtom oss beträda Warschaus förnämsta gata, den stora

"Krakowskaja" (Krakaugatan), uppkallad efter det gamla Polens
andra hufvudstad, det intressanta gamla Krakau, numera österrikisk
besittning. — Jag måste här i förbigående nämna att den resa jag,
återvändande från Tyskland, företog genom Polen och Ryssland,
skedde före den sista revolutionens utbrott, men just under de tider
då densamma var i görningen. Icke heller existerade då ännu en
järnvägsförbindelse emellan S:t Petersburg och Warschau, utan den
resande färdades medelst så kallad "mallpost", en jemförelsevis väl
organiserad och snabb diligensförbindelse. Dessa inledande
anmärkningar äro af nöden för att man skall kunna förstå en del af
hvad jag i det efterföljande går att omtala, och hvilket i sina minsta
detaljer är faktiskt, så föga trovärdigt det ibland än kan låta.

Nåväl, det är i December månad och vi befinna oss på

"Krakowskaja". De djupa nischerna som bilda fönstren (Warschau är
i allmänhet byggt på gammaldags vis) till bottenvåningarne, hvilka
till större delen äro upplåtna till bodlokaler, äro särdeles väl egnade
att taga plats uti och åskåda lifvet på gatan.

Polackarne äro i allmänhet ett vackert folk, jag menar naturligtvis

de verkliga polackarne, icke representanterna af kroiseringen med
vender, tyskar, ryssar och israeliter, ej heller de genuina
medlemmarne af dessa värda fem nationaliteter i Polen, hos hvilka
polackens medfödda höfviskhet och den polska qvinnans anboora
behag blott undantagsvis kunna anträffas.

Det var mitt största nöje att under min vistelse i Warschau, hvilken
inskränkte sig till blott tre dagar, hvarje morgon, eller måhända
riktigare förmiddag, besöka "Krakowskaja", sätta mig i någon af de
omtalta "nischerna" och mönstra de af- och tillgående
personligheterna. Om jag med förbigående af det ringa vendiska
elementet och jemväl lemnande åsido de "goda tyskarne", som till
en stor del äro handtverkare, börjar med de större grupperna, så är
den fulaste af de syner som jag då var i tillfälle att se, den polska
juden, isynnerhet i vissa förhållanden. Lika svårt som det är att i
later och skick skilja emellan den polskjudiska eller hamburger-
bankiren och lika europeiserad som en sådan medlem af den
israelitiska stammen måste förefalla en hvar, lika obehaglig är den
genuint polska "schackerjuden", som i sin snuskighet och
närgångenhet lifligt påminner om orienten. Hans luggslitna, talgiga
rock döljer ett lika "futtigt" inre. Han "gör i allt" — i lump, i smycken,
i pengar, i vackra qvinnor, med få ord i allt hvarmed pengar kunna
förtjenas.

Den dernäst följande gruppen intages otvetydigt af ryssarne, som

med hånlöjet på läppen gå omkring i den stad de eröfrat, och,
militärer som de flesta äro, utgöra de i sina guldsmidda rockar ett
lefvande bevis på våldets prålighet. De ryska damernas sträfvande
går derföre också ut på att lysa som "fina" damer ur den stora
verlden. O! hvilken andlig blindhet! att tro sig kunna se "fin" ut i
jemnbredd med den verkliga polska "pannan" (damen). Den
sistnämnda tillhör rentaf ett sylfidiskt slägte. Hon sväfvar fram på ett
sätt som det vore orätt att blott kalla gång, ty så lätt, så otvungen,
så fri från all ansträngning är den framåtskridande rörelsen. Den
polska qvinnans gång är också berömd öfver hela den civiliserade
verlden. I "pannans" hela väsende och skick uttalar sig en allt
genomgående aristokratisk lyftning, som hon ovilkorligen meddelar
åt hela sin omgifning. I allmänhet skön, bär hennes skönhet en
alltför stolt karakter för att nedlåta sig att vara prunkande. Hennes
ögon brinna och glöda icke som spaniorskans och italienskans, eller
smälta i längtansfull vällust som Orientens dotters, de stråla en lugnt
och varmt till mötes och är man lycklig nog att något djupare få
skåda i desamma, så läser man der tydligt historien om den kraft
och uppoffrande fosterlandskärlek som de polska qvinnorna
ådagalagt senast under de sorgliga tilldragelserna år 1863. Mera
hängifvenhet för fäderneslandets dyra sak ha intet lands qvinnor
någonsin visat sig ega och det i så stor och vidtomfattande skala.
Det var de som i främsta rummet underhöllo entusiasmen, och de
förtjena i sanning det höga namnet af den heliga eldens väktarinnor.
Vårdad af deras späda händer kunde den sköna lågan i de manliga
brösten icke slockna, trotts strömmar af blod som gjötos öfver
densamma. Beredvilligheten att uppoffra sig för fäderneslandet steg
med de sig hopande olyckorna.

Sådan var hon äfven före denna sorgliga tid, en af de skönaste

partier på historiens tafla — och sådan förblir hon förvisst äfven i
framtiden. Nu sedan männen slagtats, kedjats och bortförts till
Sibiriens snö-öknar, ligger Polens sak nästan alldeles i qvinnans
händer — och hon skall veta att häfda sin i blod och sorger af alla
slag vunna ära.

Den polska nationen är alltigenom en adelsnation, med alla detta

begrepps otaliga fel och brister, men också icke i saknad af de flesta
goda sidor som några historici vilja vindicera åt den adliga
institutionen. Jag för min del såg i Polen nästan öfverallt blott
fattigdom och snuskighet. I adelns slott inträngde jag icke — och på
klostren ville jag icke tänka. Men schljächszernas (knapadelns)
boningar voro till större delen fattiga kyffen och böndernas kojor
ännu uslare. Deremot måste jag, i motsats till hvad ofta läses om de
polska värdshusens dålighet, säga att de restaurationer, vid hvilka
jag under den långa färden från Warschau till Kowno steg af, voro,
jemte sina billiga priser, ganska hyggliga.

Det hotell der jag bodde i Warscliau hette "Saxonski dom" (Hotel
de Saxe). Det var en gammal, stor och vidlyftig stenbyggnad med
korridorer, genomgångar, otaliga mörka och smala trappor m.m. Om
jag ej missminner mig har ståthållaren, grefve Berg, sedermera låtit
rasera detta "farliga" hus. Betjeningen på hotelet var klen men
restaurationen god och billig. Bakom disken fungerade en liten
näpen "panna", som jemväl betjonade gästerna. Det var ett
synnerligt nöje för mig att med henne försöka rådbråka polska.
Tyska förstod hon icke och ryska ville hon icke gerna tala. Många
löjliga misstag och förvexlingar förekommo oss emellan.

Jag hade skaffat mig en biljett för näst afgående "mallpost" till
Petersburg. Det inre af vagnen var upptaget — min plats blef derföre
bredvid konduktören. Jag skulle således "summa diligentia", i fri
skolpojksöfversättning: "på taket af diligensen", göra mitt intåg i
Ryssland, liksom Caesar enligt egen uppgift sitt i Gallien. Det lofvade
bli en ganska obehaglig situation, ty vi voro i smällkalla vintern:
alnsdjup snö betäcker marken och vinden hviner kall öfver norra
Polens och vestra Rysslands slätter.

Dagen för afresan kom och vi intogo våra platser i det oviga
åkdonet, en stor heltäckt vagn, förspänd med sex hästar. Jag hade
bredvid mig, utom konduktören, en annan lidandes kamrat, en rysk
tjensteman, vid namn Minin, såsom jag sedermera erfor.

Farväl, du vackra Warschau, tänkte jag tyst för mig sjelf, med dina
stolta polska adelsmän och dina sköna, präktiga qvinnor — farväl!
Och jag insvepte mig dyster i hågen i min pels, dyster vid den
ovilkorliga tanken derpå, att jag nu ilade mot gränsen af den makt,
hvars grymma förfarande nästan krossat den ädla polska nationen,
som med alla sina fel dock är en af perlorna i den europeiska
historiens krans och hvilken perla nu frånröfvats oss af den vilda
ryssen. Och jag drog mig instinktmessigt undan från min ryska
kamrat och hviskade sakta: "än är Polen ej förloradt!" — Kamraten
som trodde att jag tilltalade honom vände sig till mig.

"Vill ni veta", inföll han liksom till svar på någon af mig framställd
fråga, "hvilka som utgöra vårt ressällskap derinne? — Nåväl", fortfor
han talträngd, "det är ingen mindre herre än en erkebiskop från
Warschau, kejsarens (ryssen korsade sig) botpredikant derstädes;
han har tre gullkors hängande om halsen (åter korsning) och reser
nu med sin dotter öfver S:t Petersburg till Moskwa. — De två andra
äro utländska fruntimmer", tillade han likgiltigt.

Färden gick i början raskt nog, så länge vägarne voro banade,

samt i allmänhet inom det polska området bättre än sedermera då vi
kommo inom det egentliga kejsarrikets gränser.

Stationerna voro långa och vid första hästombytet, det var i en

stad, stego alla passagerare ur och begåfvo sig till en dem anvisad
restauration. Min granne helsade vördnadsfullt på den ryska prelaten
och bevärdigades af honom med en nådig nick. Sedan vi i särskildt
rum aftagit en del öfverplagg, började de skilda medlemmarne af
vårt lilla sällskap betrakta hvarandra. Biskopen var en vacker karl om
fyratio år, med vördnadsbjudande hållning då han stod, men med
ograciös, något häftig gång. Hans dotter kunde vara fjorton à
femton år och var ful. Herr Minin, min granne, var en trivial
företeelse och kanske sina trettio år, men de tvenne fruntimren voro
unga och den ena till och med ganska täck; hon var på sin höjd
sexton år gammal; de talade franska sinsemellan. Instinktmessigt
satte de två sistnämnda och jag oss vid samma bord, medan de tre
ryssarne intogo ett annat.

"Huru länge tror monsieur, att färden till Petersburg kommer att
räcka?" tillsporde mig den äldre af damerna?

"Nio dagar och nio nätter och det oafbrutet", var mitt nedslående
svar.

De två fruntimren vexlade bestörta blickar.

 "Ah!" inföll slutligen den yngre skrattande, "färden från Geneve hit
har för oss räckt blott sex dygn — men man får väl foga sig —
Ryssland är ett vidsträckt land."

De voro alltså schweitziskor, troligen guvernanter kalkulerade jag,

och så var äfven förhållandet, såsom jag sedermera erfor.

Snart skedde uppbrott och vi fortsatte vår resa genom natt och
dag vid en ganska försvarlig köld. Småningom blefvo vi genom
sammanträffandet vid stationshusen bekanta med hvarandra.
Ostrolenka, platsen för det minnesvärda slaget den 26 Maj år 1831
passerades. Här föreföll genom vår biskops förvållande en i högsta
grad upprörande scen. Vår konduktör, en afskedad rysk korporal,
som ständigt var berusad, insomnade å poststationen och vi i vår
restauration fingo vänta på diligensen ganska länge. Slutligen kom
konduktören och då erkebiskopen förehåller honom det onödiga
dröjsmålet, skyller den bedröflige mannen på de polska bönderna
som icke "ville fram med hästar."

Den vrede som utbredde sig öfver erkebiskopens drag är omöjlig

att skildra. Han svor kötteder af argaste slag och utöste skymford af
sådan beskaffenhet att jag innerligt gladde mig deråt att de unga
damerna icke förstodo ryska. Vreden gällde naturligtvis polackarne.

"De fördömda polska slafvarne", röt prelaten sedan han trädt ut

på gatan, "må de samt och synnerligen förderfvas, det ormynglet. —
Och snart skola de det väl också, det hoppas jag till Gud!"

Det var ord af en så högtuppsatt kyrkans man! Ur den talrika

folkhopen som samlats omkring vagnen kastades mörka blickar på
ryssen.
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