Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL: Design Complex Database-Centric Applications with PL/pgSQL 1st Edition Baji Shaik download
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Procedural Programming DA
with PostgreSQL DA
TAB
A SE
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PL/pgSQL
Design Complex Database-Centric
Applications with PL/pgSQL
—
Baji Shaik
Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru
Procedural Programming
with PostgreSQL
PL/pgSQL
Design Complex Database-Centric
Applications with PL/pgSQL
Baji Shaik
Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru
Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL: Design Complex
Database-Centric Applications with PL/pgSQL
Baji Shaik Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru
Texas, TX, USA Andhra Pradesh, India
Acknowledgments�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xix
v
Table of Contents
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 25
What’s Next��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
Iterative Statement��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
LOOP Statement�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
WHILE Statement������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 72
FOR Statement���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Example Use Cases��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
Example 1������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 78
Example 2������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 81
Best Practices of Using Control Statements in PL/pgSQL����������������������������������������������������� 84
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 85
What’s Next��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199
What’s Next������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 199
x
Table of Contents
xi
Table of Contents
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 311
xii
About the Authors
Baji Shaik, currently serving as a Senior Database
Consultant at AWS Professional Services, embarked on
his journey into the world of databases in 2011. Since
then, his expertise has encompassed an array of database
technologies, including Oracle, PostgreSQL, EDB Postgres,
Amazon RDS, Amazon Aurora, Amazon Redshift, and
Greenplum. Baji’s extensive background spans both depth
and breadth, showcasing his mastery in SQL/NoSQL
database technologies.
Baji stands out as a Database Migration Expert, having
successfully developed numerous database solutions that
tackle complex business challenges, particularly in migrating databases from on-
premises environments to Amazon RDS and Aurora PostgreSQL/MySQL. His prowess
also extends to performance optimization, having fine-tuned RDS/Aurora PostgreSQL/
MySQL databases to achieve remarkable performance benchmarks.
With a passion for knowledge sharing, Baji has authored several notable books on
PostgreSQL, such as PostgreSQL Configuration, Beginning PostgreSQL on the Cloud, and
PostgreSQL Development Essentials. His commitment to education and information
dissemination is further evident through his contributions to conferences, workshops,
and a multitude of insightful blogs within the AWS blog community.
xiii
About the Authors
A coding enthusiast at heart, Dinesh finds joy in crafting applications using Flutter,
Golang, and C++, platforms where his creativity knows no bounds. His proficiency
extends to the deployment phase, as he deftly navigates Kubernetes to bring his coding
creations to life. In the literary domain, Dinesh stands as a coauthor of the esteemed
PostgreSQL High Performance Cookbook, a testament to his mastery of the subject
matter. Beyond his own works, he actively engages in the appraisal of fellow authors’
PostgreSQL books, cementing his status as a valued participant in the exchange of
knowledge.
Dinesh’s impact reverberates through his open source contributions, which include
the inception and enrichment of projects such as PTOR – an ingenious RPO/RTO/SLA
calculator tailored for PostgreSQL. Another tool, “hammerpost,” sets a benchmark for
synthetic parameter evaluation in PostgreSQL, seamlessly integrated with HammerDB.
xiv
About the Technical Reviewer
Deepak Ramnandan Mahto works as a PostgreSQL
Database Engineer at Google Cloud. He has been working
with PostgreSQL since 2018, and he also worked as a
database migration consultant at AWS. He is also a keen
blogger and loves to publish articles on migration, best
practices, and on cloud with PostgreSQL. He loves to
code and build database-related utilities using PL/pgSQL
and SQL.
xv
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to several individuals who have played a crucial
role in making this book a reality. A heartfelt thank-you to Apress Media for providing
me with this valuable opportunity. I am especially grateful to my coauthor and mentor,
Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru, for his exceptional collaboration. I want to express my
gratitude to Divya Modi and Nirmal Selvaraj for being understanding of our hectic
schedules and providing us with continuous support throughout the entire process.
Special thanks to Deepak Mahto for his thorough review of the book. Lastly, I am
profoundly thankful to my parents, Lalu Saheb Shaik and Nasar Bee, whose unwavering
support has shaped me into the person I am today.
—Baji Shaik
xvii
Introduction
The PostgreSQL engine comes with its own dedicated procedural language, similar
to procedural languages found in other commercial database engines. This language,
known as PL/pgSQL, offers a range of powerful features that developers have long
desired. For instance, PL/pgSQL includes certain object-oriented programming
capabilities like the ability to define custom operators and types, as well as custom
aggregates.
In contrast to other programming languages supported by PostgreSQL, PL/pgSQL is
intricately linked with the PostgreSQL database engine interface. This tight integration
ensures optimal performance and a seamless fit for constructing business logic on
the database side. In this book, we not only introduce the fundamentals of PL/pgSQL,
but we also dive deep into specific use cases that we’ve implemented for particular
scenarios. Our aim is to comprehensively cover the various features, functionalities, and
application scenarios of PL/pgSQL, offering assistance in crafting effective server-side
objects with ease.
Through the content of this book, you will gain an understanding of PL/pgSQL’s
design and dive deep into its transaction model, including how commit and rollback
operations function. You’ll discover strategies for optimizing PL/pgSQL functions and
procedures and explore the mechanics of inline or anonymous server-side code, along
with its limitations. Furthermore, you’ll acquire insights into debugging and profiling
PL/pgSQL code and learn techniques for conducting statistical analyses on the PL/
pgSQL code you create.
xix
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to PL/pgSQL
In this chapter, we will start with an introduction of PL/pgSQL, on what is PL/pgSQL
and what are the key features of it. We will talk about some common use cases where
PL/pgSQL is used. PL/pgSQL comes by default when you install the PostgreSQL server.
However, we will provide the steps to install PL/pgSQL. We will explain how PL/pgSQL
works with a simple flow diagram. We will show some basic examples of PL/pgSQL code
blocks which are called anonymous and named code blocks.
1
© Baji Shaik and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru 2023
B. Shaik and D. K. Chemuduru, Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9840-4_1
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
PL/pgSQL Installation
PL/pgSQL is already included in PostgreSQL, so if you have PostgreSQL installed, you
should have PL/pgSQL as well. However, you may need to enable it if it is not already
enabled. Here are the steps to enable PL/pgSQL in PostgreSQL:
1. Install PostgreSQL psql client to connect to the database, or you
can use the pgAdmin client tool.
For Ubuntu, the following are the simple steps to install the client:
2
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
3
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
my_var := some_param * 10
4
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
The SQL queries are actually parsed at this point, and parser hooks are used to replace
variables/parameters with PARAM nodes in the parse tree. The PL/pgSQL statement tree
is very similar to a PostgreSQL execution tree. After the parse and compile, the call handler
then executes that statement tree. On the first execution of a statement node that has an
SQL query in it, that query is prepared via the Server Programming Interface (SPI). The SPI
provides a simple and efficient way to execute SQL commands, retrieve query results, and
manipulate the database. The compiled code is then executed by the server. Based on any
variable and control structure declaration, the server creates a new execution environment
for the PL/pgSQL code. If the PL/pgSQL code is a function or stored procedure that returns
a result set, the server will send the result set back to the client. Once the execution of the
code is complete, the server will clean up any resources that were used by the PL/pgSQL
code, including variables and any temporary tables that were created.
Figure 1-1 represents the flow of execution.
5
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
This diagram illustrates the high-level steps of the PL/pgSQL execution flow.
However, it's important to note that PL/pgSQL code can be quite complex and may
include multiple control structures, error handling blocks, and nested and even
recursive PL/pgSQL function calls and trigger invocations and database operations. The
actual execution flow of a specific PL/pgSQL function or stored procedure will depend
on the specific code and logic used. This call hierarchy is not limited to PL/pgSQL. All
procedural languages share the common entry point of the fmgr, so they can be mixed
and matched in trigger and function call stacks.
PL/pgSQL Blocks
PL/pgSQL is a block-structured language. The basic unit in any PL/pgSQL code is a
block. All PL/pgSQL code is composed of a single block or blocks that occur either
sequentially or nested within another block. There are two kinds of blocks:
• Anonymous or unnamed blocks (DO)
DO $$
[ <<label>> ]
[ DECLARE
-- Variable declaration here
]
BEGIN
-- Execute statements here
END [ label ];
$$;
6
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
Now, let us start with a simple hello world code block, which does not have any
name associated with it:
postgres=# DO
$$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World';
END;
$$;
NOTICE: Hello World
DO
In the preceding example, the RAISE NOTICE command will help us to print the
given message on the client console. As you can see here, the block is declared without
a name, and if you want to print Hello World, then you have to repeat the same set of
instructions again.
Now, let us print the Hello World line by line rather than in a single line:
postgres=# DO
$o$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE $i$
Hello
World
$i$;
END;
$o$;
NOTICE:
Hello
World
DO
In the preceding example, we used different multiline specifiers. The whole block got
enclosed by $o$, and the inner Hello World got enclosed by $i$. From this example, we
can learn that in PL/pgSQL, we can have the nested multiliners, where each multiline
should follow its own enclosure.
7
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
Now, let us write a nested BEGIN ... END inside a main BEGIN ... END block. Here
is an example:
postgres=# DO
$$
BEGIN
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World';
END;
END;
$$;
NOTICE: Hello World
DO
In the preceding example, we print the Hello World message from the nested BEGIN
... END block. It is possible to have multiple nested statements inside a single BEGIN...
END block. We will see more of these in the coming chapters, where we discuss exception
handling.
Now, let us go a little deeper and print the Hello World message from the nested
unnamed code block:
postgres=# DO
$o$
BEGIN
DO
$i$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World';
END;
$i$;
END;
$o$;
NOTICE: Hello World
DO
As you can see in the preceding example, we are able to define an unnamed block
inside an unnamed block. By defining the nested code blocks, we can segregate a large
unnamed block into multiple stand-alone work units. We don’t need to write a nested
8
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
unnamed block; in most of the cases, the nested BEGIN...END block would be sufficient.
But in general, we don’t keep large unnamed blocks in the database; rather, we store
them inside with a name (function/procedure), and we call that object name, whenever
it is required.
Here is another example where we can have a nested block inside an exception:
postgres=# DO $inline$
BEGIN
PERFORM 1/0;
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World!';
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DO $$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Got error';
END;
$$;
END;
$inline$;
NOTICE: Got error
DO
PL/pgSQL does not restrict the anonymous blocks as stand-alone objects; we can
also embed these inline definitions inside the function or procedure object. We haven’t
discussed about procedures and functions yet, but showing you an example where
you can declare the inline anonymous block inside a function:
9
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
(1 row)
How it works is, unlike other procedural languages, PL/pgSQL gives an inline
statement handler plpgsql_inline_handler. By using this handler, PL/pgSQL executes
the unnamed or inline PL/pgSQL blocks. If there are any nested code blocks, then those
will be evaluated recursively by the plpgsql_inline_handler.
Note that it is not possible to return any value from the unnamed code blocks.
Always use anonymous code blocks to define the business logic, which involves
making a set of function or procedure calls. If you want to return any value from
anonymous blocks, then we might need to use any session-level variables, which
need to be set inside the anonymous block, and access them from the outside of
the blocks.
Named Blocks
Named blocks have a name associated with them, are stored in the database, can be
executed repeatedly, and can take in parameters.
A named block in PL/pgSQL is defined using the following syntax:
<<label>>
DECLARE
-- declare variables here
BEGIN
-- Named block's code here
END;
Here, label is the name of the block and is enclosed within << >> brackets.It is not
just cosmetic, but that nested code blocks can refer to outer variables by using that label
instead of finding the innermost match for the variable name.
10
Chapter 1 Introduction to PL/pgSQL
The DECLARE section is used to declare variables that are used within the block,
while the BEGIN and END sections contain the actual code for the block.
Once a named block has been defined, it can be called from within the same
function or procedure using the PERFORM statement:
PERFORM block_name;
This will execute the code within the named block. Named blocks can be called
multiple times within the same function or procedure, allowing for reusable and
modular code.
Here's an example of a PL/pgSQL function that uses named blocks to calculate the
factorial of a number:
RETURN result;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
In this example, the named block factorial_loop is used within a FOR loop to
calculate the factorial of the input number. The DECLARE section declares a variable
result to store the final result, while the BEGIN and END sections contain the code for
the named block.
The named block is called within the FOR loop using the LOOP statement. This
allows the loop to continue until it reaches the specified number of iterations.
Once the FOR loop is complete, the final result is returned by the function.
To call the function and calculate the factorial of a number, you would execute the
following SQL statement:
SELECT factorial(5);
Summary
In this chapter, we talked about PL/pgSQL use cases, installation, and how it works with
a flow diagram. We have also shown how simple PL/pgSQL code blocks look like and
how to execute them. These examples will help you to understand and start with PL/
pgSQL code. In the next chapter, we will talk about the variables that are used inside
PL/pgSQL code blocks. We will start with how to declare those variables and dive deep
into different types of methods to use based on the use cases. These will help you to
decide which type of variables you should use when building the PL/pgSQL code for the
functions or procedures.
What’s Next
In the next chapter, we will be covering some key features of PL/pgSQL variables like the
following:
• Variable Types: Explore the different types of variables and learn
how to choose the appropriate variable type for your needs.
• Variable Scoping Mastery: Gain a better grasp of variable scoping
rules and how to manage variables effectively within different blocks.
• Variable Naming Conventions: Learn about naming conventions
that can help you write more maintainable and readable code.
• Advanced Variable Usage: Extend your knowledge by using
variables in more complex scenarios.
12
CHAPTER 2
PL/pgSQL Variables
In the previous chapter, we talked about what PL/pgSQL is and some use cases where
you need it. We also explained the steps to install and the execution flow of PL/pgSQL
with a simple diagram. We have discussed some PL/pgSQL anonymous and named
code block examples which will help in understanding the basics. In this chapter, we will
introduce variables that are used in the PL/pgSQL code. We will provide different types
of variables and use cases on when to use them. We will show the declaration and scope
of variables and different types of variables with some examples.
Declaring Variables
PL/pgSQL offers to declare variables in its declaration section of the block. Here is an
example:
postgres=# DO
$$
DECLARE
v_var1 INT;
v_var2 INT:=10;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'v_var1 %', v_var1;
RAISE NOTICE 'v_var2 %', v_var2;
13
© Baji Shaik and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru 2023
B. Shaik and D. K. Chemuduru, Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9840-4_2
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
END;
$$;
NOTICE: v_var1 <NULL>
NOTICE: v_var2 10
DO
In the preceding example, we have declared two variables. The v_var1 variable is
declared but not defined with any value to it. The second variable v_var2 is declared but
has a value 10 to it. If we try to access a variable which is declared and not defined, then
expect that we would get NULL from it. In the preceding output, we can also see that the
v_var1 is set to NULL.
From the previous chapter, we learned that we can have nested blocks inside the
main PL/pgSQL block. By using that nested block feature, we have multiple declarations
and multiple variables in the single PL/pgSQL block. Here is an example:
postgres=# DO
$o$
DECLARE
v_var1 INT:=10;
BEGIN
DO
$i$
DECLARE
v_var1 INT:=100;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'v_var1 %', v_var1;
END;
$i$;
END;
$o$;
NOTICE: v_var1 10
NOTICE: v_var1 100
DO
14
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
In the preceding example, we have nested unnamed blocks, where we have two
variable declarations. The variable v_var1 in the main block is declared with the value
10, and also v_var1 in the inside block is declared with the value 100. Also, the scope of
the variable is always local.
Variable Scope
The scope of the declared variables in PL/pgSQL is always local to its current block. That
is, once we declare the variable in a block, we can’t access them outside of that block.
Here is an example:
postgres=# DO
$$
DECLARE
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_var1 INT:=10;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'v_var1 %', v_var1;
END;
15
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
From the preceding example, as you can see we got an error, column "v_var1"
does not exist, when we try to access the variable v_var1 from the outer BEGIN...
END block. That is, the scope of variable v_var1 is local to that inner BEGIN...END block,
and we can’t access them from the outside. If we declare the variable v_var1 in the
parent BEGIN...END block, then we can access that variable inside the nested BEGIN...
END blocks too. Because the v_var1 is declared at the parent block level, its scope is
at the whole block level. Now, you might have questions like what if we declare the
same variable v_var1 in parent and nested BEGIN...END blocks and how to access the
parent block’s v_var1 along with the local declared variable. Here is an example for this
use case:
postgres=# DO
$$
DECLARE
v_var1 INT:=1;
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_var1 INT:=10;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'v_var1 %', v_var1;
END;
END;
$$;
NOTICE: v_var1 10
DO
From the preceding example, we were only able to access the variable v_var1, which
was declared in the nested BEGIN...END block. To access the parent v_var1 variable,
then we should access that variable with the block’s label. That is, we have to give a label
name to the parent block, and then we should access the v_var1 along with its label
name. Here is an example:
postgres=# DO
$$
<<parent>>
DECLARE
v_var1 INT := 1;
16
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
BEGIN
DECLARE
v_var1 INT := 10;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Parent v_var1 %', parent.v_var1;
RAISE NOTICE 'Local v_var1 %', v_var1;
END;
END;
$$;
NOTICE: Parent v_var1 1
NOTICE: Local v_var1 10
DO
Constant Variables
We can declare constant variables inside PL/pgSQL, which shouldn’t get updated by
further instructions. Here is an example:
postgres=# DO
$$
DECLARE
v_c_pi CONSTANT REAL DEFAULT 3.14;
BEGIN
v_c_pi = 3.15;
END;
$$;
ERROR: variable "v_c_pi" is declared CONSTANT
LINE 6: v_c_pi = 3.15;
In the preceding example, we declared the variable v_c_pi as CONSTANT and set its
DEFAULT value as 3.14. But, in further instructions, when we tried to update its value as
3.15, we got the exception as the variable is declared as CONSTANT, which should not get
updated by any of the instructions.
17
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
Variable Alias
In PL/pgSQL, we can also create a reference variable which points to another variable or
system variables. For example, if we want to create a reference variable or a short-length
variable name to another variable, then we can create those short-length variables using
ALIAS. Here is an example:
DO
$$
DECLARE
var_earth_sun_distance REAL DEFAULT 149.6;
v_e_s_d ALIAS FOR var_earth_sun_distance;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Reference #1 %', v_e_s_d;
v_e_s_d = 149.5;
RAISE NOTICE 'Actual Variable %', var_earth_sun_distance;
END;
$$;
NOTICE: Reference #1 149.6
NOTICE: Actual Variable 149.5
DO
DO
$$
DECLARE
var_earth_sun_distance REAL DEFAULT 149.6;
v_e_s_d ALIAS FOR var_earth_sun_distance;
vd ALIAS FOR v_e_s_d;
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Reference #1 %', v_e_s_d;
RAISE NOTICE 'Reference #2 %', vd;
18
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
In the preceding example, we created an ALIAS variable from another ALIAS variable.
That is, we created a new reference variable, which points to another reference variable.
Also, if we update the second reference variable, it will reflect those changes on the
actual variable via the first reference.
PL/pgSQL supports the following types of variables:
• Scalar Variables
• Array Variables
• Record Variables
• Cursor Variables
Scalar Variables
In all the previous examples, we demonstrated scalar variables. Scalar variables hold a
single value of a specific data type, such as an integer or a string. They can be declared
and initialized using the DECLARE keyword and can be assigned values using the :=
assignment operator.
19
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
For example, the following code declares each type of scalar variable:
postgres=# DO $$
DECLARE
my_int integer := 1;
my_text text := 'Hello, world!';
my_bool boolean := true;
BEGIN
-- perform operations on the scalar variables
my_int := my_int + 10;
my_text := my_text || ' How are you?';
my_bool := not my_bool;
In the preceding example, we declare three scalar variables: my_int with a value
of 1 and a data type of integer, my_text with a value of 'Hello, world!' and a data
type of text, and my_bool with a value of true and a data type of boolean. We then
perform some operations on these variables using arithmetic, concatenation, and logical
negation. Finally, we print the values of the variables using the RAISE NOTICE statement.
Scalar variables are useful for storing temporary values or performing calculations
within a stored procedure or function. They can be used in a variety of ways, such as
tracking state, performing conditional logic, or holding input or output parameters.
20
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
Array Variables
Array variables are variables that can hold multiple values of the same data type. They
are declared using a data type followed by the [] syntax, such as integer[] or text[].
For example, the following code declares an array variable:
postgres=# DO $$
DECLARE
my_array integer[] := '{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}';
BEGIN
-- print the entire array
RAISE NOTICE 'my_array = %', my_array;
In the preceding example, we declare an array variable my_array with a data type of
integer[] and initialize it with the values {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. We then print the entire
array using the RAISE NOTICE statement, access and print the value of the second
element of the array, modify the value of the third element of the array, and print the
entire array again.
Array variables are useful for storing and manipulating sets of related data, such
as lists of numbers, strings, or boolean values. They can be used in a variety of ways,
such as for performing calculations on multiple values at once, storing input or output
parameters, or passing data between functions or procedures.
21
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
Record Variables
Record variables are used to store a row of data from a table or a query result. They are
declared using the %ROWTYPE attribute and can be assigned values using the SELECT INTO
statement.
For example, the following code declares a record variable:
postgres=# DO $$
DECLARE
my_record emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
-- select a row of data into the record variable
SELECT * INTO my_record FROM emp WHERE emp_id = 100;
22
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
In the preceding example, we declare a record variable my_record that holds a row
of data from the emp table. We then select a row of data into the record variable using
a SELECT statement, print the values of the record variable using the RAISE NOTICE
statement, update the values of the record variable, and update the row of data in the
table using an UPDATE statement.
Record variables are useful for storing and manipulating rows of data from tables
or query results within a stored procedure or function. They can be used in a variety of
ways, such as for passing data between functions or procedures, performing calculations
on data, or storing input or output parameters.
Cursor Variables
Cursor variables are variables that hold a reference to a cursor, which is a named SQL
statement that can be executed repeatedly. They are declared using the CURSOR
keyword.
For example, the following code declares a record variable named “my_row” that
corresponds to the columns of a table named “my_table”:
postgres=# DO $$
DECLARE
my_cursor refcursor;
my_record emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
-- open the cursor and fetch the first row of data
OPEN my_cursor FOR SELECT * FROM emp;
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_record;
23
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
24
Chapter 2 PL/pgSQL Variables
Summary
In this chapter, we learned about the types of variables with nice examples and
explanations of how they work. We went through the declaration of variables in the
DECLARE section of the code as well as in an independent code block on the fly. The
scope of variables is different for each block of PL/pgSQL code. We explained how the
scope of variables varies with some examples. Also, we looked at constant variables and
how to use aliases for the variables.
What’s Next
In the next chapter, we will be covering some key features of PL/pgSQL data types like
the following:
• Advanced Data Type Exploration: Delve into complex data types
like composite and range types to efficiently manage intricate data
structures.
• Custom Domain Types: Create user-defined domain types with
specific constraints to ensure data integrity and validation in your
applications.
• Optimal Type Selection: Understand how to choose the right
data type based on application needs, considering performance,
maintainability, and space efficiency.
• Dynamic Application Building: Harness PL/pgSQL data types to
create adaptable applications that handle diverse data inputs and
outputs.
25
CHAPTER 3
Data Types
Choosing the right data type for the data being used is a best practice that developers
should follow. Choosing the correct data type can help us avoid many data validation
checks and prevent exceptions when incorrect data is entered. The PostgreSQL database
engine supports multiple data types for each data kind. By using these data types, we
build tables and insert proper data into them. We can use most of the PostgreSQL data
types inside PL/pgSQL blocks, besides pseudo-types like any, anyenum, and record. It is
not just limited to using existing data types; we can also construct new composite types
by using these existing data types.
Understanding data types is crucial for developing efficient and effective database
applications. We will cover data types such as integers, floating-point numbers,
booleans, and strings, as well as more advanced data types like arrays and composite
types. By the end of this chapter, you will have a good understanding of the different data
types available in PL/pgSQL and how to use them effectively in your business logic. We
will also cover how to declare variables and constants using these data types and how to
convert between different data types using type casting. This knowledge is essential for
writing robust and error-free PL/pgSQL code that can handle a variety of data inputs and
outputs.
27
© Baji Shaik and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru 2023
B. Shaik and D. K. Chemuduru, Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9840-4_3
Chapter 3 PL/pgSQL Data Types
Note You can find the list of supported data types here: www.postgresql.
org/docs/current/datatype.html.
postgres=# DO
$$
declare
v_int int:=10;
v_text text:='text';
v_boolean boolean:=false;
begin
raise notice 'v_int %',v_int;
raise notice 'v_text %',v_text;
raise notice 'v_boolean %',v_boolean;
end;
$$;
NOTICE: v_int 10
NOTICE: v_text text
NOTICE: v_boolean f
DO
In the preceding example, we declared three variables along with their data types
and printed the results. Let us rewrite the previous example as follows and see the
results:
postgres=# DO
$$
declare
int int:=10;
text text:='text';
28
Chapter 3 PL/pgSQL Data Types
boolean boolean:=false;
begin
raise notice 'int %',int;
raise notice 'text %',text;
raise notice 'boolean %', boolean;
end;
$$;
NOTICE: int 10
NOTICE: text text
NOTICE: boolean f
DO
As you can see in the preceding example, variable names can be declared with the
corresponding data type names. As data type names are not reserved keywords, we can
also use them as variable names. Here, we are demonstrating the possibility of declaring
variable names as data types. However, this kind of variable declaration is not typically
used in production.
In the previous example, as well as in the previous chapter, we discussed only the
base scalar data types in PostgreSQL. These data types accept only a single value into
their declared variable type. To obtain a list of available base scalar types in the current
database, we can query the PostgreSQL catalog table pg_type. The following query
returns base data types in the database limited to three only:
29
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"Then at regular hours I ceased working; and when I prayed with
my arms extended, I felt as though a fountain of mercy were
pouring from the height of heaven into my heart. That fountain is
now dried up. Why?"
(He walks up and down slowly, within the circuit of the rocks.)
"All blamed me when I left the house. My mother sank to the
ground, dying; my sister from afar off made signs to me to return;
and the other—wept, Ammonaria, the child whom I used to meet
every evening at the cistern, when she took the oxen to drink. She
ran after me. Her foot rings glittered in the dust; and her tunic, open
at the hips, fluttered loosely in the wind. The aged anchorite who
was leading me away called her vile names. Our two camels
galloped forward without respite; and I have seen none of my
people since that day.
"At first, I selected for my dwelling place, the tomb of a Pharaoh.
But an enchantment circulates through all those subterranean
palaces, where the darkness seems to have been thickened by the
ancient smoke of the aromatics. From the depths of Sarcophagi, I
heard doleful voices arise, and call my name; or else, I suddenly
beheld the abominable things painted upon the walls live and move;
and I fled away to the shore of the Red Sea, and took refuge in a
ruined citadel. There my only companions were the scorpions
dragging themselves among the stones, and the eagles continually
wheeling above my head, in the blue of heaven. At night I was torn
by claws, bitten by beaks; soft wings brushed against me; and
frightful demons, shrieking in my ears, flung me upon the ground.
Once I was even rescued by the people of a caravan going to
Alexandria; and they took me away with them.
"Then I sought to obtain instruction from the good old man
Didymus. Although blind, none equalled him in the knowledge of the
Scriptures. When the lesson was finished, he used to ask me to give
him my arm to lean upon, that we might walk together. Then I
would conduct him to the Paneum, whence may be seen the Pharos
and the open sea. Then we would return by way of the post,
elbowing men of all nations, even Cimmerians clad in the skins of
bears and Gymnosophists of the Ganges anointed with cow-dung.
But there was always some fighting in the streets—either on account
of the Jews refusing to pay taxes, or of seditious people who wished
to drive the Romans from the city. Moreover, the city is full of
heretics—followers of Manes; Valentinus, Basilides, Arius—all seeking
to engross my attention in order to argue with me and to convince
me.
"Their discourses often come back to my memory. Vainly do I seek
to banish them from my mind. They trouble me!
"I took refuge at Colzin, and there lived a life of such penance that I
ceased to fear God. A few men, desirous of becoming anchorites,
gathered about me. I imposed a practical rule of life upon them,
hating, as I did, the extravagance of Gnosus and the assertions of
the philosophers. Messages were sent to me from all parts, and men
came from afar off to visit me.
"Meanwhile the people were torturing the confessors; and the thirst
of martyrdom drew me to Alexandria. The persecution had ceased
three days before I arrived there!
"While returning thence, I was stopped by a great crowd assembled
before the temple of Serapis. They told me it was a last example
which the Governor had resolved to make. In the centre of the
portico, under the sunlight, a naked woman was fettered to a
column, and two soldiers were flogging her with thongs; at every
blow her whole body writhed. She turned round, her mouth open;
and over the heads of the crowd, through the long hair half hiding
her face, I thought that I could recognize Ammonaria....
... through the long hair half hiding her face, I thought that I could recognize
Ammonaria ...
"Nevertheless ... this one was taller ... and beautiful ... prodigiously
beautiful!"
(He passes his hands over his forehead.)
"No! no! I must not think of it!
"Another time Athanasius summoned me to assist him against the
Arians. The contest was limited to invectives and laughter. But since
that time he has been calumniated, dispossessed of his see, obliged
to fly for safety elsewhere. Where is he now? I do not know! The
people give themselves very little trouble to bring me news. All my
disciples have abandoned me—Hilarion like the rest.
"He was perhaps fifteen years of age when he first came to me and
his intelligence was so remarkable that he asked me questions
incessantly. Then he used to listen to me with a pensive air, and
whatever I needed he brought it to me without a murmur—nimbler
than a kid, merry enough to make even the patriarchs laugh. He was
a son to me."
(The sky is red; the earth completely black. Long drifts of sand
follow the course of the gusts of wind, rising like great shrouds and
falling again. Suddenly against a bright space in the sky a flock of
birds pass, forming a triangular battalion, gleaming like one sheet of
metal, of which the edges alone seem to quiver.
Anthony watches them.)
"Ah, how I should like to follow them.
"How often also have I enviously gazed upon those long vessels,
whose sails resemble wings—and above all when they were bearing
far away those I had received at my hermitage! What pleasant hours
we passed!—what out-pourings of feeling! No one ever interested
me more than Ammon: he told me of his voyage to Rome, of the
Catacombs, the Coliseum, the piety of illustrious women, and a
thousand other things!—and it grieved me to part with him!
Wherefore my obstinacy in continuing to live such a life as this? I
would have done well to remain with the monks of Nitria, inasmuch
as they supplicated me to do so. They have cells apart, and
nevertheless communicate with each other. On Sundays a trumpet
summons them to assemble at the church, where one may see three
scourges hanging up, which serve to punish delinquents, robbers,
and intruders; for their discipline is severe.
"Nevertheless they are not without some enjoyments. The faithful
bring them eggs, fruits, and even instruments with which they can
extract thorns from their feet. There are vineyards about Prisperi;
those dwelling at Pabena have a raft on which they may journey
when they go to seek provisions.
"But I might have served my brethren better as a simple priest. As a
priest one may aid the poor, administer the sacraments, and exercise
authority over families.
"Furthermore, all laics are not necessarily damned, and it only
depended upon my own choice to become—for example—a
grammarian, a philosopher. I would then have had in my chamber a
sphere of reeds, and tablets always ready at hand, young men
around me, and a wreath of laurel suspended above my door, as a
sign.
"But there is too much pride in triumphs such as those. A soldier's
life would have been preferable. I was robust and bold: bold enough
to fasten the cables of the military machines—to traverse dark
forests, or to enter, armed and helmeted, into smoking cities....
Neither was there anything to have prevented me from purchasing
with my money the position of publican at the toll-office of some
bridge; and travellers would have taught me many strange things,
and told me strange stories, the while showing me many curious
objects packed up among their baggage....
"The merchants of Alexandria sail upon the river Canopus on
holidays, and drink wine in the chalices of lotus-flowers, to a music
of tambourines which makes the taverns along the shore tremble!
Beyond, trees, made cone-shaped by pruning, protect the quiet
farms against the wind of the south. The roof of the lofty house
leans upon thin colonettes placed as closely together as the laths of
a lattice; and through their interspaces the master, reclining upon his
long couch, beholds his plains stretching about him—the hunter
among the wheat-fields—the winepress where the vintage is being
converted into wine, the oxen treading out the wheat. His children
play upon the floor around him; his wife bends down to kiss him."
(Against the grey dimness of the twilight, here and there appear
pointed muzzles, with straight, pointed ears and bright eyes.
Anthony advances toward them. There is a sound of gravel
crumbling down; the animals take flight. It was a troop of jackals.
One still remains, rising upon his hinder legs, with his body half
arched and head raised in an attitude full of defiance.)
"How pretty he is! I would like to stroke his back gently!"
(Anthony whistles to coax him to approach. The jackal disappears.)
"Ah! he is off to join the others. What solitude! what weariness!"
(Laughing bitterly.)
"A happy life this indeed!—bending palm-branches in the fire to
make shepherds' crooks, fashioning baskets, stitching mats together
—and then exchanging these things with the Nomads for bread
which breaks one's teeth! Ah! woe, woe is me! will this never end?
Surely death were preferable! I can endure it no more! Enough!
enough!"
(He stamps his foot upon the ground, and rushes frantically to and
fro among the rocks; then pauses, out of breath, bursts into tears,
and lies down upon the ground, on his side.
The night is calm; multitudes of stars are palpitating; only the
crackling noise made by the tarantulas is audible.
The two arms of the cross make a shadow upon the sand; Anthony,
who is weeping, observes it.)
"Am I, then, so weak, O my God! Courage, let me rise from here!"
(He enters his hut, turns over a pile of cinders, finds a live ember,
lights his torch and fixes it upon the wooden desk, so as to throw a
light upon the great book.)
"Suppose I take the Acts of the Apostles?—yes!—no matter where!"
'And he saw the heaven opened, and a certain vessel descending, as
it were a great linen sheet let down by the four corners from heaven
to the earth—wherein were all manner of four-footed beasts, and
creeping things of the earth and fowls of the air. And there came a
voice to him: Arise, Peter! Kill and eat!'[1]
"Then the Lord desired that his apostle should eat of all things?...
while I...."
(Anthony remains thoughtful, his chin resting against his breast. The
rustling of the pages, agitated by the wind, causes him to lift his
head again; and he reads:)
'So the Jews made a great slaughter of their enemies with the
sword, and killed them, repaying according to what they had
prepared to do to them....[2]
"Then, comes the number of people slain by them—seventy-five
thousand. They had suffered so much! Moreover, their enemies were
the enemies of the true God. And how they must have delighted in
avenging themselves thus by the massacre of idolaters! Doubtless
the city must have been crammed with the dead! There must have
been corpses at the thresholds of the garden gates, upon the
stairways, in all the chambers, and piled up so high that the doors
could no longer move upon their hinges!... But lo! here I am
permitting my mind to dwell upon ideas of murder and of blood!..."
(He opens the book at another place.)
'Then King Nabuchodonosor fell on his face, and worshipped
Daniel....'[3]
"Ah! that was just! The Most High exalts his prophets above Kings;
yet that monarch spent his life in banqueting, perpetually drunk with
pleasure and pride. But God, to punish him, changed him into a
beast! He walked upon four feet!"
(Anthony begins to laugh; and in extending his arms, involuntarily
disarranges the leaves of the book with the tips of his fingers. His
eyes fell upon this phrase:—)
'And Ezechias rejoiced at their coming, and he showed them the
house of his aromatical spices, and the gold and the silver, and
divers precious odours and ointments, and the house of his vessels,
and all that he had in his treasures....'[4]
"I can imagine that spectacle; they must have beheld precious
stones, diamonds and darics heaped up to the very roof. One who
possesses so vast an accumulation of wealth is no longer like other
men. While handling his riches he knows that he controls the total
result of innumerable human efforts—as it were the life of nations
drained by him and stored up, which he can pour forth at will. It is a
commendable precaution on the part of Kings. Even the Wisest of all
did not neglect it. His navy brought him elephants' teeth and apes....
Where is that passage?"
(He turns the leaves over rapidly.)
"Ah! here it is:"
'And the Queen of Saba, having heard of the fame of Solomon in the
name of the Lord, came to try him with hard questions.'[5]
"How did she hope to tempt him? The Devil indeed sought to tempt
Jesus! But Jesus triumphed because he was God; and Solomon,
perhaps, owing this knowledge of magic! It is sublime—that science!
For the world—as a philosopher once explained it to me, forms a
whole, of which all parts mutually influence one another, like the
organs of one body. It is science which enables us to know the
natural loves and natural repulsions of all things, and to play upon
them?... Therefore, it is really possible to modify what appears to be
the immutable order of the universe?"
(Then the two shadows formed behind him by the arms of the cross,
suddenly lengthen and project themselves before him. They assume
the form of two great horns. Anthony cries out:—)
"Help me! O my God!"
Saint Anthony: Help me, O my God!
II