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basic Digital
Recording
Paul White
Copyright © 2009 SMT
This edition © 2009 SMT
(A Division of Music Sales Limited, 14-15 Berners Street, London, W1T 3LJ)

ISBN: 978-0-85712-180-6

The Author hereby asserts his/her right to be identified as the author of

this work in accordance with Sections 77 to 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or
by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or
retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, expect
by a reviewer who may quote brief passages.

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of the
photographs in this book, but one or two were unreachable. We would be
grateful if the photographers concerned would contact us.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For all your musical needs including instruments, sheet music and
accessories, visit www.musicroom.com

For on-demand sheet music straight to your home printer, visit

www.sheetmusicdirect.com
basic Digital
Recording

Paul White

smt
Also by Paul White and available from Sanctuary Publishing:

Creative Recording 1 - Effects And Processors (second edition)

Creative Recording 2 - Microphones, Acoustics, Soundproofing
And Monitoring (second edition)
Home Recording Made Easy (second edition)
EMERGENCY! First Aid For Home Recording
MIDI For The Technophobe (second edition)
Recording And Production Techniques

Also by Paul White in this series:

basic Effects & Processors

basic Home Studio Design
basic Live Sound
basic Mastering
basic Microphones
basic MIDI
basic Mixers
basic Mixing Techniques
basic Multitracking
basic Sampling
basic VST Effects
basic VST Instruments
 CONTENTS

Information Page
Introduction
1 Digital Basics
Sampling Theory
Sample Rates
Sample Rate Converters
Digital Connections
Clock Sync
Word Clock
Digital Effects
Digital Reverberation
Reverb Parameters
Gated Reverb
Delay And Echo
Modulated Delay
Chorus And Adt
Flanging
Phasing
Vibrato
Pitch Shifting
Autopanners
Amp/Speaker Simulators
Filters
MIDI Control
Patching Effects
Processors
Compressors/Limiters
Gates
Equalisers
Exciters
Recording Systems
Audio Quality
Input/Output
Random Access
Non-Destructive Editing
Editing Features
Hard-Disk Limitations
What Can A Computer Do?
Rewire
Software Samplers
Hard-Disk Editors
Practicalities
Recording Hardware
Choosing A Computer
Hardware Recorders
Digital Tape
Tapeless Workstations
Digital Mixers
Stereo Recorders
MiniDisc
SCMS
CD-R

The Soundcard Studio

Macintosh Users
Connections
Recording Pre-Amps
And There’s MIDI
Evolution
Software Synthesis
Latency And Monitoring
Input Monitoring
Punching In
Choosing A Soundcard
Soundcard Drivers
BeOS
No Games!

Music Software
The Sequencer
The MIDI Composer
MIDI And Sequencing
Audio Sequencers
Sequencer Setup
Metronomes
Tracks And Channels
Cut, Copy And Paste
Playback
Editing
Quantising
MIDI Drums
Types Of Sequencer
MIDI Data Storage
Computer Complexity
 The MIDI Interface
The User Interface
Extra MIDI Ports
Common Problems
MIDI Timing
Sequencers With Audio
Software Plug-Ins
Third-Party Plug-Ins
Native Plug-Ins
Multiple Plug-Ins
Types Of Plug-In
Plug-In Automation
Software Protection
Computing Power
Stereo Editors
Software Synths
Samplers

5 Music Computers
Recording Levels
Weak Links
Drive Maintenance
Effects
Other Plug-Ins
Guitars And Computers
Fan And Drive Noise
Waveform Editing
Computer Power
Time And Pitch Manipulation
Keep It Clean!
Computer Timing
Lightening The Load
Audio Timing
Audio And Clocks
Sync
Solutions
6 Creating An Album
Mastering
Mastering EQ
Gentle Compression
De-Noising
Track Editing
Making A CD
The Internet
Appendix: Common Cable Connections
Glossary
 INTRODUCTION

Today the majority of recording systems are digital, but

unlike in the era of analogue tape there’s no longer a single
accepted approach. Instead we are faced with a variety of
technologies, some using tape, some using computer hard
disk drives and some using MiniDiscs. Most of the cheaper
systems are used with the computer desktop, on which digital
recording is often combined with MIDI sequencing, but there
are also stand-alone hard-disk recorders and digital tape
recorders available. The type you choose will depend largely
on the type of recording you wish to make and on whether or
not you need to edit your recordings afterwards. The aim of
this book is to explain the theory of digital recording and to
discuss the various types of recording system currently on the
market so that you’ll be in a better position to decide which
system is right for you. There are also numerous tips on how
to keep computer-based systems working at maximum
efficiency, along with some guidelines on recording and
mixing.
 1 DIGITAL BASICS

Before working with a digital recording system, it’s important

to learn a little background information about how they work
and how they differ from their analogue counterparts.

All digital audio equipment designed to accept analogue

signals, such as the outputs from microphones, must convert
the analogue input into a digital format before it can process
it or record it. An analogue signal is one in which the voltage
varies in proportion to the original event; in the case of
sound, the signal voltage changes in proportion to
fluctuations in air pressure. A rapidly vibrating string, for
example, will create rapid fluctuations in air pressure which
a microphone can convert into variations in voltage. A digital
system, on the other hand, works with binary numbers - ones
and zeros - which are represented in the circuit by the
presence or absence of a nominally fixed voltage. Converting
an analogue signal into digital information involves
measuring the analogue voltage at regular intervals and then
turning these measurements into a series of binary numbers.

If there are enough instantaneous measurements per second

the original sound can be recreated. So how many
measurements or samples are necessary to capture the full
range of human hearing? This is where sampling theory
comes in.

Sampling Theory
Measuring and digitising minute sections of an input signal is
known as sampling. Figure 1.1 illustrates what happens when
a signal is sampled. First it is cut into slices, rather like a loaf
of sliced bread, and the height of each slice is then measured.
As shown in the illustration, the slices, or samples, have flat
tops (corresponding to the voltage measured during the
sampling time), so they don’t accurately follow the curve of
the waveform. From this you might deduce that the
representation of the original sound would be more accurate
with thinner slices, and up to a point, this is indeed the case.

Sampling theory states that, if the output is to be

reconstructed accurately, samples must be taken at a
minimum of twice the frequency of the highest harmonic
likely to be encountered. If the sampling frequency is less
than twice the highest frequency, additional frequencies will
be introduced based on the sum and difference between the
sampling frequency and the audio frequency. These
frequencies won’t have been originally present and will
sound musically unpleasant. This effect is known as aliasing,
and to prevent it, any frequencies in the original signal that
are above half the sampling frequency must be filtered out.
However, because no filters are perfect, the sampling
frequency will be a little higher than twice the maximum
audio frequency, which is why, on an audio bandwidth of
20kHz, the minimum sampling frequency is 44.1kHz. If
you're thinking that 44.1kHz is an odd kind of number (why
not 45kHz or 50kHz?), you’re right. As is so often the case,
the reasons for using this frequency are based on convention.
 The signal voltage is sampled at regular intervals
so that the original signal can be reconstructed by
in effect joining the dots. The sample levels are
converted to binary numbers for digital sterage
and manipulation

hE ; = |

Original waveform

Voltage , ‘ A! >
Time

-ve

Figure 1.1: Sampling a waveform

Audio quality is also affected by the accuracy with which

samples are measured, and if more digital bits are used to
represent each sample then the accuracy of these
measurements increases. CDs and DAT tapes use 16-bit
sampling, though many digital multitrack recorders and
signal processors now use 20- or 24-bit conversion.

Digital numbers are separated by discrete steps - there are no

halves or thirds of a bit - and the number of steps used
depends on the resolution of the analogue-to-digital
converter used. Eight bits will give you only 28 steps, which
works out at 256. That means that your loudest signal could
have 256 steps, but quieter sounds will have considerably
fewer. This value provides a rather poor level of resolution
and causes what’s known as _ quantisation distortion.
Nowadays, eight-bit sound is rarely used, except in some
undemanding applications.

Quantisation distortion sounds like noise, and is in fact very

similar, except that, unlike most other noise, it disappears in
the absence of a signal. Using more bits results in a vast
improvement in resolution, and most current digital
processors use 16-bit (like compact discs), 20-bit or even 24-
bit sampling. A 24-bit system samples with more than 16
million steps, which makes the 256 steps used by eight-bit
sampling look a little inadequate!

Each bit used in a conventional sampling yields a maximum

dynamic range of 6dB, so at best an eight-bit system can only
provide a dynamic range of 48dB, which is about as noisy as
a cheap cassette recorder. 16 bits, on the other hand,
provides a maximum dynamic range of 96dB, which for most
audio purposes is more than adequate, and even though 20-
and 24-bit systems aren’t yet perfected, they can still provide
practical dynamic ranges in excess of 120dB.

Sample Rates
Although the minimum sample rate for serious audio work is
44.1kHz, less critical work is sometimes carried out at 32kHz
(which reduces the audio bandwidth to under 15kHz). Most
broadcasters prefer to work with a sample rate of 48kHz.
Most DAT machines and soundcards support sample rates of
both 44.1kHz and 48kHz, but it’s important to note that
everything else in the system must be set to run at the same
sample rate, or the final audio recording will not play back at
the same speed as that at which you recorded it. If you’re
planning on making CDs then you should always work at
44.1kHz, while if you’re producing material for broadcasting
you should stick to 48kHz.

Recent systems have been introduced that run at twice the

current standard sampling rates, so now 88.2kHz and 96kHz
can be added to the list. In theory these systems produce a
slightly better sound quality, but in practice few people can
detect a difference. Even so, it’s important to be aware of
them, especially as the 24-bit 96kHz audio used by DVD may
become the standard hi-fi format.

Sample Rate Converters

Sample rate conversion is necessary in those situations when
you want to work at one sample rate but some of the source
material is configured to another. It may be accomplished
either with software or with an external hardware box, which
will take in a digital signal at one sample rate and output it
at another in real time.

To recap, then: systems with higher sampling frequencies can

handle higher input frequencies, which in turn means a
better frequency response. The only trade-off is that, because
you end up recording a higher number of samples per
second, more memory is needed to store the extra sound
data. The same is true when recording more bits per sample.
(The number of bits per sample is sometimes known as bit
depth.) Fortunately, RAM (Random Access Memory) and
computer hard drives are orders of magnitude cheaper now
than they were a few years ago, so data storage is no longer
the major cost concern it once was.

Digital Connections
Unlike analogue systems, on which every signal needs to be
sent down a separate cable, digital systems allow two or
more signals to be sent along the same cable while remaining
completely separate. It’s not important to know the theory
behind this apparent magic at this stage, but it’s important to
know what is meant by the terms ‘clocking’ and ‘sync’.
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 FOOTNOTES:
[1] The poet adds a footnote of facts. “The ship, when first she filled, fell over so
as to dip the flag at her masthead into the sea. Then rolling back, she fell over to the
other side till her yard-arms touched the water. She then righted, and sunk nearly
upright. While she was sinking, nearly every soul on board came on deck; and I was
told by Admiral Sotheby, then a lieutenant on board the next ship, that as she went
down, this mass of people gave a cry so lamentable, that it was still ringing in his
ears. It was supposed that at the time of the accident, above a thousand persons, men
and women, were on board; not four hundred were saved. The eddy made by the
sinking ship was so great that a large victualling barge which lay alongside was
drawn in, and lost with her.”
[2] The Errata volume of the D.N.B. does penance for a curious slip in its account
of this half-forgotten worthy, where the Shepherd’s Bush Public Library is stated to
be a joint-memorial to him and to Charles Keene. I was so struck by this odd
conjunction of patron saints, that I made a pilgrimage of veridification to their
reputed shrine, and found it was Leigh Hunt’s memory that has been not so unequally
yoked together with the Punch artist’s.
[3] There is a model of this broken corner of the shore on the ground floor of the
Geological Museum in Jermyn Street, but hardly on a large enough scale to display
its beauty.
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