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Learning JavaScript 2nd Edition Shelley Powers Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Shelley Powers
ISBN(s): 9780596521882, 059652188X
File Details: PDF, 7.31 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Learning JavaScript

SHELLEY POWERS

Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Köln • Sebastopol • Tokyo

A Note Regarding
Supplemental Files
Supplemental files and examples for this book can be found at
http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596521882/. Please use a
standard desktop web browser to access these files, as they
may not be accessible from all ereader devices.

All code files or examples referenced in the book will be

available online. For physical books that ship with an
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CD/DVD content. Note that while we provide as much of the
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Preface
JavaScript was originally intended to be a scripting interface
between a web page loaded in the browser client (Netscape
Navigator at the time) and the application on the server. Since
its introduction in 1995, JavaScript has become a key
component of web development, and has found uses
elsewhere as well.

This book covers the JavaScript language, from its most

primitive data types that have been around since the beginning
of the language, to its most complex features, including those
that have to do with Ajax and dynamic page effects. After
reading this book, you will have the basics you need to work
with even the most sophisticated libraries and web
applications.

Audience
Readers of this book should be familiar with web page
technology, including Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and
HTML/XHTML. Previous programming experience isn’t
required, though some sections may require extra review if you
have no previous exposure to programming.

This book should help:

 Anyone who wants, or needs, to integrate JavaScript into
his own personal website or sites

Anyone who uses a content-management tool, such as a

weblogging tool, and wants to better understand the
scripting components incorporated into her tool templates

Web developers who seek to integrate JavaScript and

some of the dynamic web page/Ajax features into their
websites

Web service developers who want to develop for a new

market of clients

Teachers who use web technologies as either the focus or

a component of their courses

Web page designers who wish to better understand how

they can enliven their designs with interactive or animated
effects

Anyone interested in web technologies

Assumptions and Approach

As stated earlier, this book assumes you have experience with
HTML and CSS, as well as a general understanding of how
web applications work. Programming experience isn’t
necessary, but the book covers all aspects of JavaScript, some
of which are relatively sophisticated. Though the heavier
pieces are few, you will need to understand JavaScript well
enough to work with the newer Ajax libraries.
The Development Environment
Working with JavaScript can be especially challenging because
your applications have to work not only on different types of
machines, but also in several different browsers. If you look at
web server logfiles for a site, you can see accesses from
modern browsers, such as Firefox 3 and IE8, as well as
ancient browsers such as IE5.

You can get caught up in trying to create JavaScript for all

possible variations of operating system and browser, but a
better bet is to pick a group of target browsers that matches the
browsers used by most of the people accessing your web
pages, and use these to test your applications. You may find
that your applications won’t work with older browsers, but at
some point, you won’t be able to support all environments for
all people.

Throughout this book, I’ll be mentioning “target browsers” when

I mention how a piece of JavaScript works. For the book, my
target browsers are Firefox 3.x, Opera 9.x, Safari 3.x (including
recent builds of WebKit, the infrastructure that forms the basis
of Safari), and primarily IE8, the next version of Internet
Explorer. Most of the examples for IE should also work with IE
7.x and IE 6.x, and I’ll try to note otherwise. Here is a list of the
URLs where you can access these browsers:

You can download Firefox from http://www.mozilla.com/en-

US/firefox/.
 Safari is installed with Mac OS X, but you can also access
it for the Mac and Windows at
http://www.apple.com/safari/. Safari is based on the open
source WebKit project, which provides nightly builds for
testing at http://webkit.org/.

You can access Opera at http://www.opera.com/.

Internet Explorer is built into Windows, but you can access

the IE8 beta at http://www.microsoft.com/windows/internet-
explorer/beta/default.aspx.

JavaScript and browser development is very dynamic, and this

adds a unique challenge when writing a book on JavaScript.
Though I tried to include the most updated coverage of
JavaScript, both the JavaScript specification (the ECMAScript
specification, to be more accurate) and the browsers
themselves were undergoing significant changes. For instance,
as I was in the editing phase of this book, the ECMAScript
working group announced plans to abandon work on what was
known as JavaScript 2 and focus on a new interim specification
release, ECMAScript 3.1. However, most of the changes in the
newer ECMAScript aren’t implemented in many of the target
browsers. In the cases where I was relatively confident that the
specification introduced a functionality that will be implemented
in future browsers, I made a note, at a minimum, of upcoming
changes.

In addition, browser makers are always introducing new

versions of their tools. The target browsers used to test
examples in this book reflect the state of the browsers at the
time I wrote the book, which may not quite reflect what you’ll
find when you read the book.

However, most of the material I’ve focused on is “classic”

JavaScript, which not only is stable, but also will always form
the platform on which new changes to both browser and
scripting language are based. Most, if not all, of the examples
in this book should work in older and future browsers, as well
as the target browsers used to test the examples.

Knock on wood.
How the Book Is Organized
The book is organized into six loosely grouped sections.

Chapters 1 through 3 provide an introduction to the structure of

a JavaScript application, including the simple data types
supported in the language, as well as the basic statements and
control structures. These establish a baseline of understanding
of the language for the sections that follow.

Chapters 4 and 5 introduce the main JavaScript objects,

String, Number, and Boolean, in addition to other built-in
objects, such as Math, RegExp (for regular expressions),
Array, and the all-important Function.

Chapter 6 takes a breather from the language bits and

prepares the reader for the more complex scripting examples
later in the book by introducing the browser debugging tools,
as well as troubleshooting techniques.

Chapter 7 introduces event handling, and Chapter 8 then

expands on the subject by covering form events and
JavaScript applications with forms.

Chapters 9 through 11 delve into the more sophisticated

aspects of web page development. These chapters cover the
Browser Object Model (BOM) and the newer Document Object
Model (DOM), and show how you can create your own custom
objects. Understanding these models is essential if you wish to
create new windows, or individually access, modify, or even
dynamically create any page element. In addition, with custom
objects, you can move beyond the capabilities that are pre-built
into either language or browser. Also included in these
chapters is a look at browser cookies and some of the more
modern client-side storage techniques.

Chapters 12 through 15 finish the book by diving into the

advanced uses of JavaScript, including dynamic page effects
and Ajax, as well as a more detailed look at using XML or
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) with Ajax applications.

Though I try to follow a logical course when covering

JavaScript, sometimes I’ll need to use functionality in an
example that I won’t cover in detail until a later chapter. When
this occurs, I’ll try to make a note about which chapter includes
coverage of the more advanced functionality.
A Chapter Breakdown
The following is a detailed breakdown of this book’s contents,
including a brief description of what each chapter covers:

Chapter 1, Hello JavaScript!

Introduces JavaScript and provides a quick first look at a
small web page application. This chapter also covers some
issues associated with the use of JavaScript, including
some good programming practices recommended for
JavaScript applications.
Chapter 2, JavaScript Data Types and Variables
Provides an overview of the basic data types in JavaScript,
as well as an overview of language variables, identifiers,
and the structure of a JavaScript statement.

Chapter 3, Operators and Statements

Covers the basic statements of JavaScript, including
assignment, conditional, and control statements, as well as
the operators necessary for all three.

Chapter 4, The JavaScript Objects

Introduces the three primary built-in JavaScript objects,
including Number, String, and Boolean, as well as Date
and Math. The chapter also introduces the RegExp object,
which provides the facilities to do pattern matching.

Chapter 5, Functions
 Focuses on one other JavaScript built-in object: Function.
Function is key to creating custom objects, as well as
packaging blocks of JavaScript into reusable functionality
that can be invoked more than once in an application.

Chapter 6, Troubleshooting, Debugging, and Cross-Browser

Issues
Briefly introduces the debugging environments for the
book’s target browsers (Internet Explorer, Safari, Firefox,
and Opera), as well as covers basic cross-browser
development.

Chapter 7, Catching Events

Focuses on event handling, including both the original form
of event handling (which is still commonly used in many
applications) as well as the newer DOM-based event
handling.

Chapter 8, Forms, Form Events, and Validation

Introduces using JavaScript with forms and form fields,
including how to access each field type—such as text input
fields and drop-down lists—and validate the data once
retrieved. Form validation before the form is submitted to
the web server helps prevent an unnecessary round trip to
the server, and thus saves both time and resource use. This
chapter also briefly introduces issues related to security and
forms.

Chapter 9, Browser As Puzzle Box

 Begins to look at object models accessible from JavaScript,
starting with the Browser Object Model—a hierarchy of
objects including the window, document, forms, history,
location, and so on. Through the BOM, JavaScript can open
windows; access page elements such as forms, links, and
images; and even create some basic dynamic effects.

Chapter 10, Cookies and Other Client-Side Storage

Techniques
Covers script-based cookies, which store small pieces of
data on the client’s machine. With cookies, you can store
usernames, passwords, and other information so that users
don’t have to keep reentering data. In addition, this chapter
provides a brief overview of new and upcoming client-side
storage techniques, such as Google’s Gears and HTML5
local storage that offer capabilities beyond what a cookie
can provide. The chapter also includes a review of the
JavaScript sandbox.

Chapter 11, The DOM, or Web Page As Tree

Focuses on the DOM, a straightforward, but not trivial,
object model that provides access to all document elements
and attributes. Though the model is comprehensive and its
coverage is fairly straightforward, the chapter could present
some challenging moments for new programmers.

Chapter 12, Dynamic Pages

Provides a general introduction to dynamically altering the
web page, including modifying an individual element’s style,
as well as adding and removing elements from the page.
 Some of the effects we’ll explore in this chapter include
drag-and-drop, collapsing and expanding page sections,
visibility, and movement. An understanding of CSS is
required.

Chapter 13, Creating Custom JavaScript Objects

Demonstrates how to create custom objects in JavaScript
and covers the prototype structure that enables such
structures in the language. We’ll discuss some
programming language concepts, such as inheritance and
encapsulation, but you don’t need prior experience with
these concepts to benefit from reading this chapter.

Chapter 14, Moving Outside the Page with Ajax

Introduces Ajax, which, despite all the excitement it has
generated, is actually not a complicated use of JavaScript.
The chapter walks through a complete example, including
server-side code.
Chapter 15, Ajax Data: XML or JSON?
Expands on the example in Chapter 14 that demonstrated
Ajax with an HTML fragment by demonstrating how to
generate and process XML through an Ajax application,
and then how to do the same with JSON. We’ll cover the
advantages of both techniques, as well as when to use one
over the other.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Constant width
Used for command lines and options that should be typed
verbatim, C# keywords, and code examples

Constant width italic

Used for replaceable items, such as variables or optional
elements, within syntax lines or code
Constant width bold

Used for emphasis within program code

Italic
Used for pathnames, filenames, Internet addresses (such
as domain names and URLs), and new terms where they
are defined

NOTE

Indicates a tip, suggestion, or general note.

WARNING

Indicates a warning or caution.

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, you
may use the code in this book in your programs and
documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission
unless you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code. For
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permission.

We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution

usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For
example: “Learning JavaScript, Second Edition, by Shelley
Powers. Copyright 2009 Shelley Powers, 978-0-596-52187-5.”

If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or
the permission given here, feel free to contact us at
permissions@oreilly.com.

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How to Contact Us
We have tested and verified the information in this book to the
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Acknowledgments
I want to thank my editing and review team for helping me write
a better book. This includes technical editors Tony Ruscoe,
Jeni Tennison, Matthew Russell, and Trey Holdener, who did
an excellent job reviewing the content, as well as my long-time
editor, Simon St.Laurent. In addition, I’d like to thank the other
members of the production team: Rachel Monaghan, Sumita
Mukherji, Joe Wizda, and Jessamyn Read.
Chapter 1. Hello JavaScript!
One reason JavaScript is so popular is that it’s relatively easy
to add JavaScript to a web page. All you need to do, at a
minimum, is include an HTML script element in the page,
specify "text/javascript" for the type attribute, and add
whatever JavaScript you want:

<script type="text/javascript">
...some JavaScript
</script>

Installation is not required, nor do you have to torturously work

through any odd library path configurations. JavaScript works,
straight out of the box and in most web browsers, including the
big four: Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari. All you
need to do is add a scripting block, and you’re in business.

Traditionally, you add JavaScript blocks to the head element in

the document (delimited by opening and closing head tags),
but you also can include them in the body element—or even in
both sections. However, adding script to the body is not usually
considered a good technique, as it makes it more difficult to find
the script when you’re modifying it at a later time. The exception
to this rule is when performance is an issue, which I’ll cover in
Chapter 6. All of the examples in this book add scripting blocks
only to the web page head section.
Hello World!
Also traditionally, the first example when learning a new
programming language is known as “Hello, World”—a simple
application that prints out “Hello, World!” to the user interface,
whatever it may be. In the case of JavaScript, the user interface
is the web page. Example 1-1 shows a web page with a
JavaScript block that, using only one line of JavaScript, pops
open a small window commonly called an alert box with the
words “Hello, World!”

Example 1-1. The smallest JavaScript application: “Hello,

World!”
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0
Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-
transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"
lang="en">
<head>
<title>Hello, World!</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=utf-8" />

<script type="text/javascript">

alert("Hello, World!");

</script>
</head>
<body>
</body>
</html>
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
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704 ANGIOLOGY penis vel clitoridis, the membranous

urethra, the prostate, the fundus of the bladder, the cer\ix uteri, and
upper part of the vagina. The Common Iliu Qlands, four to six in
number, are grouped behind and on the sides of the common iliac
artery, one or two being placed below the bifurcation of the aorta, in
front of the fifth lumbar vertebra. They drain chiefly the hj-pogastric
and external iliac glands, and their efferents pass to the lateral aortic
glands. The EpiKsatric Glands {lymfhoglandida epigas(ric(F), three or
four in number, are placed alongside the lower portion of the inferior
epigastric vessels. Common iliac External iliae Then of the di The I
(Fig. 61 spondini receive 1; includinj buttock part of t TheS
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THE LYMPH GLANDS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS 705

middle and lateral sacral arteries; they receive lymphstics from the
rectum and posterior wall of the pelvis. The efTerents of the
hypogastric group end in the common iliac glands. The Lnmbar
Glands {lymyhoglaTiduhB lumbaUg) are very numerous, and consist
of right and left lateral aortic, preaortic, and retroaortic groups. The
right lateral aortic glands are situated partly in front of the inferior
vena cava, near the termination of the renal vein, and partly behind
it on the origin of the Psoas major, and on the right cms of the
diaphragm. The left lateral aortic (lands form a chain on the left side
of the abdominal aorta in front of the origin of the Psoas major and
left cms of the diaphragm. The glands on either side receive (a) the
efferents of the common iliac glands, (6) the lymphatics from the
testis in the male and from the ovary, uterine tube, and body of the
uterus in the timplutlie/rxr female; (c) the lymphatics from the
kidney and suprarenal gland; and (d) the lymphatics draining the
lateral abdominal muscles and accompanying the lumbar veins. Most
of the efferent vessels of the lateral aortic glands converge to form
the rijht and left lumbar tmnkg which join the cistema chyli, but
some enter the pre- and retroaortic glands, and others pierce the
crura of the diaphragm to join the lower end of the thoracic duct.
The preaortic {lands lie in front of the aorta, and may be divided into
celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric groups, arranged
around the origins of the corresponding arteries. They receive a few
vessels from the lateral aortic glands, but their principal afferents are
derived from the viscera supplied by the three arteries with which
they are associated. Some of their efferents pass to the retroaortic
glands, but the majority unite to form the Intestinal trunk, which
enters the cistema chyli. The retroatntlc glands are placed
 706 ANGIOLOGY below the cisterna ehyli, on the hodies of
the third and fourth lumbar vertebre. They receive lymphatic trunks
from the lateral and preaortic glands, while their efferents end in the
cisterna chyli. The I«ymphatic Vessels of the Abdomen and Pelvis.
The lymphatic vessels of the walls of the abdomen and pelvis may
be divided into two sets, superficial and deep. The superficial vessels
follow the course of the superficial bloodvessels and converge to thje
superficial inguinal glands; those derived from the integument of the
front of the abdomen below the umbilicus follow the course of the
superficial epigastric vessels, and those from the sides of the lumbar
part of the abdominal wall pass along the crest of the ilium, with the
superficial iliac circumflex vessels. The superficial lymphatic vessels
of the gluteal region turn horizontally aroimd the buttock, and join
the superficial inguinal and subinguinal glands. The deep vessels run
alongside the principal bloodvessels. Those of the parietes of the
pelvis, which accompany the superior and inferior gluteal, and
obturator vessels, follow the course of the hypogastric artery, and
ultimately join the lateral aortic glands. Lsrmphatic Vessels of the
Perineum and External Genitals. — ^The lymphatic vessels of the
perineum, of the integument of the penis, and of the scrotum (or
vulva), follow the course of the external pudendal vessels, and end
in the superficial inguinal and subinguinal glands. Those of the glans
penis vel clitoridis terminate partly in the deep subinguinal glands
and partly in the external iliac glands. The visceral glands are
associated with the branches of the celiac, su{>erior and inferior
mesenteric arteries. Those related to the branches of the celiac
artery form three sets, gastric, hepatic, and pancreaticolienal. The
Gastric Glands (Figs. 613, 614) consist of two sets, superior and
inferior. The Superior Gastric Olandtt (lymphoglandukB gastriccB
superiores) accompany the left gastric artery and are divisible into
three groups, viz. : (a) upper, on the stem of the artery; (6) lower,
accompanying the descending branches of the arterj' along the
cardiac half of the lesser curvature of the stomach, between the two
layers of the lesser omentum; and (c) paracardial outlying members
of the gastric glands, disposed in a manner comparable to a chain of
beads around the neck of the stomach (Jamieson and Dobson^).
They receive their aflFerents f rom the stomach; their efferents pass
to the celiac group of preaortic glands. The Inferior Gastric Glands
(lyrrvphoglandul/B gastricce inferiores; right gastroepiploic gland) y
four to seven in number, lie between the two layers of the greater
omentum along the pyloric half of the greater curvature of the
stomach. The Hepatic Glands {lymphoglandvlcs hepatica) (Fig. 613),
consist of the following groups: (a) hepatic, on the stem of the
hepatic artery, and extending upward along the common bile duct,
between the two layers of the lesser omentum, as far as the porta
hepatis; the cystic gland, a member of this group, is placed near the
neck of the gall-bladder; (6) subpyloric, four or five in number, in
close relation to the bifurcation of the gastroduodenal artery, in the
angle between the superior and descending parts of the duodenum;
an outlying member of this group is sometimes found above the
duodeniun on the right gastric (pyloric) artery. The glands of the
hepatic chain receive afferents from the stomach, duodenum, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas; their eflFerents join the celiac group of
preaortic glands. The Pancreaticolienal Glands (lymphoglandulce
pancreaticolienales; splenic glands) (Fig. 614) accompany the lienal
(splenic) artery, and are situated in relation to the posterior surface
and upper border of the pancreas; one or two members 1 Lancet,
April 20 and 27, 1907.
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THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

707 Paracardial gland» Inferior gastric glands Fio. elS.— I^mphidos
of (tomvih. ets. (Jm Fn. 814. — Lymphstiea of Monuch, etc. Tbs
itoiiudi hu been tuined upward. (Juniemn u
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ANGIOLOGY of this group are found in the gastrolieDal

ligament (Jamieson and Dobson, op. at.). Their afferents are derived
from the stomach, spleen, and pancreas, their efferenta join the
celiac group of preaortic glands. Oman VeTmiform pnxae I. BIS.—
Tbe lymphatioi o[ ssoDm ftod varmilorm ptoeHi tmia tha frimt.
(Junlsna ud Dotmo.) Yermijorm ■procat Cecum Pia. SIS.— Tbe
lyoiphatici of mcuin aod Tennirorni prooM from behlDd. (Junisno lad
Dvbmoa.)
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THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS OF ABDOMEN AND PELVIS 709

llie superior mesenteric glands may be divided into three principal
groups: munteiic. Ileocolic, and mosocolic. The Mesenteric Olaods
(lymphoglanduloE meaenterUxe) lie between the iayent of the
mesentery. They vary from one hundred to one hundred and fifty in
number, and may be grouped into three sets, viz. : one lying close to
the wall of the small iDtestine, among the terminal twigs of the
superior mesenteric artery; a second, io relation to the loops and
primary branches of the vessels; and a third along the trunk of the
artery. The Deocolic glands (Figs. 615, 616), from ten to twenty in
number, form a chain around the ileocolic artery, but show a
tendency to subdivision into two groups, one near the duodenum
and another on the lower part of the trunk of the artery. Fio, 017. —
l^mi>hAtica of colon. (Jvoi^aon >LDd Dobaoo.) Where the vessel
divides into its terminal branches the chain is broken up into several
groups, viz.: (a) ileal, in relation to the ileal branch of the artery; (b)
anterior ileocolic, usually of three glands, in the ileocolic fold, near
the wall of the cecum; (c) posterior ileocolic, mostly placed in the
angle between the ileum and the colon, but partly lying behind the
cecum at its junction with the ascending colon; (d) a single gland,
between the layers of the mesenteriole of the vermlfonn process; (e)
right colic, along the medial side of the ascending colon.
TheHesocolic Qlanda {lym-phoglandvlamesocoliciE) are numerous,
and lie between the layers of the transverse mesocolon, in close
relation to the transverse colon ; they are best developed in the
neighborhood of the right and left colic flexures. One or two small
glands are occasionally seen along the trunk of the right colic artery
and others are found in relation to the trunk and branches of the
middle colic artery.
 710 ANGIOLOGY The superior mesenteric glands receive
afferents from the jejunum, ileum, cecum, vermiform process, and
the ascending and transverse parts of the colon; their efferents pass
to the preaortic glands. The inferior mesenteric glands (Fig. 617)
consist of: (a) small glands on the branches of the left colic and
sigmoid arteries; (b) a group in the sigmoid mesocolon, around the
superior hemorrhoidal artery; and (c) a pararectal group in contact
with the muscular coat of the rectum. They drain the descending
iliac and sigmoid parts of the colon and the upper part of the
rectum; their efferents pass to the preaortic glands. The Lymphatic
Vessels of the Abdominal and Pelvic Viscera. The lymphatic vessels
of the abdominal and pelvic viscera consist of (1) those of the
subdiaphragmatic portion of the digestive tube and its associatcki
glands, the liver and pancreas; (2) those of the spleen and
suprarenal glands; (3) those of the urinary organs; (4) those of the
reproductive organs. . 4, fte lymphatic vessels of the
subdiaphragmatic portion of the digestive tabe are situated partly in
the mucous membrane and partly in the seromuscular eoats, but as
the former system drains into the latter, the two may be considered
as one. The Lsrmphatic Vessels of the Stomach (Figs. 613, 614) are
continuous at the cardiac orifice with those of the esophagus, and at
the pylorus w^ith those of the duodenum. They mainly follow the
bloodvessels, and may be arranged in four sets. Those of the first
set accompany the branches of the left gastric arter>% receiving
tributaries from a large area on either surface of the stomach, and
terminate in the superior gastric glands. Those of the second set
drain the fundus and body of the stomach on the left of a line drawn
vertically from the esophagus; they accompany, more or less closely,
the short gastric and left gastroepiploic arteries, and end in the
pancreaticolienal glands. The vessels of the third set drain the right
portion of the greater curvature as far as the pyloric portion, and
end in the inferior gastric glands, the efferents of which pass to the
subpyloric group. Those of the fourth set drain the pyloric portion
and pass to the hepatic and subpyloric glands, and to the superior
gastric glands. The Lymphatic Vessels of the Duodenum consist of
an anterior and a posterior set, which open into a series of small
pancreaticoduodenal glandtt on the anterior and posterior aspects of
the groove between the head of the pancreas and the duodenum.
The eflFerents of these glands run in two directions, upward to the
hepatic glands and downward to the preaortic glands around the
origin of the sui>erior mesenteric artery. The Lsrmphatic Vessels of
the Jejunum and Ileum are termed lacteals, from the milk-white fluid
they contain during intestinal digestion. They run between the layers
of the mesentery and enter the mesenteric glands, the eflFerents of
which end in the preaortic glands. The Lsrmphatic Vessels of the
Vermiform Process and Cecum (Figs. 615, 616) are numerous, since
in the wall of this process there is a large amount of adenoid tissue.
From the body and tail of the vermiform process eight to fifteen
vessels ascend between the layers of the mesenteriole, one or two
being interrupted in the gland which lies between the layers of this
peritoneal fold. They unite to form three or four vessels, which end
partly in the lower and partly in the upper glands of the ileocolic
chain. The vessels from the root of the vermiform process and from
the cecum consist of an anterior and a posterior group. The*
anterior vessels pass in front of the cecum, and end in the anterior
ileocolic glands and in the upper and lower glands of the ileocolic
chain; the posterior vessels ascend over the back of the cecum and
terminate in the posterior ileocolic glands and in the lower glands of
the ileocolic chain.
 THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC
VISCERA 711 I^ymphatic Vessels of the Colon (Fig. 617). — ^The
lymphatic vessels of the ascending and transverse parts of the colon
finally end in the mesenteric glands, after traversing the right colic
and mesocolic glands. Those of the descending and iliac sigmoid
parts of the colon are interrupted by the small glands on the
branches of the left colic and sigmoid arteries, and ultimately end in
the preaortic glands around the origin of the inferior mesenteric
artery. Lymphatic Vessels of the Anus, Anal Canal, and Rectum. —
The lymphatics from the anus pass forward and end with those of
the integument of the perineum and scrotum in the superficial
inguinal glands; those from the anal canal accompany the middle
and inferior hemorrhoidal arteries, and end in the hypogastric
glands; while the vessels from the rectum traverse the pararectal
glands and pass to those in the sigmoid mesocolon; the efferents of
the latter terminate in the preaortic glands around the origin of the
inferior mesenteric artery. The Lymphatic Vessels of the Liver are
divisible into two sets, superficial and deep. The former arise in the
subperitoneal areolar tissue over the entire surface of the J organ,
and may be grouped into (a) those on the convex siuf ace, (6) those
on the inferior surface. (a) On the convex surface: The vessels from
the back part of this surface reach their terminal glands by three
diflFerent routes; the vessels of the middle set, five or six in number,
pass through the vena-caval foramen in the diaphragm and end in
one or two glands which are situated around the terminal part of the
inferior vena cava; a few vessels from the left side pass backward
toward the esophageal hiatus, and terminate in the paracardial
group of superior gastric glands; the vessels from the right side, one
or two in niunber, run on the abdominal surface of the diaphragm,
and, after crossing its right cms, end in the preaortic glands which
surround the origin of the celiac artery. From the portions of the
right and left lobes adjacent to the falciform ligament, the lymphatic
vessels converge to form two trunks, one of which accompanies the
inferior vena cava through the diaphragm, and ends in the glands
around the terminal part of this vessel; the other runs downward
and forward, and, turning around the anterior sharp margin of the
liver, accompanies the upper part of the ligamentmn teres, and ends
in the upper hepatic glands. From the anterior surface a few
additional vessels turn around the anterior sharp margin to reach the
upper hepatic glands. (fe) On the inferior surface: The vessels from
this surface mostly converge to the porta hepatis, and accompany
the deep lymphatics, emerging from the porta to the hepatic glands;
one or two from the posterior parts of the right and caudate lobes
accompany the inferior vena cava through the diaphragm, and end
in the glands around the terminal part of this vein. The deep
lymphatics converge to ascending and descending trunks. The
ascending trunks accompany the hepatic veins and pass through the
diaphragm to end in the glands around the terminal part of the
inferior vena cava. The descending trunks emerge from the porta
hepatis, and.end in the hepatic glands. The Ljrmphatic Vessels of the
Qall-bladder pass to the hepatic glands in the porta hepatis; those of
the common bile duct to the hepatic glands alongside the duct j and
to the upper pancreaticoduodenal glands. The Lymphatic Hbssels of
the Pancreas follow the course of its bloodvessels. Most of them
enter the pancreaticolienal glands, but some end in the pancreatico-
V duodenal glands, and others in the preaortic glands near the origin
of the superior mesenteric artery. 2. The Ijrmphatic ufififilS of IbV
spleen and suprarenal glands. The Lymphatic Vessels of the Spleen,
both superficial and deep, pass to the pancreaticolienal glands. "^
The Lymphatic Vessels of th^ Suprarenal Glands usually accompany
the suprarenal veins, and end in the lateral aortic glands;
occasionally some of them
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712 ANGIOLOGY pierce the crura of the diaphragm and end

in the glands of the posterior mediae tinum. 3. The lymphatie
vessels of the urinary organs. The Lympbatic Vessels of the Kidney
form three plexuses: one in the subst&nce of the kidney, a second
beneath its fibrous capsule, and a third in the penDephric fat; the
second and third communicate freely with each other. The vessels
from the plexus in the kidney substance converge to form four or
five trunks which issue at the hilum. Here they are joined by vessels
from the plexus under tbe capsule, and] following the course of the
renal vein, end in the lateral aortic glands. The perinephric plexus is
drained directly into the upper lateral aortic glands. The Lymphatic
Vessels of the Ureter run in different directions. Those from its upper
portion end partly in the efferent vessels of the kidney and partly in
the lateral aortic glands; those from the portion immediately above
the brim of the lesser pelvis are drained into the common iliac
glands; while the vessels from the intrapelvic portion of the tube
either join the efferests from tbe bladder, or end in tbe hypogastric
glands. Lynyphatiu ( frombladdtr \ Fia. fllS.— L/mphada ol tlu
bladdar. (Cunk ud MiniUe.) The Lymphatic Vessels of the Bladder
(Fig. 618) originate in two plexuses, an intra- and an extramuscular,
it being generally admitted that the mucous membrane is devoid of
lymphatics.' The efferent vessels are arranged in two groups, one
from the anterior and another from the posterior surface of the
bladder. The vessels from the arUerior surface pass to the external
iliac glands, but in their course minute glands are situated. These
minute glands are arranged in two groups, an anterioi resical, in
front of the bladder, and a lateral Tesical, in relation to the lateral
umbilical ligament. The vessels from the posterior surface pass to
the hypogastric, external, and common iliac glands; those draining
tbe upper part of this surface traversiS the lateral vesical glands.. .J '
SoiBe nuthoriliM maititaiii Ihal a pleias of lympfaatiiT vesnb docs
ekist id tli« mucaui membnoa o[ (ba bUdiW
{nmMiltMMeciDeop«rBioired»VoiinuriDUna.puJ. Albarnn, Paria.
IWNI.
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THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC

VISCERA 713 The LymplMtic Teasels ot the Prostate (Fig. 619)
terminate chiefly in the hypogastric and sacral glands, but one trunk
from the posterior surface ends in the exter- , nal iliac glands, and
another from the anterior surface joins the vessels which drain! the
membranous part of the urethra. _i Ljmphatic Vessels ot the Urethra.
— The lymphatics of the cavernous portion of the
urethra.accompany those of the glans penis, and terminate with
them in the deep subin^nal and external iliac glands. Those of the
membraruma and proaiatic portions, and those of the whole urethra
in the female, pass to the hypogastric glands. Fia. B19. —
Lymphatic* of tiie pragtute. tCua6o and Mu^iUe.) (4) The iTmpbatie
Tessels of the reprodnctiTe organs. The IiTmpbatie Tessels of the
Testes consist of two sets, superficial and deep, the former
commencing on the surface of the tunica vaginalis, the latter in the
epididymis and body of the testis. They form from four to eight
collecting trunks which ascend with the spermatic veins in the
spermatic cord and along the front of the Psoas major to the level
where the spermatic vessels cross the ureter and end in the lateral
and preaortic groups of lumbar glands.' The lomphatic Vessels of the
Ductus Deferens pass, to the external iliac gland?! those of the
vesicula sendnales partly to the hypogastric and partly to the
extemall glands. -1 ' "The Lymphatinol tbe Ttaticis," by JumiesoD uicl
DobKn, Lancet, FcbniBcy lit. 1900.
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714 ANGIOWGY The Lsrmphatic TmmIs of the Orar; are

similar to those of the testis, and ascend with the ovarian artery to
the lateral and preaortic glands. The Lymi^attc Tessels of the
Uterine Tabe pass partly with those of the ovarj' and partly with
those of the uterus. The Lymphatic TesBels of the Utenu (Fig. 620)
consist of two sets, superficial and deep, the former being placed
beneath the peritoneum, the latter in the substance of the organ.
The lymphatics of the cervix uteri run in three directioai: transversely
to the external iliac glands, postero-Iaterally to the hypogastric
glands, and posteriori;' to the common iliac glands. The majority of
the vessels of the body tdt infronl ' aacnd pramreniiloglandi •al
promontory Nttwork in laUrai Fia. SZO.— Lvmptaaticgof tbeulsnu.
(CuD«n ud MmniOs.) and fundus of the uterus pass lateralward in
the broad ligaments, and are continued up with the ovarian vessels
to the lateral and preaortic glands; a few, however, run to the
external iliac glands, and one or two to the superficial inguinal
glands. In the unimpregnated uterus the lymphatic vessels are very
small, but during gestation they are greatly enlarged. The Lymphatic
Vessels of the Tagina are carried in three directions: those of the
upper part of the vagina to the external iliac glands, those of the
middle part to the hypogastric glands, and those of the lower part to
the common iliac glands. On the course of the vessels from the
middle and lower parts small glands are situated. Some lymphatic
vessels from the lower part of the vagina join those of the vulva and
pass to the superficial inguinal glands. The lymphatics of the vagina
anastomose with those of the cervix uteri, vulva, and rectum, but
not with those of the bladder.
 THE LYMPHATICS OF THE THORAX 715 THE LYMPHATICS
OF THE THORAX. The lymph glands of the thorax may be divided
into parietal and visceral — the former being situated in the thoracic
wall, the latter in relation to theviscera. The iMbrietal lymph glands
include the sternal, intercostal, and diaphragmatic glands. 1. The
Sternal Glands (lymphoglandulcB stemalea; internal mammary
glands) are placed at the anterior ends of the intercostal spaces, by
the side of the internal mammary artery. They derive aflerents from
the mamma, from the deeper structures of the anterior abdominal
wall above the level of the umbilicus, from the upper surface of the
liver through a small group of glands which lie behind the xiphoid
process, and from the deeper parts of the anterior portion of the
thoracic wall. Their eflerents usually unite to form a single trunk on
either side; this may open directly into the junction of the internal
jugular and subclavian veins, or that of the right side may join the
right subclavian tnmk, and that of the left the thoracic duct. 2. The
Intercostal Glands (lymphoglandidcB intercosiales) occupy the
posterior parts of the intercostal spaces, in relation to the intercostal
vessels. They receive the deep lymphatics from the postero- lateral
aspect of the chest; some of these vessels are interrupted by small
lateral intercostal glands. The eflerents of the glands in the lower
four or five spaces unite to form a trunk, which descends and opens
either into the cisterna chyli or into the conmiencement of the
thoracic duct. The eflerents of the glands in the upper spaces of the
left side end in the thoracic duct; those of the corresponding right
spaces, in the right lymphatic duct. 3. The Diaphragmatic Glands lie
on the thoracic aspect of the diaphragm, and consist of three sets,
anterior, middle, and posterior. The anterior set comprises (a) two or
three small glands behind the base of the xiphoid process, which
receive afferents from the convex surface of the liver, and (6) one or
two glands on either side near the junction of the seventh rib with
its cartilage, which receive lymphatic vessels from the front part of
the diaphri^gm. The efferent vessels of the anterior set pass to the
sternal glands. The middle set. consists of two or three glands on
either side close to where the phrenic nerves enter the diaphragm.
On the right side some of the glands of this group lie within the
fibrou&sac of the pericardium, on the front of the termination of the
inferior vena cava. The afferents of this set are derived from the
middle part of the diaphragm, those on the right side also receiving
afferents from the convex surface of the liver. Their efferents pass to
the posterior mediastinal glands. The posterior set consists of a few
glands situated on the back of the crura of the diaphragm, and
connected on the one hand with the lumbar glands and on the other
with the posterior mediastinal glands. The superfldal lymphatic
vessels of the thoracic wall ramify beneath the skin and converge to
the axillary glands. Those over the Trapezius and Latissimus dorsi
run forward and unite to form about ten or twelve trunks which end
in the subscapular group. Those over the pectoral region, including
the vessels from the skin covering the peripheral part of the
mamma, run backward, and those over the Serratus anterior
upward, to the pectoral group. Others near the lateral margin of the
sternum pass inward between the rib cartilages and end in the
sternal glands, while the vessels of opposite sides anastomose
across the front of the sternum. A few vessels from the upper part of
the pectoral region ascend over the clavicle to the supraclavicular
group of cervical glands. The Lymphatic Vesseb of the Mamma
originate in a plexus in the interlobular spaces and on the walls of
the galactophorous ducts. Those from the central part of the gland
pass to an intricate plexus situated beneath the areola, a plexus
which receives also the l>Tnphatics from the skin over the central
part of the gland and
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716 ANGIOLOGY those from the areola and nipple. Its

efferents are collected into two trunks vhicb pass to the pectoral
group of axillary glands. The vessels which drain the medial part of
the mamma pierce the thoracic wail and end in the sternal glands,
while a vessel has occasionally been seen to emerge from the upper
part of the mamma and, piercing the Pectoralis major, terminate in
the subclavicular glands (Fig. 607). Pio. All— Dhp lymph nodsa aad
vcaaela o[ the (harm and abdomen (diairamnutic). Affosat TaselB
are The deep lymphatic vessels of the thoracic mil (Fig. 621) consist
of: 1. The lymphatics of the muscles which lie on the ribs: most of
these end in the axillary glands, but some from the Pectoralis major
pass to the sternal glands. 2. The intercostal vessels which drain the
Intercostales and parietal pleura. Those draining the Intercostales
externi run backward and, after receiving the vessels
 THE LYMPHATICS OF THE THORAX 717 which accompany
the posterior branches of the intercostal arteries, end in the
intercostal glands. Those of the Intercostales interni and parietal
pleura consist of a single trunk in each space. These trunks run
forward in the subpleural tissue and the upper six open separately
into the sternal glands or into the vessels which unite them; those of
the lower spaces unite to form a single trunk which terminates in the
lowest of the sternal glands. 3. The lymphatic vesseb of the
cliai>hra(j:m, which form two plexuses, one on its thoracic and
another on its abdominal surface. These plexuses anastomose freely
with each other, and are best marked on the parts covered
respectively by the pleurae and peritoneum. That on the thoracic
surface conmiunicates with the lymphatics of the costal and
mediastinal parts of the pleura, and its efferents consist of three
groups : (a) anterior, passing to the gland which lie near the junction
of the seventh rib with its cartilage; (b) middle, to the glands on the
esophagus and to those around the termination of the inferior vena
cava; and (c) posterior, to the glands which surround the aorta at
the point where this vessel leaves the thoracic cavity. The plexus on
the abdominal surface is composed of fine vessels, and anastomoses
with the lymphatics of the liver and, at the periphery of the
diaphragm, with those of the subperitoneal tissue. The efferents
from the right half of this plexus terminate partly in a group of
glands on the trunk of the corresponding inferior phrenic artery,
while others end in the right lateral aortic glands. Those from the
left half of the plexus pass to the pre- and lateral aortic glands and
to the glands on the terminal portion of the esophagus. The Yisceral
Ijrinph glands 'consist of three groups, viz. : anterior mediastinal,
posterior mediastinal, and tracheobronchial. The Anterior Mediastinal
Glands (lymphoglandtUce mediasiinales anteriores) are placed in the
anterior part of the superior mediastinal cavity, in front of the aortic
arch and in relation to the innominate veins and the large arterial
trunks which arise from the aortic arch. They receive afferents from
the thymus and pericardium, and from the sternal glands; their
efferents unite with those of the tracheobronchial glands, to form
the right and left bronchomediastinal trunks. The Posterior
Mediastinal Glands {lymphoglandulcB mediastinales posteriores) lie
behind the pericardium in relation to the esophagus and descending
thoracic aorta. Their afferents are derived from the esophagus, the
posterior part of the pericardium, the diaphragm, and the convex
surface of the liver. Their efferents mostly end in the thoracic duct,
but some join the tracheobronchial glands. The Tracheobronchial
Glands (Fig. 622) form four main groups: (a) tracheal, on either side
of the trachea; (6) bronchial, in the angles between the lower part
of the trachea and bronchi and in the angle between the two
bronchi; (c) bronchopolmonary, in the hilus of each lung; and (d)
pulmonary, in the lung substance, on the larger branches of the
bronchi. The afferents of the tracheobronchial glands drain the lungs
and bronchi, the thoracic part of the trachea and the heart; some of
the efferents of the posterior mediastinal glands also end in this
group. Their efferent vessels ascend upon the trachea and unite with
efferents of the internal mammary and anterior mediastinal glands to
form the right and left bronchomediastinal trunks. The right
bronchomediastinal trunk may join the right Hmphatic duct, and the
left the thoracic duct, but more frequently they open independently
of these ducts into the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian
veins of their own side. In all town dwellers there are continually
being swept into these glands from the bronchi and alveoli large
quantities of the dust and black carbonaceous pigment that are so
freely inhaled in cities. At first the glands are moderately enlarged,
firm, Inky black, and gritty on section; later they enlarge still further,
often becoming fibrous from the irritation set up by the minute
foreign bodies with which they are cranuned, and may break down
into a soft slimy inass or may calcify.
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718 ANOIOLOGY The lymphatie Teassls of the thoracic

viscera comprise those of the lietrt and perieardium, longs and
pleura, thymus, and esophaensThe Lymphatic Tessals of the Heart
consist of two plexuses: (a) deep, imme^ately under the
endocardium; and (6) superficial; subjacent to the visceral
perieardium. The deep plexus opens into the superficial, the
efferents of which form right and left collecting trunks. The left
trunks, two or three in number, ascend in the auterioT longitudinal
sulcus, receiving, in their course, vessels from both ventricles. On
reaching the coronary sulcus they are joined by a large trunk from
the diaphragmatic surface of the heart, and then unite to form a
single vessel which ascends between the pulmonary artery and the
left atrium and ends in one of the tracheobronctiial L. fwurrenl nerve
B. rtcmreni ntrve Fia. SSI. — Ttaa truhHibnmchial lymph akodi.
(From a Gpire de*icnsd by M. HdW.) glands. The right trunk receives
its afferents from the right atrium and from the right border and
diaphragmatic surface of the right ventricle. It ascends in the
posterior longitudinal sulcus and then runs forward in the coronary
sulcus, and passes up behind the pulmonary artery, to end in one of
the tracheobronchial glands. The Lymphatic Vessels ot the Lnngs
originate in two plexuses, a superficial and a deep. The superficial
plexus is placed beneath the pulmonary pleura. The deep
accompanies the branches of the pulmonary vessels and the
ramifications of the bronchi. In the case of the largerbronchi the
deep plexus consists of two net-works — one, submucous, beneath
the mucous membrane, and another, peribronchial, outside the walls
of the bronchi. In the smaller bronchi there is but a single ple:iu^.
which extends as far as the bronchioles, but fails to reafb the alveoli,
in the walls
 THE LYMPHATICS OF THE THORAX 719 of which there are
no traces of lymphatic vessels. The superficial efferents turn around
the borders of the lungs and the margins of their fissures, and
converge to end in some glands situated at the hilus; the deep
efferents are conducted to the hilus along the pulmonary vessels and
bronchi, and end in the tracheobronchial glands. Little or no
anastomosis occurs between the superficial and deep lymphatics of
the lungs, except in the region of the hilus. The Lymphatic Vesseb of
the Pleura consist of two sets — one in the visceral and another in
the parietal part of the membrane. Those of the visceral pleura drain
into the superficial efferents of the lung, while the lymphatics of the
parietal pleura have three modes of ending, viz.: (a) those of the
costal portion join the lymphatics of the Intercostales interni and so
reach the sternal glands; (6) those of the diaphragmatic part are
drained by the efferents of the diaphragm; while (c) those of the
mediastinal portion terminate in the posterior mediastinal glands.
The Lymphatic Vessels of the Thsrmus end in the anterior
mediastinal, tracheobronchial, and sternal glands. The Lymphatic
Vesseb of the Esophagus form a plexus around that tube, and the
collecting vessels from the plexus drain into the posterior mediastinal
glands. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Barteub, p. : Das Lymphgefasssystem,
Bardeleben's Handbuch der Anatomie des Menscben, 1909. Clabk, E.
R.: Observations on Living, Growing Lymphatics in the Tail of the
Frog Larva, Anat. Rec., 1909, iii. Huntington, G.: The Genetic
Principles of the Development of the Systemic Lymphatic Vessels in
the Mammalian Embryo, Anat. Rec, 1910, iv. Huntington and
McClure: The Anatomy and Development of the Jugular Lymph Sacs
in the Domestic Cat, Am. Jour. Anat., 1910, x. Sappy: Description et
Iconographie des Vaisseaux Lymphatiques, Paris, 1885. Sabin, F. R.:
The Development of the Lymphatic System, Keibel and Mall, Manual
of Human Embryology, 1912. Teichman: Das Saugadermsystem,
Leipzig, 1861.
 NEUROLOGY. THE Nenroos System is the most complicated
and highly organized of the various systems which make up the
human body. It is the njechanism concerned with the correlation and
integration of various bodily processes and the reactions and
adjustments of the organism to its environment. In addition the
cerebral cortex is concerned with conscious life. It may be divided
into two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous system
consists of the encephalon or brain, contained within the cranium,
and the medulla spinalis or spinal cord, lodged in the vertebral canal;
the two portions are continuous with one another at the level of the
upper border of the atlas vertebra. The peripheral nervous system
consists of a series of nerves by which the central nervous system is
connected with the various tissues of the body. For descriptive
purposes these nerves may be arranged in two groups,
cerebrospinal and ssrmpathetic, the arrangement, however, being an
arbitrary one, since the two groups are intimately connected and
closely intermingled. Both the cerebrospinal and sympathetic nerves
have nuclei of origin (the somatic efferent and sympathetic efferent)
as well as nuclei of termination (somatic afferent and sympathetic
afferent) in the central nervous system. The cerebrospinal nerves
are forty-three in number on either side — ^twelve cranial, attached
to the brain, and thirty-one spinal, to the medulla spinalis. They are
associated with the functions of the special and general senses and
with the voluntary movements of the body. The sympathetic nerves
transmit the impulses which regulate the movements of the viscera,
determine the caliber of the bloodvessels, and control the
phenomena of secretion. In relation with them are two rows of
central ganglia, situated one on either side of the middle line in front
of the vertebral column; these ganglia are intimately connected with
the medulla spinalis and the spinal nerves, and are also joined to
each other by vertical strands of nerve fibers so as to constitute a
pair of knotted cords, the sympathetic tronks, which reach from the
base of the skull to the coccyx. The sympathetic nerves issuing from
the ganglia form three great prevertebral plexuses which supply the
thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic viscera; in relation to the walls of
these viscera intricate nerve plexuses and numerous peripheral
ganglia are found. STRUCTUBE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The
nervous tissues are composed of nerve cells and their various
processes, together with a supporting tissue called neuroglia, which,
however, is found only in the brain and medulla spinalis. Certain long
processes of the nerve cells are of special importance, and it is
convenient to consider them apart from the cells; they are known as
nerve fibers. To the naked eye a difference is obvious between
certain portions of the brain and medulla spinaKs, viz., the gray
substance and the white substance. The gray substance is largely
composed of nerve cells, while the white substance contains only
their long processes, the nerve fibers. It is in the former that
nervous impressions are received, stored, and transformed into
efferent impulses, and by the latter 46 (721)
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722 NEUROLOGY tbat they are conducted. Hence the gray

substance forms the essential constituent of all the ganglionic
centers, both those in the isolated ganglia and those aggregated in
the brain and medulla spinalis; while the white substance forms the
bulk of the commissural portions of the nerve centers and the
peripheral nerves, ■ Neuroglia.- — Neuroglia, the peculiar ground-
substance-in which are imbedded the true nervous constituents of
^e brain and medulla spinalis, consists of cells and fibers. Some of
the cells are stellate in shape, with ill-defined cell body, and their
fine processes become neuroglia fibers, which extend radially and
unbranehed (Fig. 623, B) among the nerve cells and fibers which
they aid in supporting. Other cells give off fibers which branch
repeatedly (Fig. 623, A). Some of the fibers start from the epithelial
cells lining the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the
medulla spinalis, and pass through the nervous tissue, branching
repeatedly to end in slight enlargements on the pia mater. Thus,
neuroglia is evidently a connective tissue in function but is not so in
development; it is ectodermal in origin, whereas all connective
tissues are mesodermal. 1. 023, — ^NsurocIlK «11a of Neire Cells
(Fig. 624) . — Nerve cells are largely aggregated in the gray
substance of the brain and medulla spinalis, but smaller collections
of these cells also fonu the swellings, called ganglia, seen on many
nerves. These latter are found chlefiy upon the spina! and cranial
nerve roots and in connection with the sympathetic nerves. The
nerve cells vary in shape and size, and have one or more processes.
They may be divided for purposes of description into three groups,
according to the number of processes which they possess: (1)
Dnlpolar cells, which are found in the spinal ganglia; the single
process, after a short course, divides in a T-shaped . manner (Fig.
624, £). (2) Bipolar cells, also found in. the spinal ganglia (Fig. 625),
when the cells are in an embryonic condition. They are best
demonstrated in the spinal ganglia of fish. Sometimes the processes
come off from opposite poles of the cell, and the cell then assumes a
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