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 START
PROGRAMMING
using HTML, CSS,
and JAVASCRIPT
 CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
TEXTBOOKS IN COMPUTING

Series Editors

John Impagliazzo Andrew McGettrick

Professor Emeritus, Hofstra University Department of Computer
and Information Sciences
University of Strathclyde

Aims and Scope

This series covers traditional areas of computing, as well as related technical areas, such as
software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer engineering, information systems, and
information technology. The series will accommodate textbooks for undergraduate and gradu-
ate students, generally adhering to worldwide curriculum standards from professional societ-
ies. The editors wish to encourage new and imaginative ideas and proposals, and are keen to
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address topics that provide support for computing, such as mathematics, statistics, life and
physical sciences, and business.

Published Titles

Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and Beyond: Principles and Technologies

Henrik Bærbak Christensen, Flexible, Reliable Software: Using Patterns and Agile Development
John S. Conery, Explorations in Computing: An Introduction to Computer Science
John S. Conery, Explorations in Computing: An Introduction to Computer Science and Python
Programming
Iztok Fajfar, Start Programming Using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
Jessen Havill, Discovering Computer Science: Interdisciplinary Problems, Principles, and
Python Programming
Ted Herman, A Functional Start to Computing with Python
Pascal Hitzler, Markus Krötzsch, and Sebastian Rudolph, Foundations of Semantic Web
Technologies
Mark J. Johnson, A Concise Introduction to Data Structures using Java
Mark J. Johnson, A Concise Introduction to Programming in Python
Lisa C. Kaczmarczyk, Computers and Society: Computing for Good
Mark C. Lewis, Introduction to the Art of Programming Using Scala
Efrem G. Mallach, Information Systems: What Every Business Student Needs to Know
Bill Manaris and Andrew R. Brown, Making Music with Computers: Creative Programming in
Python
Uvais Qidwai and C.H. Chen, Digital Image Processing: An Algorithmic Approach with MATLAB®
David D. Riley and Kenny A. Hunt, Computational Thinking for the Modern Problem Solver
Henry M. Walker, The Tao of Computing, Second Edition
 Chapman & Hall/CRC
TEXTBOOKS IN COMPUTING

START
PROGRAMMING
using HTML, CSS,
and JAVASCRIPT

Iztok Fajfar
University of Ljubljana
Slovenia
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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To my family
 Contents

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction xiii

About the Author xvii

1 Content and Structure 1

1.1 Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Introducing HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Minimal HTML Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Formatting a Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Building a Sound Structure 15

2.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Lists and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Generic <div> and <span> Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Sectioning Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Character Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Presentation 35
3.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Setting up a Web Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Introducing CSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 CSS Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 CSS Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 CSS Pixel Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4 More Control over Style 51

4.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

vii
 4.2 Class Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 ID Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Grouping Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 Nesting Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 The HTML Ancestry Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.8 Determining Style Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.9 Relative Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.10 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5 Understanding CSS Boxes 71

5.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 CSS Box Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Element Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Positioning and Element Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.5 Containing Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.6 Hiding Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.7 Floated Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.8 Special Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.9 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6 Behavior 101
6.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Server Side Includes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Introducing JavaScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Values and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.5 Operators and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.6 Concluding Remarks and Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

7 Controlling Program Flow 127

7.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3 Design a Simple Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4 Type Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8 Introducing Objects 147

8.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 switch Conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3 Math Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.4 do/while Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.5 Date Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.6 Concluding Thoughts and Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

9 Understanding Arrays and Strings 165

9.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.2 Array Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.3 for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.4 Array Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

viii Contents
 9.5 String Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

10 Understanding Functions 187

10.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.2 Writing Function Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.3 References to Function Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.4 Variable Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.5 Passing Function Arguments by Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.6 The Scope Chain and Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

11 Building Your Own Objects 205

11.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.2 JavaScript Objects Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.3 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.4 Constructor Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.5 Factory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.6 The prototype Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.7 More on Setting and Querying Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.8 Sudoku Puzzle Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.9 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

12 Using JavaScript to Control the Browser 227

12.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.2 Deeper into the Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
12.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
12.4 Scripting Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.5 Timer Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.6 Scripting Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.7 Introducing Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.8 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

13 User Interface 245

13.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.2 Using Family Relations to Manipulate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.3 Completing Math Worksheet Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.4 Completing Sudoku Puzzle Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

A Solution to the Last Homework: Sudoku Generator 265

B Ways to Continue 271

B.1 Graphics with Canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.2 Local Data Storage through Web Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
B.3 Ajax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
B.4 jQuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
B.5 Go Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Contents ix
C HTML Mini Reference 305
C.1 Root Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
C.2 Document Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
C.3 Scripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C.4 Sections and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
C.5 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
C.6 Text-Level Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
C.7 Embedded Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
C.8 Tabular Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C.9 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
C.10 Global Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
C.11 Event-Handler Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

D CSS Mini Reference 339

D.1 CSS Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
D.2 inherit keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.3 Text Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.4 List Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
D.5 Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
D.6 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
D.7 Background Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
D.8 Table Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
D.9 Size Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
D.10 Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
D.11 Pseudo-Classes and Pseudo-Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

E JavaScript Mini Reference 373

E.1 Operator Precedence and Associativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
E.2 arguments[] (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
E.3 Array (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
E.4 Boolean (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
E.5 console (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
E.6 Date (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
E.7 document (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
E.8 Element (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
E.9 Event (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
E.10 Function (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
E.11 Global Variables, Functions, and Objects (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . 406
E.12 Math (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
E.13 Node (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
E.14 Number (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
E.15 Object (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
E.16 String (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
E.17 window (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

x Contents
 Acknowledgments

A huge thank you goes to the guys at Taylor and Francis, especially to my editor Randi
Cohen for her enthusiasm for the whole project, my project coordinator Ashley We-
instein, who oversaw production attentively, and technical reviewers for their detailed
comments making the whole book more enjoyable. Many thanks also to the proof-
reader for correcting typos and grammar. Indeed, it was a great pleasure to work with
such a professional team.

Honestly, all this wouldn’t have happened were it not for Igor and the other guys from
the morning-coffee crew, who suggested that I should really write a book. Thanks,
chaps, it cost me a year of my life. Thank you to all my amazing students for sitting
through my programming lectures and asking nasty questions. Man, how should I
know all that? I shall not forget to also thank the other teaching staff from the team.
The joy of working together is immeasurable. I’m deeply indebted to Žiga, who had
painstakingly read the whole manuscript before releasing it to the wild. (I sincerely
hope you spotted all the silly mistakes so I don’t make a fool of myself.) Thank you,
Andrej, for technical advice on preparing the camera-ready PDF. Those are really
details that make a difference. A thousand thanks go to Tanja and Tadej for that little
push that did the trick. You are terrific!

I also wish to extend my considerable gratitude to everyone that gave away their pre-
cious time, energy, and invaluable expertise answering questions on forums, posting
on blogs, and writing all those wonderful LATEXpackages. It’s impossible to list you
all by name because I’m contracted for only 400 or so pages.

A colossal thank you goes out to my mom and dad for instantiating and personalizing
me. It wasn’t the easiest assignment in the world but you did a marvelous job! Many
thanks to my second parents, Dana and Ivo, for telling me that I should also eat if I am
ever to finish the book. A zillion thanks go out to my close family. Thank you, Erik, for
patiently checking which page I am on with an I-want-my-daddy-back determination;
and thank you, Monika, for tons of understanding and supportive coffee mugs. I love
you!

I am also thankful for the support of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Sport of
the Republic of Slovenia within the research program P2-0246—Algorithms and Opti-

xi
mization Methods in Telecommunications, which made possible some of the research
for this book.

And, of course, thank you, the reader. Without you, this book wouldn’t make much
sense, would it?

—Iztok Fajfar (iztok.fajfar.eu), March 2015

xii Acknowledgments
 Introduction

Easy to Use
Normally, putting honey in my tea is not a particularly demanding task, but that morn-
ing my hand was paralyzed in astonishment, trying to do its routine job of pouring
some honey in the steaming cup. Honey labels usually say things like “All Natural,”
“Contains Antioxidants,” or “With Grandma’s Recipe Book.” Over time, I’ve got used
to more absurd labels like “Improved New Flavor” or “Gathered by Real Bees.” The
label that knocked me out was surprisingly plain, with an award-winning message
printed on it: “Easy to Use.” I don’t recall honey ever being hard to use, except maybe
when it crystallizes, or when I was six months old, but that’s probably not exactly
what the author of the message had in mind.

You can also buy programming books that promise easy and quick learning, even as
fast as in 24 hours. An average adult can read a novel in 24 hours. But let’s face it, no
one can read—let alone understand and learn—a 500-page technical book in 24 hours.
While using honey is not difficult even when it doesn’t explicitly say so, learning to
program is not easy. It can be fun if you’re motivated and have decent material to
study from, but it’s also an effort. If you’re not ready to accept that, then this book
is not for you. Otherwise, I invite you to join Maria, Mike, and me at exploring the
exciting world of computer programming. It’s going to be fun but it’s also going to be
some work.

About the Book

This handbook is a manual for undergraduate students of engineering and natural
science fields written in the form of a dialog between two students and a professor
discovering how computer programming works. It is organized in 13 thematic meet-
ings with explanations and discussions, supported by gradual evolution of engaging
working examples of live web documents and applications using HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript. You will see how the three mainstream languages interact, and learn some
of the essential practices of using them to your advantage. At the end of each meeting
there is a practical homework, which is always discussed at the beginning of the next
meeting. There is also a list of related keywords to help you review important topics

xiii
of each meeting.

The general structure of the book is multilayered: the basic language syntax and rules
are fleshed out with contents and structure while still keeping things simple and man-
ageable, something that many introductory textbooks lack.

The main body of the text is accompanied by five appendices. The first of them con-
tains a solution of the last homework, the second summarizes (also with examples)
some major directions in which you can continue your study, including hints on some
of the relevant sources. The last three appendices are abbreviated references of the
three languages used in the book.

There will be situations when you need to use yet more languages and technologies in
order to get the job done. Some such situations are gently dealt with in this book. For
example, you will learn just enough about a Server Side Includes language to be able
to include external HTML code, which will save you a tremendous amount of time
and energy.

Is This Book for Me?

If you know absolutely nothing about computer programming and want to learn, this
is the book for you. It has been written with a complete beginner in mind in the first
place.

If you have been exposed to programming before, you might find the book useful
as well. Today, many people learn from examples and forums, and thus acquired
knowledge is mostly skills and not much theory. If you ever want to build more
serious software, you need a firm and systematic understanding of what is going on.
You need a framework to which you can systematically attach your partial skills to
form a sound structure of connected knowledge. Hopefully, this book can give you
this as well.

Last but not least, if you’re a teacher of an introductory programming course, you
might find a handful of useful examples and approaches for your classes on the few
hundred pages that follow.

But most likely, as there are as many learning styles as there are learners, you will
have to find out for yourself whether or not this book is for you.

How to Avoid Reading the Whole Book

Don’t panic! If you are only up to JavaScript programming, you can just read Meeting
1 to get a basic idea of what HTML is (you need this in order to be able to run the
JavaScript examples in this book), and then you can immediately skip to Meeting
6—more specifically, Section 6.3. There are some examples involving CSS in the
JavaScript part but they won’t stand in the way of your learning JavaScript. Later, if
you feel like it, you can just as well skim over Meeting 3, where you can get the basic
idea of what CSS is all about.

xiv Introduction
For Your Safety
This book is not about cutting-edge web technologies, so you don’t need any pro-
tective equipment. It is more about general computer programming and some web-
related principles using the mainstream web languages HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
as examples. Some of the principles are over 40 years old, but are extremely important
because they allow you to write cleaner and more easily maintainable code, and they
will not go away just like that.

It’s a busy world, and the sixth edition of ECMAScript standard (the standardized
version of JavaScript) has just entered the official publication process. The good news
is that it only introduces additions to its predecessor, so the essential concepts stay.
Also, while CSS3 isn’t completely finished yet, there already exist some so-called
“level 4” CSS modules. Fortunately, they are also just additions to the CSS standard
and there are no serious plans for a single CSS4 specification on the horizon. This
book pays attention to the basic concepts that have matured with the latest HTML5,
CSS3, and ECMAScript 5 standards to the point where it seems these concepts are
going to persist for some time.

The Software Used

In researching this book, I used Google Chrome and Notepad++ v6.5.3 (notepad-plus-
plus.org ) on a Windows 7 Professional SP1 64bit operating system. I also used the
EasyPHP DevServer 13.1 VC11 web development server (www.easyphp.org ). How-
ever, you will be able to follow most of the examples and experiments in this book
using any modern browser and plain text editor. They are already installed on your
computer, so you can start experimenting right away.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:

A monospaced font is used for all code listings and everything that you normally
type on a keyboard, including keys and key combinations.

A monospaced italic font is used as a general placeholder to mark items that

you should replace with an actual value or expression in your code.

An italic font is used to indicate the first appearance of a term, or as an emphasis.

A sans serif font is used to indicate a menu item.

A sans serif italic font is used to indicate URLs and file names and extensions.

Feedback and Supporting Online Material

I deeply appreciate having any comments, suggestions, or errors found brought to my
attention at the email address start-programming@fajfar.eu. You will find source code
of the examples in this book and some additional materials and problems for each
chapter at fajfar.eu/start-programming.

Introduction xv
 About the Author

Iztok Fajfar got his first computer in the early 1980s, a ZX Spectrum with an amaz-
ing 48 KB of RAM. Computers soon turned into a lifelong fascination and an indis-
pensable companion, assisting him in his professional work and hobbies alike. Iztok
has a PhD degree in electrical engineering from the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia,
where he is currently Associate Professor at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. His
research topics include evolutionary algorithms, in particular, genetic programming.
He teaches computer programming at all levels, from assembly to object-oriented, and
to all kinds of audience. Now and then he even ventures to explain to his mother-in-
law how to forward an email, and he hasn’t given up yet. He is also a programmer
and writer. Iztok lives with his family in Ljubljana, and when he is not programming,
or teaching, or researching weird stuff, he makes the most yummy pancakes, not to
mention the pizza.

xvii
 Meeting 1
Content and Structure

1.1 Opening
Professor: I’m thrilled that you accepted my invitation to help me with a new book
I am researching. There are three languages awaiting us in this course: HTML, CSS,
and JavaScript.

Mike: Why three? You’ll just confuse us, won’t you?

Professor: The languages have been designed for quite specific purposes and work
very differently, so there is little danger in confusing them. At the same time, the three
languages nicely complement each other: HTML holds the structure and content of a
web page, CSS takes care of presentation, and JavaScript is responsible for action. I
like to say that HTML is bones, CSS is flesh, and JavaScript is the brain and muscles
of web programming.

Maria: How much of a chance is there of us learning three languages to the level that
we can use any of them to our advantage?

Professor: You don’t have to be a guru in any of them to start using them effectively.
It’s only important that you know the basic principles. The good news is you don’t
have to install or learn to use any new software. All you need to start off is already
installed on your computer.

Do you have any programming experience?

Maria: Actually, I use a computer a lot but not for programming. I have never written
a computer program before.

Mike: Neither have I.

Professor: In a way, programming is like speaking. You speak English, right?

Mike: Yes...?

Professor: I even know people who have learned Finnish. Quite well, to be honest.

1
English and Finnish are examples of natural languages, which people learn to com-
municate with other people. However, if you want to talk to computers, you have to
learn artificial languages so that computers understand and obey you. It’s very similar.
The only difference is that people won’t obey you if you lack charm, while computers
won’t obey you if you’re not accurate. Accuracy is crucial. Similar to both is that it
takes a certain amount of practice before your interlocutor understands you. I won’t
lie to you on this one.

Maria: I’m just starting to learn Spanish and I must use a sign language a lot. I
suppose you cannot use a sign language with a computer.

Professor: That’s true. In natural languages, people use context and even a sign
language to guess what others have to say even though what they say may not be
grammatically correct. Computers don’t do that, though, and that’s the difficult part
of programming. You have to be exact.

All right. Let’s start programming, shall we?

1.2 Introducing HTML

Professor: To be precise, HTML is not a programming language but it is a so-called
markup language. That’s what the acronym HTML stands for: Hypertext Markup
Language. Markup is a modern approach for adding different annotations to a docu-
ment in such a way that these annotations are distinguishable from plain text. Markup
instructions tell the program that displays your text what actions to perform while the
instructions themselves are hidden from the person that views your text. For example,
if you want a certain part of your text to appear as a paragraph, you simply mark up
this part of the text using appropriate tags:

<p>But it’s my only line!</p>

Maria: It looks quite straightforward. Are those p’s in the angle brackets like com-
mands?

Professor: You could say that. They are called tags and they instruct or command a
browser to make a paragraph out of the text between them.

Mike: That’s like formatting, isn’t it?

Professor: In a way, yes. Tags are like commands in a word processor that allow
you to format paragraphs, headings, and so forth. However, they only specify what to
format, not how to do it.

The above code fragment is an example of an HTML element—the basic building

block of an HTML document. An HTML document is composed exclusively of ele-
ments. Each element is further composed of a start tag and end tag, and everything in
between is the content:

2 Meeting 1. Content and Structure

 Start Tag Content End Tag
<p> But it’s my only line! </p>

The start tag is also called the opening tag while the end tag is also called the closing
tag. By the way, the name, or the abbreviation of the name of the element is written
inside the tags. In particular, p stands for a paragraph. The closing tag should have an
additional slash (/) before the element’s name.

In order for a paragraph to show in the browser, we need to add two more things to
get what is generally considered the minimum HTML document. The first line should
be a special declaration called DOCTYPE, which makes a clear announcement that
HTML5 content follows. The DOCTYPE declaration is written within angle brack-
ets with a preceding exclamation mark and the html keyword after it: <!DOCTYPE
html>. Although it looks like a tag, this is actually the only part of an HTML docu-
ment that isn’t a tag or an element. As a matter of fact, this code is here for historical
reasons. I don’t want to kill you with details, but you have to include it if you want
your document to be interpreted by the browser correctly.

One more thing that the minimum document should contain is a <title> element.
This element is necessary as it identifies the document even when it appears out of
context, say as a user’s bookmark or in search results. The document should contain
no more than one <title> element.

Putting it all together, we get the following code:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<title>The Smallest HTML Document</title>
<p>But it’s my only line!</p>

Maria: You just showed us what the document code should look like. But I still don’t
know where to type the code and how to view the resulting page.

1.3 The Tools

Professor: You can use any plain text editor you like. For example, you can use the
Windows Notepad, which is already on your computer if you use Windows.

Mike: What if I don’t use Windows?

Professor: It doesn’t matter. Just about any operating systems contains a plain text
editor. Personally, I use Notepad++, a programmer-friendly free text editor (notepad-
plus-plus.org ).

After you type the code, it is important that you save the file with a .htm or .html
extension. While it doesn’t really matter which one you use, it is quite important that
you choose one and stick to it consistently. Otherwise, you could throw yourself into
a real mess. For example, you could easily end up editing two different files (same
names, different extensions) thinking they’re one and the same file.

1.3. The Tools 3

Now we open the file in a browser and voilà!

Notice how the content of the <title> element appears at the top of the browser tag.

Mike: How did you open the file in the browser?

Professor: Oh yes, sorry about that. Inside Notepad++, I chose Run→Launch in

Chrome. If you use another browser, it will automatically appear under the Run menu
item in your Notepad++. You can of course also simply double-click the file or drag
and drop it into the browser. Once the file is open in the browser, you don’t have to
repeat this operation. If you modify the source code—the original HTML code, that
is—you simply refresh the browser window. If you use Chrome like I do, you can do
that by pressing F5. Later, you will use more than a single file to build a page. In that
case, you will sometimes have to force reload all files of a page, which you can do
by pressing Ctrl+F5 on Chrome. On Windows, to switch between the text editor and
browser quickly, you press Alt+Tab, a standard key combination for switching between
running tasks.

Maria: What would happen if we forgot to include the <title> element?

Professor: Nothing fatal, to be honest. One of the basic rules of rendering web pages
is that the browser always tries its best to show the content. Of course, if the document
isn’t fully formatted according to the recommendations, the results are sometimes not
in our favor. If you forget the title, then the name of the file containing the document
usually takes over its role. If nothing else, that looks ugly and unprofessional.

1.4 Minimal HTML Document

Professor: One of the general prerequisites to good technical design is simplicity,
which should not be confused with minimalism. In our last example, we saw a truly
minimal HTML document, which you will rarely see in practice. Even with no extra
content it is normally a good idea to flesh out this skeleton HTML document. For in-
stance, most web developers share the belief that the traditional <head> and <body>
elements can contribute to clarity, by cleanly separating your document into two sec-
tions. You pack all the content into the <body> section, while the other information
about your page goes to the <head> section. Sometimes it is also a good idea to wrap
both these sections in the traditional <html> element:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>The Smallest HTML Document</title>
</head>

4 Meeting 1. Content and Structure

 <body>
<p>But it’s my only line!</p>
</body>
</html>

Mike: I noticed that an element can contain not only text but another element as well.
For example, you placed the <title> element within the <head> element.

Professor: Good observation! The content of an element can in fact be any valid
HTML conforming to the rules of that specific element. We call putting one element
into another nesting. When an element is nested (contains other HTML elements), it
is important that it contains whole elements, including start and end tags. So if, for
example, an <elementA > starts before an <elementB >, then it must by all means
end after the <elementB >:

<elementA > ... <elementB > ... </elementB > ... </elementA >

The element that is contained inside another element inherits some of its behavior,
and we often say that the contained element is a descendant of its owner, which is in
turn its parent. The direct descendant is also called a child. This concept will become
especially important when we come to styling elements with CSS. Now I only mention
it so that later the terms will already sound familiar to you.

Maria: What are those periods inside?

Professor: Oh, yes. A set of three periods is an ellipsis. An ellipsis indicates the
omission of content that is not important for understanding the explanation.

We will soon come back to our last example and furnish it with a little more. For
that purpose we need another element called <meta>. This element is used to pro-
vide additional page description (so-called metadata), which is not displayed on the
page, but can be read by a machine. The information stored in the <meta> element
includes keywords, author of the document, character encoding, and other metadata.
The <meta> element has neither content nor the closing tag:

<meta>

An element that is composed only of the opening tag is called an empty or void ele-
ment.

Mike: I don’t understand that. Where do you put all the information you talked about
if there is no content?

Professor: That’s the job for attributes. An attribute is the means of providing addi-
tional information about an HTML element. For example, by using the src attribute
on the <img> element, one can tell the browser where to find the image to display.
There are two things you should know about attributes: they are always specified after
the element name in the start tag, and they come in name/value pairs like this one:

1.4. Minimal HTML Document 5

Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Nature and the animals far from their fellow-men, and as this book is
intended solely for the sportsman, a few words of advice to anyone
who is anxious to hunt the musk-ox may not be out of place.
I am not quite sure that Fort Resolution is the best point to start
from. Fort Rae, on the north arm of the Great Slave Lake, lies nearer
the Barren Ground, and the Dog-Ribs are said to be more amenable
to reason than the Yellow Knives, while the distance to travel
through a woodless country is shorter. Fort Good Hope, on the
Lower Mackenzie, would be another good spot to make
headquarters; but there is less certainty of finding the caribou in
that neighbourhood, and without the caribou there is little chance of
reaching the musk-ox. It is not the slightest use starting from a post
with the theory that musk-ox can be killed in so many days, and
that, by taking a load of provisions sufficient to last for the same
length of time, a successful hunt will be made. The only plan is to
work your way up slowly, to stay among the caribou in the autumn,
and kill and cache meat whenever an opportunity offers, ready for a
rush on the first snow. Remember, too, when provisions get scarce,
as they certainly will at some time or other, the country ahead is as
big as the country behind, and the best chance lies in pushing on. To
turn back may prove fatal, when another day's travel may put you in
a land of plenty. It is possible to reach the hunting-ground and
return to Fort Resolution with a canoe in the summer, but the robes
are then worthless, and the whole sport savours too much of covert-
shooting in July. Make quite sure before you start that you are
determined to push on through everything, as even the Great Slave
Lake is far to go on an unsuccessful errand. Here, in London, in front
of a good fire at the club and under the influence of a good dinner, it
is easy enough to kill musk-ox and make long night-marches on
snow-shoes by the flashes of the Northern Lights; but the test of
practice takes off some of the enjoyment.
A year has slipped away since our winter journey through the Peace
River Pass. Young Brick kept his promise of getting the cache right
well, and a couple of months ago my journals arrived in England, so
that I have been able to put together this rough record of my
Northern travels. On looking back one remembers only the good
times, when meat was plentiful and a huge fire lit up the snow on
the spruce trees; misery and starvation are forgotten as soon as
they are over, and even now, in the midst of the luxury of
civilization, at times I have a longing to pitch my lodge once more at
the edge of the Barren Ground, to see the musk-ox standing on the
snowdrift and the fat caribou falling to the crack of the rifle, to hear
the ptarmigan crowing among the little pines as the sun goes down
over a frozen lake and the glory of an Arctic night commences.
To the man who is not a lover of Nature in all her moods the Barren
Ground must always be a howling, desolate wilderness; but for my
part, I can understand the feeling that prompted Saltatha's answer
to the worthy priest, who was explaining to him the beauties of
Heaven. "My father, you have spoken well; you have told me that
Heaven is very beautiful; tell me now one thing more. Is it more
beautiful than the country of the musk-ox in summer, when
sometimes the mist blows over the lakes, and sometimes the water
is blue, and the loons cry very often? That is beautiful; and if
Heaven is still more beautiful, my heart will be glad, and I shall be
content to rest there till I am very old."
 A SKETCH MAP OF
r
M . WARBURTON PIKE'S JOURNEYS
TO THE BARREN GROUND OF
NORTHERN CANADA
 APPENDIX I
I am much indebted to Professor Dawson, of the Dominion
Geological Survey Department, for his kind permission to publish the
following paper on the Unexplored Regions of Canada. It shows
more plainly than any words of mine could tell how much yet
remains to be done before this great portion of the British Empire is
known as it ought to be.

ON SOME OF THE LARGER UNEXPLORED

REGIONS OF CANADA.
(By G. M. Dawson, D.S., Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S., F.R.S.C.)
If on reading the title of the paper which I had promised to
contribute to the Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club, any one should have
supposed it to be my intention to endeavour to describe or forecast
the character of the unexplored areas mentioned, I must, in the first
place, disclaim any such intention. The very existence of large
regions of which little or nothing is known, is of course stimulating to
a fertile imagination, ready to picture to itself undiscovered "golden
cities a thousand leagues deep in Cathay," but such unscientific use
of the imagination is far removed from the position of sober
seriousness, in which I ask your attention to the facts which I have
to present.
Fortunately, or unfortunately, as we may happen to regard it, the
tendency of our time is all in the direction of laying bare to
inspection and open to exploitation all parts, however remote, of this
comparatively small world in which we live, and though the explorer
himself may be impelled by a certain romanticism in overcoming
difficulties or even dangers met with in the execution of his task, his
steps are surely and closely followed by the trader, the lumberer, or
the agriculturalist, and not long after these comes the builder of
railways with his iron road. It is, therefore, rather from the point of
view of practical utility than from any other, that an appeal must be
made to the public or to the Government for the further extension of
explorations, and my main purpose in addressing you to-night is to
make such an appeal, and to show cause, if possible, for the
exploration of such considerable portions of Canada as still remain
almost or altogether unmapped.
What I have to say, in fact, on this subject resolves itself chiefly into
remarks on the map exhibited here, upon which the unexplored
areas to which I am about to refer are clearly depicted in such a
manner, I believe, as almost to speak for themselves.
It is very commonly supposed, even in Canada, but to a greater
extent elsewhere, that all parts of the Dominion are now so well
known that exploration, in the true sense of the term, may be
considered as a thing of the past. This depends largely upon the fact
that the maps of the country generally examined are upon a very
small scale, and that upon such maps no vast areas yet remain upon
which rivers, lakes, mountains, or other features are not depicted. If,
however, we take the trouble to enquire more closely into this, and
consult perhaps one of the geographers whose maps we have
examined, asking such awkward questions as may occur to us on
the sources of information for this region or that, we may probably
by him be referred to another and older map, and so on till we find
in the end that the whole topographical fabric of large parts of all
these maps rests upon information of the vaguest kind.
Of most of the large areas marked upon the map here shown, this is
absolutely true, and the interests of knowledge with respect to these
would be better subserved if such areas were left entirely blank, or,
at least, if all the geographical features drawn upon them appeared
in broken lines, in such a way as to show that none of them are
certain. In other regions, the main geographical outlines, such as the
courses of the larger rivers, are indicated approximately, with such
accuracy as may be possible from accounts or itineraries derived
from travellers or from officers of the Hudson's Bay Company; or
from the descriptions or rough sketches of Indians or other persons
by whom the region has been traversed, but who have been
unprovided with instruments of any kind and whose knowledge of
the country has been incidentally obtained.
There is, in the case of such partially explored regions, more excuse
for the delineation of the main features on our maps, as these may
be useful in imparting general information of a more or less inexact
kind. We can scarcely, however, admit that such regions have been
explored in any true sense of that term, while they are certainly
unsurveyed, and very little confidence can be placed in maps of this
kind as guides in travel. When, ten years ago, I struck across from
Fort Macleod, on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, with the
purpose of reaching Fort Dunvegan on the Peace, through a country
densely forested and without trails or tracks of any kind, I had so
much confidence in the existing maps of that region as to assume
that Dunvegan was at least approximately correct in position on
them. As often as possible I took observations for latitude, and each
night worked out our position by latitude and departure, till at a
certain point I was about to turn off to the north of the line
previously followed with the confident anticipation of finding
Dunvegan. Just here, very fortunately, we fell in with some Indians,
and though our means of communicating with them were very
imperfect, we gathered enough to lead us to accept the guidance of
one of them, who promised to lead us to the fort, but took an
entirely different direction from that I had proposed taking. He was
right, but Dunvegan proved to be, as shown on the maps, nearly
forty miles west of its real position. Fortunately no very great
importance attached to our reaching Dunvegan on a given day, but
none the less, this practical experience proved to me very
conclusively the desirability of showing features in broken lines, or
otherwise indicating their uncertainty when they have not been
properly fixed.
It must be confessed, however, that most of the travellers ordinarily
to be found in these unexplored regions, being Indians or hunters,
traders and others travelling under the guidance of Indians, do not
depend on the latitudes and longitudes of places, or on the
respective bearings of one place from another. The Indians follow
routes with which they have been familiar since childhood, or, when
beyond the boundaries of their own particular region of country, go
by landmarks, such as mountains, lakes, and rivers, which have
been described to them by their neighbours. Their memory in this
respect is remarkable; but it must be remembered that among their
principal subjects of conversation when sitting about the camp-fire
are the distances in day's journeys from place to place, the routes
which they have followed or have known others to follow, the
difficulties to be encountered on these, the points at which food of
different kinds may be obtained, and the features which strike them
as being remarkable in the country traversed. Returning, however,
from this digression, which began with the statement that accurate
maps of such regions as are at present merely traversed by traders
and Indians, are not imperative from the point of view of such
travellers, it may with confidence be affirmed that such maps and
explorations upon which they are based are absolutely essential to
civilized society, to show in the first place what the natural resources
of these regions are and how they may be utilized, in the second by
what highways such regions may be most easily reached.
A glance at the map will show, that while many of the larger
unexplored areas may be affirmed to lie to the north of the limit of
profitable agriculture, considerable regions situated to the south of
this limit still await examination. Large districts, again, in which no
farmer will ever voluntarily settle, may afford timber which the world
will be glad to get when the white pine of our nearer forests shall
become more nearly exhausted, while, with respect to mineral
resources, it is probable that in the grand aggregate the value of
those which exist in the unexplored regions will be found, area for
area, to be equal to those of the known regions, comparing each
particular geological formation with its nearest representative. On
the grounds alone, therefore, of geographical knowledge, and of the
discovery and definition of the reserves of the country in timber and
minerals, the exploration of all these unknown or little-known
regions may be amply justified.
Taking a line drawn north and south in the longitude of the Red
River Valley, which is, as nearly as may be, the centre of Canada
from east to west, it may confidently be stated that by far the larger
part of the country in which agricultural settlement is possible lies to
the west, while the great bulk of the actual population lies to the
east of this line. Looking to this grand fundamental fact, I believe it
may safely be affirmed that some members of this audience will live
to see the day when these conditions with respect to population will
be boldly reversed, and in which the greater number of our
representatives in Parliament gathering here will come from this
great western region.
This disposition of the cultivable land depends partly upon the
physical characteristics of the country, and in part on its climatic
conditions. Beyond Winnipeg, and stretching therefrom to the west
and north-west, is the great area of prairie, plain, and plateau,
which, wider near the forty-ninth parallel than elsewhere on the
continent, runs on in one form or other, though with diminishing
width, to the Arctic Ocean. This is, generally speaking, an alluvial
region, and one of fertile soils. Very fortunately, and as though by a
beneficent provision of nature, the climatic features favour the
utilization of this belt. The summer isothermals, which carry with
them the possibility of ripening crops, trend far to the north.
Let us trace, for example, and as a rough and ready index of the
northern limit of practicable agriculture of any kind, that isothermal
line which represents a mean temperature of 60° Fahrenheit in the
month of July. Passing through the southern part of Newfoundland
and touching the island of Anticosti, this line runs to the north end of
Mistassini Lake, and thence crosses Hudson's Bay, striking the west
shore a short distance north of York Factory. Thence it runs
westward, skirting the north end of Reindeer Lake, and then bending
to the north-west, crosses Great Slave Lake, and touches the
southern extremity of Great Bear Lake. From this point it resumes a
westward course and crosses the Yukon River a considerable
distance to the north of the confluence of the Pelly and the Lewes,
turning south again almost on the east line of Alaska. We need not,
however, further follow its course, as owing to peculiar climatic
conditions on the West Coast, it ceases there to be any criterion as
to the conditions of agriculture.
The character of much of the western interior country is such that its
exploration and survey is comparatively easy, and it will be observed
that here the larger unknown regions are to be found only far to the
northward, leaving in the more rugged and inhospitable eastern
region vast islands of unexplored country in much more southern
latitudes.
It may be said, in fact, that comparatively little of the region
capable, so far as climate goes, of producing wheat is now
altogether unknown; but it may be added, that increasing as the
world now is in population, its people cannot much longer expect to
find wheat-growing lands unoccupied in large blocks. The time is
within measurable distance when lands with a fertile soil though
more or less rigorous climate, in which only barley, oats, hemp, flax,
and other hardy crops can be matured, will be in demand, and we
are far from having acquired even a good general knowledge of
these lands in Canada.
For many of the unexplored regions marked upon this map, however,
we can in reason appeal only to their possible or presumable mineral
wealth as an incentive to their exploration, and if some of them
should prove wholly or in great part barren when such exploration
shall have been carried out, it will not be without utility to acquire
even this negative information, and write upon them in characters as
large as need be, "No thoroughfare."
I will now ask your further attention for a few moments while I run
over and make some remarks in detail on the various unexplored
areas as indicated on the map. It must first, however, be explained
in what manner the unexplored areas referred to have been
outlined. All lines, such as those of rivers, chains of lakes, or other
travelled routes, along which reasonably satisfactory explorations
have been made and of which fairly accurate route-maps are in
existence, are given an approximate average width of about fifty
miles, or twenty-five miles on each side of the explorer's or
surveyor's track. The known lines are thus arbitrarily assumed to be
wide belts of explored country, and that which is referred to as
unexplored comprises merely the intervening tracts. By this mode of
definition the unexplored regions are reduced to minimum
dimensions. Neither are any comparatively small tracts of country
lying between explored routes included in my enumeration, in which
the least area mentioned is one of 7500 square miles; nor are the
Arctic islands, lying to the north of the continent, referred to.
Because of the empirical mode in which the unexplored areas have
thus been delineated, it has not been attempted to estimate with
more than approximate accuracy the number of square miles
contained in each, my purpose being merely to render apparent the
great dimensions of these areas.
In enumerating these areas, I shall not refer to the various
explorations and lines of survey by which they are defined and
separated one from another, as this would involve mention of nearly
all the explorers who have traversed the northern part of the
continent. I shall, however, note such excursions as have been made
into or across the regions which are characterized as unexplored.
Beginning, then, in the extreme north-west of the Dominion, we find
these areas to be as follows:—
1. Area between the eastern boundary of Alaska, the
Porcupine River and the Arctic Coast, 9500 square miles,
or somewhat smaller than Belgium. This area lies entirely
within the Arctic Circle.
2. Area west of the Lewes and Yukon Rivers and
extending to the boundary of Alaska, 32,000 square miles,
or somewhat larger than Ireland. This country includes
the head-waters of the White and probably of the Tanana
Rivers, and, being comparatively low and sheltered from
the sea by one of the highest mountain-ranges on the
continent, the St. Elias Alps, doubtless possesses some
remarkable peculiarities of climate.
3. Area between the Lewes, Pelly, and Stikine Rivers and
to the east of the Coast Ranges, 27,000 square miles, or
nearly as large as Scotland. This has been penetrated only
by a few "prospectors," from whom, and from Indians, the
courses of rivers shown on my maps published in
connection with the Yukon Expedition Report are derived.
It lies on the direct line of the metalliferous belt of the
Cordillera, and its low lands are capable of producing
hardy crops.
4. Area between the Pelly and Mackenzie Rivers, 100,000
square miles, or about twice the size of England. This
belongs partly to the Yukon Basin and partly to that of the
Mackenzie, and includes nearly 600 miles in length of the
main Rocky Mountain Range. Many years ago, Mr. A. K.
Isbister penetrated the northern part of this area for some
distance on the line of the Peel River,[1] but owing to the
manner in which he had to travel, but little accuracy can
be attributed to his sketch of that river. Abbé Petitot also
made a short journey into its northern part from the
Mackenzie River side, but, with these exceptions, no
published information exists respecting it.
5. Area between Great Bear Lake and the Arctic Coast,
50,000 square miles, or about equal to England in size.
Nearly all to the north of the Arctic Circle.
6. Area between Great Bear Lake, the Mackenzie, and the
western part of Great Slave Lake, 35,000 square miles, or
larger than Portugal. With respect to this region and that
last mentioned, it must be explained that I have felt some
doubt whether they should be characterised as unexplored
on the basis previously explained as that which is
generally applied. Between 1857 and 1865, Mr. R.
Macfarlane, of the Hudson's Bay Company, carried out an
intelligent and valuable examination of part of the region
north of Great Bear Lake, some results of which have
lately been published,[2] and in both of these areas,
between 1864 and 1871, the indefatigable missionary,
Abbé Petitot, made numerous journeys, of which he
subsequently published an account.[3] As Petitot's
instruments consisted merely of a compass, and a watch
which he rated by the meridian passage of the sun, it
must be assumed that his mapping of the country does
not possess any great accuracy. His work, however,
considering the difficulties under which it was performed,
is deserving of all praise, and his several descriptions of
the character of the country traversed are most valuable.
It does not appear from his account of these regions that
they are likely to prove of great utility to civilized man,
except as fur-preserves, or possibly from the minerals
which they may contain. He writes: "Ce pays est composé
de contrées silencieuses comme le tombeau, des plaines
vastes comme des départements, des steppes glacés plus
affreux que ceux de la Sibérie, de forêts chétives,
rabougries comme on n'en voit que dans le voisinage des
glaciers du Nord."
7. Area between Stikine and Liard Rivers to the north and
Skeena and Peace Rivers to the south, 81,000 square
miles, or more than twice as large as Newfoundland. This
includes a portion of the western Cordillera, and, between
the Liard and Peace Rivers, a large tract of the interior
plateau region of the continent, parts of which, there is
reason to believe, consist of good agricultural land. Its
western extremity was crossed in 1866 and 1867 by the
exploratory survey of the Western Union or Collins'
Telegraph Company, then engaged in an attempt to
connect the North American and European telegraph
systems through Asia. No details of this part of their
exploration have, however, been published, and if we may
judge from other parts of their line, since checked, the
survey made was of too rough a character to possess
much geographical value.
8. Area between Peace, Athabasca, and Loon Rivers, 7500
square miles, or about half as large as Switzerland.
9. Area south-east of Athabasca Lake, 35,000 square
miles. This may be compared in extent to Portugal.
10. Area east of the Coppermine River and west of
Bathurst Inlet, 7,500 square miles. This again may be
compared to half the area of Switzerland.
11. Area between the Arctic Coast and Back's River,
31,000 square miles, or about equal to Ireland.
12. Area surrounded by Back's River, Great Slave Lake,
Athabasca Lake, Hatchet and Reindeer Lakes, Churchill
River, and the west coast of Hudson's Bay, 178,000 square
miles. Much larger than Great Britain and Ireland, and
somewhat larger than Sweden. The lakes and rivers
shown in this great region depend entirely on the result of
the three journeys made by Hearne in 1769-1772.[4]
Hearne really wandered through parts of this region in
company with Indians whom he was unable to control, his
ultimate object (which he at length accomplished) being
to reach the Coppermine River, in order to ascertain for
the Hudson's Bay Company whether it was possible to
utilize the native copper found there. Not even roughly
approximate accuracy can be assigned to his geographical
work. Referring to the position of the mouth of the
Coppermine, he writes:—"The latitude may be depended
upon to within 20 miles at the utmost." In reality it
afterwards proved to be 200 miles too far north. This
country includes the great "barren grounds" of the
continent, and is the principal winter resort of the musk-ox
as well as of great herds of caribou. Hearne's general
characterization of it is not very encouraging, but certainly
we shall know more about it. He writes:—"The land
throughout the whole tract of country is scarcely anything
but one solid mass of rocks and stones, and in most parts
very hilly, particularly to the westward, among the
woods." The north-eastern extremity of this region was
also crossed by Lieut. Schwatka in the course of his
remarkable journey to King-William Land, but his
geographical results possess little value.[5]
13. Area between Severn and Attawapishkat Rivers and
the coast of Hudson's Bay, 22,000 square miles, or larger
than Nova Scotia. Several lakes and rivers are shown upon
the maps in this region in practically identical form since
Arrowsmith's map of 1850, but I have been unable to
ascertain the origin of the information.
14. Area between Trout Lake, Lac Seul, and the Albany
River, 15,000 square miles, or about half the size of
Scotland.
15. Area to the south and east of James Bay, 35,000
square miles, which also may be compared to the area of
Portugal. This region is the nearest of those which still
remain unexplored to large centres of population. It is
probable that much of it consists of low land which may
afford merchantable timber.
16. Area comprising almost the entire interior of the
Labrador peninsula or North-east Territory, 289,000
square miles. This is more than equal to twice the area of
Great Britain and Ireland, with an added area equal to
that of Newfoundland. Several lines of exploration and
survey have been carried for a certain distance into the
interior of this great peninsula, among which may be
mentioned those of Professor Hind, Mr. A. P. Low, and Mr.
R. F. Holme.[6] The limits of the unexplored area have
been drawn so as to exclude all these. The area regarded
as still unexplored has, however, it is true, been traversed
in several directions at different times by officers of the
Hudson's Bay Company, particularly on routes leading
from the vicinity of Mingan on the Gulf of St. Lawrence to
the head of Hamilton Inlet, and thence to Ungava Bay.
These routes have also, according to Mr. Holme, been
travelled by a missionary, Père Lacasse; but the only
published information which I have been able to find is
contained in a book written by J. McLean,[7] and in a brief
account of a journey by Rev. E. J. Peck.[8] Mr. McLean
made several journeys and established trading-posts
between Ungava and Hamilton Inlet in the years 1838-
1841, while Mr. Peck crossed from Little Whale River, on
Hudson Bay, to Ungava in 1884. Something may be
gathered as to the general nature of the country along
certain lines from the accounts given by these gentlemen,
but there is little of a really satisfactory character, while
neither has made any attempt to fix positions or delineate
the features of the region on the map. In all probability
this entire region consists of a rocky plateau or hilly tract
of rounded archæan rocks, highest on the north-east side
and to the south, and sloping gradually down to low land
towards Ungava Bay. It is known to be more or less
wooded, and in some places with timber of fair growth;
but if it should be possessed of any real value, this may
probably lie in its metalliferous deposits. In this tract of
country particularly there is reason to hope that ores like
those of Tilt Cove, in Newfoundland, or those of Sudbury,
in Ontario, may occur.
To sum up briefly, in conclusion, what has been said as to
the larger unexplored areas of Canada, it may be stated
that, while the entire area of the Dominion as computed
at 3,470,257 square miles, about 954,000 square miles of
the continent alone, exclusive of the inhospitable detached
Arctic portions, is for all practical purposes entirely
unknown. In this estimate the area of the unexplored
country is reduced to a minimum by the mode of
definition employed. Probably we should be much nearer
the mark in assuming it as about one million square miles,
or between one-third and one-fourth of the whole. Till this
great aggregate of unknown territory shall have been
subjected to examination, or at least till it has been
broken up and traversed in many directions by exploratory
and survey lines, we must all feel that it stands as a
certain reproach to our want of enterprise and of a
justifiable curiosity. In order, however, to properly
ascertain and make known the natural resources of the
great tracts lying beyond the borders of civilization, such
explorations and surveys as are undertaken must be of a
truly scientific character. The explorer or surveyor must
possess some knowledge of geology and botany, as well
as such scientific training as may enable him to make
intelligent and accurate observations of any natural
features or phenomena with which he may come in
contact. He must not consider that his duty consists
merely in the perfunctory measuring of lines and the
delineation of rivers, lakes, and mountains. An explorer or
surveyor properly equipped for his work need never return
empty-handed. Should he be obliged to report that some
particular district possesses no economic value whatever,
besides that of serving as a receiver of rain and a
reservoir to feed certain river-systems, his notes should
contain scientific observations on geology, botany,
climatology, and similar subjects, which may alone be
sufficient to justify the expenditure incurred.

Footnotes
[1] Some account of Peel River, North America, by A. K. Isbister,
Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. xv, 1845, p. 332.
[2] Canadian Record of Science, Jan., 1890.
[3] Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, Tom. x, 1875.
[4] A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort, in Hudson's Bay, to the
Northern Ocean, 1796.
[5] Schwatka's Search, by H. W. Gilder.
[6] Explorations in Labrador, 1863; Annual Report Geol. Surv.
Can., 1887-88, Part. J; Proc. Royal Geog. Soc., 1888; Ott. Nat.,
Vol. iv.
[7] Notes of a Twenty-five Years' Service in the Hudson's Bay
Territory. London, 1849.
[8] Church Missionary Intelligencer, June, 1886; Proc. Roy. Geog.
Soc., 1887, p. 192.
 APPENDIX II
I have to thank the authorities at Kew for the following list of a small
collection of flowering plants that I found growing in the Barren
Ground, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the head-waters of the
Great Fish River.
Draba nivalis, Liljebl.?
Oxytropis campestris, L. (yellow and purple varieties).
Potentilla nivea, L.
Dryas integrifolia, L.
Saxifraga tricuspidata, Retz.
Epilobium latifolium, L.
Arnica angustifolia, Vahl.
Taraxacum palustre, DC.
Vaccinium uliginosum, L.
Cassiope tetragona, L.
Andromeda polifolia, L.
Phyllodoce taxifolia, Salisb. (Menziesia cærulea, Wahl.).
Ledum palustre, L.
Loiseleuria procumbens, Desv.
Rhododendron lapponicum, L.
Kalmia glauca, L.
Diapensia lapponica, L.
Pedicularis hirsuta, L.
Pedicularis lapponica, L.
INDEX
Alaska, Southern, 231.

Alberta, its prairies remembered, 196;

an election of its representative, 298.

America, the Eastern States of, 256.

Anderson, Mr., his route referred to, vi, 36, 63, 151, 152, 171, 185,
196, 215.

Arnavatn, in Iceland, 42.

Arctic exploration, its records, 47.

Arctic flowers, 187.

Arctic fox, shot at, 40.

Arctic hare, described, 68.

Arctic Ocean or Sea, v, 4, 12, 20, 63, 64, 65, 178, 205, 214, 265;
the best route to, 221.

Arctic regions, no extraordinary thickness of clothes required in

them, 104.

Arrowsmith's map, compared with that issued by the Dominion

Government, 216.

Artillery Lake, 220, 221, 224.

Athabasca district, 63, 235;

its limits, 12.

Athabasca Lake, 15, 16, 68, 231, 235;

 reached by Mr. Pike, 13;
its produce, 13, 14.

Athabasca River, v, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 17, 36, 231, 293;

the landing, 4, 297.

Aylmer Lake, or the Lake of the Big Cliffs, 64, 178, 179, 180, 191,
213, 216, 221.

Back, Sir George, vi, 36, 151, 180, 185, 215;

his map, 200.

Back's, or the Great Fish, River, see Great Fish River.

Baptiste, little, see Beaulieu, Baptiste.

Baptiste Testerwich, a half-breed Iroquois, 253, 255, 258, 292, 294;

his daughters, the "belles" of Hudson's Hope, 258.

Barren Ground, The, v, vi, 14, 15, 19, 23, 35, 48, 54, 55, 58, 63, 65,
75, 80, 84, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 102, 110, 116, 122, 126,
130, 137, 143, 168, 174, 176, 177, 196, 209, 221, 225, 232, 271,
300, 302;
Mr. Pike's various expeditions to it, 19-77, 99-128, 164-228;
Mr. Pike's advice to future travellers there, 24;
its mosses and lichens, 42;
it produces one species of Cervidæ, 47;
its birds, 175;
exploration in it is ceasing, 185;
its animals, 198, 199;
Mr. Pike longs to return to it, 301;
a list of its flowers, 320.

Barrow, Thomas, 257, 261, 290, 291, 292;

his house or cabin, 259, 281, 288, 289.
Bathurst Inlet, 120, 191, 197, 204, 208.

Battle River reached, 248.

Beaulieu, Baptiste, a son of King Beaulieu, 33, 89.

Beaulieu, François, a son of King Beaulieu, 22, 39, 43, 61, 79, 93,
97, 135, 136, 137, 139, 141.

Beaulieu, José, brother of King Beaulieu, 234.

Beaulieu, José, a son of King Beaulieu, 22, 61, 91, 92, 136, 137,
236;
his love-affairs, 245.

Beaulieu, King, a French half-breed and guide, 19, 32, 38, 41, 61,
66, 71, 72, 81, 82, 83, 90, 94, 95, 97, 101, 102, 128, 135, 166, 233;
his character, 19, 23, 24;
his father and sons, 22, 23;
he calls the snow le couvert du bon Dieu, 62;
a lake is called after him, 62;
his cleverness, 73;
his opinions and anecdotes, 83-88;
he refuses to join the second musk-ox hunt, 97.

Beaulieu, Paul, a son of King Beaulieu, 22, 39, 43, 61, 70, 79, 92,
93, 97, 101, 103, 108, 111, 118, 130.

Beaulieu, Pierre, a brother of King Beaulieu, 148, 149, 233.

Beaulieus, the, 33, 64, 77, 134, 136, 138;

their character, 23;
they are not agreeable to live with, 126;
the final settlement with them, 147;
they apparently try to damage Mr. Pike's chances of success, 168.
Beaulieus, the young, the sons of King Beaulieu, 22, 38.

Beaver tribe dying out, 253.

Beavers, their actions mould geography, 155;

an account of the other animals found in their country, 156, 157.

Beaver Indians, their language, 251.

Beechey Lake, 190, 204, 205.

Biche, Lake La, 6.

Big Lake, 131.

Big River, the usual native name for the Slave River, 26.

Blackfeet, the, 3, 132.

Blue hills in the distance tempt one to push on, 207.

Bloody Falls, the, 152.

Boiler Rapid, the, 9.

Boiling, the favourite method of cooking, 55.

British Columbia, see Columbia.

Brick, Mr., a farmer of Smoky River, 244, 296;

his mission, 249;
his son, 295, 301.

Buffalo bands, 156;

a hunt for, 154-159.
Bull-dogs, "a cross between a bee and a blue-bottle," an annoyance
to the horses, 3.

Bull's Head, the, 256, 289.

Calgary, ix, 2, 3, 11, 298, 299;

left in June, 1889, 1.

California, 256.

Camp, a good, 40, 126.

Campbell, Mr., 228.

Camsell Lake, 43, 46, 61, 76, 80, 128.

Camsell, Mr., in charge of the Mackenzie River district, 20, 22, 231.

Canada, Eastern, 13.

Cannicannick Berry used for tobacco, 31.

Canoe, a birch-bark, is a "pretty poetical thing," 197.

Cap, the, 250.

Capot Blanc, an Indian, 140, 168, 171, 172, 176, 181, 182, 185,
187, 188, 191, 213.

Carcajou, the, is a cunning beast, 57.

Caribou, the, sometimes found near the Fond du Lac, 14;

Mr. Pike's prospect of finding it, 32;
he finds some bands, 43, 64, 72, 76, 89, 108;
 Et-then, Et-then! the cry on the sight of it, 44;
the methods of cooking it, 44-46;
it is the one specimen of Cervidæ found in the Barren Ground, 47;
its different species described, 47, 48;
killed by Esquimaux, 56;
some details of its appearance and habits, 48-60;
the methods of freezing it, 67;
it is killed by women and boys, 76;
the cry, La Foule, La Foule! when a band is in sight, 89;
the most remarkable passage of caribou seen by Mr. Pike, 91.

Caribou diggings, 256.

Caribou-eaters, 19.

Caribou gold-fields, 231.

Caribou mountains, 239, 241.

Carquoss, an Indian, 190, 197.

Cassiar mining district, 231.

Catholics, all half-breeds are, 41.

Charlie, a half-breed from Quesnelle, 258, 260, 266, 270, 272, 273,
276, 277, 283, 285, 286, 288, 289, 293, 294;
his character, 292.

Chesterfield Inlet, 210.

Chinook wind, the, 259.

Chipeweyan Fort, the head-post of the Athabasca district, 5, 12, 150,

163, 231, 234, 235, 238, 241, 245;
its history and present life, 13-15;
 trout-lines may be worked there, 14;
the appearance of the country changes on leaving it, 16.

Chipeweyan language, 26, 251.

Christie's Bay, 30.

Civilisation is degenerating, 299.

Clark, Mr., arrives as Mr. Mackinlay's substitute, 163, 164.

Clearwater River, the main route to the North, 11, 12.

Clinton Golden Lake, or the Lake where the caribou swim among the
ice, 216, 220, 223;
described, 217, 218.

Columbia, British, 231, 265.

Company, the, see Hudson's Bay Company.

Cooking, the favourite method is boiling, 55.

Cooper, Fenimore, 129.

Coppermine River, 64, 65, 67, 72, 108, 110, 152;

the Bloody Falls of, 152.

Corbeau, Lac du, 43.

Country, the, its nature between Calgary and Edmonton, 1, 2;

and after leaving Chipeweyan, 16, 17.

Crees, the, 3, 132;

their language the medium of conversation on the Athabasca, 11;
their lodges passed, 241.
Cree-speaking belt, 26;
left by Mr. Pike, 251.

Cries: that on the sight of caribou, Et-then, Et-then!, 44;

on the sight of a band of caribou, La Foule, La Foule!, 89;
to awake a camp, He lève, lève, il faut partir!, 122;
that of Hi hi he, Ho hi he, to bring out the stars, 123.

Dakota blizzard, brought to Mr. Pike's mind by his experience of

wind, 88.

David, the Esquimaux, 162, 206, 210, 211, 271, 276;

falls in love with the daughter of King Beaulieu, 168;
a keen hunter, 180;
his first summer outside the Arctic circle, 207.

Davis, Twelvefoot, 256, 257.

Dease Lake, 230.

Deluge, King Beaulieu's story of the, 85-88.

Dog-rib tribes, the, 32, 53, 60, 85, 90, 95, 195;
a spot on their history, 72;
they gamble with the Yellow-knives, 167;
they are more amenable than the Yellow-knives, 300.

Dogs are a trouble in winter travelling from their need of much food,
149.

Dominion Day, a Canadian anniversary, 182.

Dominion government's map, 216.

Dunvegan, 245, 249, 250, 253, 292, 295, 296.

Dupire, Father, in charge of the Catholic mission at Fort Resolution,

144, 149.

Edmonton, 2, 295, 297, 298;

the starting point for the territory of Hudson's Bay Company, 1;
an election at, 298.

Enemy, the, 81, 187.

Enemy, the Lake of the, 80, 127.

English is little spoken in the north, 11.

English Channel, the, 229.

Enterprise Fort, 65.

Esquimaux, the, 186, 192, 195, 196, 204, 208, 211;

they also kill the caribou, 56;
they are dreaded by the Indians, 151, 152;
presents for them, 164, 167, 209;
signs of their camp, 201-205.

Etitchula, the Indian, 135, 136.

Et-then, Et-then! the cry on the sight of the caribou, 44.

Euclid's methods, 275.

Expedition, the object of Mr. Pike's, v, vi, 70;

the ceremony of commemorating one, 228.
Fat, Antoine, a blind Indian, 176.

Fat, Pierre, a blind Indian, 176;

he appreciates scenery, 178.

Findlay River, 260, 263, 265, 268, 276, 280, 295;

its rapids, 264, 265, 281;
its source, 265.

Flett, Mr., and his family, passengers down the Athabasca, 5;

in charge of Fort Smith, 234.

Fond du Lac, 12, 14, 15, 28, 31, 32, 38, 40, 57, 61, 62, 79, 91, 92,
93, 96, 97, 101, 104, 120, 130, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 141, 144,
148, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 176;
described, 32;
women and children left there, 33.

Fogs, effect of, 108.

Forest fires, 1.

France is not sighed for by the priest of an Indian encampment, 232.

François, see Beaulieu, François.

François the little, conducts a buffalo hunt, 154-160;

his wife, 161.

Franklin, Sir John, vi, 36, 77, 185, 205; his expedition, 63;
his wintering-place, 65.

Fraser Lake, 258.

Fraser River, 231, 256.

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