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About the Authors
Frances Sienkiewicz Sizer
M.S., R.D.N., F.A.N.D., attended Florida State University where, in 1980, To my family, near
she received her B.S., and in 1982 her M.S., in nutrition. She is certified as a and far, and especially to
charter Fellow of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. She is a founding Joan Spencer Webb.
member and vice president of Nutrition and Health Associates, an informa- –Fran
tion and resource center in Tallahassee, Florida, that maintains an ongoing
bibliographic database tracking research in more than 1,000 topic areas of
nutrition. Her textbooks include Life Choices: Health Concepts and Strategies;
Making Life Choices; The Fitness Triad: Motivation, Training, and Nutrition; and
others. She also authored Nutrition Interactive, an instructional college-level
nutrition CD-ROM that pioneered the animation of nutrition concepts in
college classrooms. She consults with an advisory board of professors from
around the nation, and attends workshops on innovations in nutrition educa-
tion. She has lectured at universities and at national and regional confer-
ences and supports local hunger and homelessness relief organizations in her
community.

Eleanor Noss Whitney

Ph.D., received her B.A. in biology from Radcliffe College in 1960 and her To Max, Zoey, Emily, Rebecca,
Ph.D. in biology from Washington University, St. Louis, in 1970. Formerly Kalijah, and Duchess with
on the faculty at Florida State University and a dietitian registered with the love.
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, she now devotes full time to research, –Ellie
writing, and consulting in nutrition, health, and environmental issues. Her
earlier publications include articles in Science, Genetics, and other journals.
Her textbooks include Understanding Nutrition, Understanding Normal and
­Clinical Nutrition, Nutrition and Diet Therapy, and Essential Life Choices for
college students and Making Life Choices for high school students. Her most
intense interests presently include energy conservation, solar energy uses,
alternatively fueled vehicles, and ecosystem restoration. She is an activist
who volunteers full-time for the Citizens Climate Lobby.

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Brief Contents
Preface xvii

1 Food Choices and Human Health 1

2 Nutrition Tools—Standards and

Guidelines 31

3 The Remarkable Body 70

4 The Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, Glycogen,

and Fiber 113

5 The Lipids: Fats, Oils, Phospholipids,

and Sterols 160

6 The Proteins and Amino Acids 201

7 The Vitamins 240

8 Water and Minerals 292

9 Energy Balance and Healthy Body

Weight 343

10 Performance Nutrition 389

11 Diet and Health 428
12 Food Safety and Food Technology 470
13 Life Cycle Nutrition: Mother and Infant 516

14 Child, Teen, and Older Adult 558

15 Hunger and the Future of Food 599
Appendixes A-1
Glossary GL-1
Index IN-1

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents
Preface xvii CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Reading Nutrition

1
News 19
Chapter Taking Stock and Setting Goals 20
Food Choices and Human Start Now 20
Health 1 FOOD FEATURE: How Can I Get Enough
Nutrients Without Consuming Too Many
A Lifetime of Nourishment 2 Calories? 21
The Diet and Health Connection 3 Concepts in Action: Track Your Diet 22
Genetics, Nutrition, and Individuality 4 Self Check 23
Other Lifestyle Choices 4 CONTROVERSY 1: Sorting the Imposters from
Think Fitness: Why Be Physically Active? 5 the Real Nutrition Experts 24

Healthy People: Nutrition Objectives for

the Nation 5
Chapter 2
The Human Body and Its Food 6
Nutrition Tools—Standards
Meet the Nutrients 7 and Guidelines 31
Can I Live on Just Supplements? 8 Nutrient Recommendations 32
The Challenge of Choosing Foods 9 Dietary Reference Intakes 32

The Abundance of Foods to Choose The DRI Lists and Purposes 33

From 9 Understanding the DRI Recommended
How, Exactly, Can I Recognize a Nutritious Intakes 34
Diet? 11 How the Committee Establishes DRI
Why People Choose Foods 12 Values—An RDA Example 35
Determining Individual Requirements 36
The Science of Nutrition 14
Setting Energy Requirements 36
The Scientific Approach 14
Why Are Daily Values Used on Labels? 37
Scientific Challenge 14
Can I Trust the Media to Deliver Nutrition Dietary Guidelines for Americans 37
News? 17 Diet Planning with the USDA Eating
National Nutrition Research 17 Patterns 39
MY TURN: Lose Think Fitness: Recommendations
Weight While You for Daily Physical Activity 42
Sleep! 17
The Food Groups and
Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com

Changing Subgroups 42
Behaviors 18 Choosing Nutrient-Dense
The Process of Foods 43
Change 18 Norman Chan/Shutterstock.com

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Diet Planning Application 44 The Digestive System 80
MyPlate Educational Tool 46 Why Do People Like Sugar, Salt,
MY TURN: Right Size—Supersize? 46 and Fat? 80

Flexibility of the USDA Eating The Digestive Tract 81

Patterns 47 The Mechanical Aspect of Digestion 83
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: The Chemical Aspect of Digestion 85
Controlling Portion Sizes at Home Microbes in the Digestive Tract 87
and Away 48 Are Some Food Combinations More Easily
Food Lists for Diabetes and Weight Digested Than Others? 87
Management 50 If “I Am What I Eat,” Then How Does a
The Last Word on Diet Planning 51 Peanut Butter Sandwich Become “Me”? 89
Absorption and Transport of Nutrients 90
Checking Out Food Labels 51
A Letter from Your Digestive Tract 92
What Food Labels Must Include 51
The Excretory System 96
What Food Labels May Include 54
FOOD FEATURE: Getting a Feel for the Nutrients Storage Systems 96
in Foods 57 When I Eat More Than My Body Needs, What
Concepts in Action: Compare Your Intakes Happens to the Extra Nutrients? 97
with USDA Guidelines 60 Variations in Nutrient Stores 97
Self Check 61 Conclusion 97
CONTROVERSY 2: Are Some Foods Superfoods Self Check 98
for Health? 62
MY TURN: I Am What I Drink 99

Chapter 3 CONTROVERSY 3: Alcohol: Do the Benefits

Outweigh the Risks? 100
The Remarkable Body 70
The Body’s Cells 71 Chapter 4
Genes Control Functions 72 The Carbohydrates: Sugar,
Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems 73 Starch, Glycogen, and
The Body Fluids and the Fiber 113
Cardiovascular System 74
A Close Look at Carbohydrates 114
The Hormonal and Nervous Sugars 115
Systems 76
Starch 117
What Do Hormones Have to Do
Glycogen 117
with Nutrition? 76
Fibers 117
How Does the Nervous System
Interact with Nutrition? 77 The Need for
The Immune System 79 Carbohydrates 119
iStockphoto.com/Floortje
iStockphoto.com/Floortje

If I Want to Lose Weight and

Immune Defenses 79
Stay Healthy, Should I Avoid
Inflammation 80
Carbohydrates? 119

vi Contents  

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Why Do Nutrition Experts Recommend
Fiber-Rich Foods? 120 Chapter 5
Fiber Intakes and Excesses 125 The Lipids: Fats, Oils,
Whole Grains 127 Phospholipids, and
From Carbohydrates to Glucose 128 Sterols 160
Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrate 129
Introducing the Lipids 161
How Are Fats Useful to the Body? 161
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Finding Whole-Grain
Foods 130 How Are Fats Useful in Food? 163
Why Do Some People Have Trouble A Close Look at Lipids 164
Digesting Milk? 134
Triglycerides: Fatty Acids and Glycerol 164
The Body’s Use of Glucose 135 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids 165
Splitting Glucose for Energy 135 Phospholipids and Sterols 167
How Is Glucose Regulated in the
Lipids in the Body 168
Body? 136
How Are Fats Digested and Absorbed? 168
Excess Glucose and Body Fatness 137
Transport of Fats 169
Think Fitness: What Can I Eat to Make
Workouts Easier? 139 Storing and Using the Body’s Fat 171
The Glycemic Index of Food 140
Dietary Fat, Cholesterol, and Health 172
Diabetes 141 Recommendations for Lipid Intakes 172
The Dangers of Diabetes 141 Lipoproteins and Heart Disease Risk 174
Prediabetes and the Importance of What Does Food Cholesterol Have to Do
Testing 142 with Blood Cholesterol? 176
Type 1 Diabetes 142 Recommendations Applied 176
Type 2 Diabetes 143 Think Fitness: Why Exercise the Body for the
Medical Nutrition Therapy 144 Health of the Heart? 177

MY TURN: 21st-Century Epidemic? 144 Essential Polyunsaturated Fatty

Physical Activity 146 Acids 178
Why Do I Need Essential Fatty Acids? 178
If I Feel Dizzy between Meals, Do I Have
Hypoglycemia? 146 Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acid
Families 178
Conclusion 147 Health Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids 179
FOOD FEATURE: Finding the Carbohydrates Where Are the Omega-3 Fatty Acids in
in Foods 147
Foods? 180
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your
Carbohydrate Intake 152 The Effects of Processing on Unsaturated
Fats 181
Self Check 153
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Weighing Seafood’s
CONTROVERSY 4: Are Added Sugars “Bad” Risks and Benefits 182
for You? 154

Contents vii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 What Is “Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil,” Providing Energy and Glucose 215
and What’s It Doing in My Chocolate Chip The Fate of an Amino Acid 217
Cookies? 183
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Evaluating Protein
What Are Trans-Fatty Acids, and Are They and Amino Acid Supplements 218
Harmful? 184
MY TURN: Heart to Heart 184
Food Protein: Need and Quality 219
How Much Protein Do People Need? 219
Fat in the Diet 185 Nitrogen Balance 220
Get to Know the Fats in Foods 185 MY TURN: Veggin’ Out 221
Fats in Protein Foods 186 Protein Quality 222
Milk and Milk Products 187
Protein Deficiency and Excess 224
Grains 188
What Happens When People Consume Too
FOOD FEATURE: Defensive Dining 189
Little Protein? 224
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Lipid Is It Possible to Consume Too Much
Intake 194 Protein? 224
Self Check 195 Is a Gluten-Free Diet Best for
CONTROVERSY 5: Is Butter Really Back? The Health? 225
Lipid Guidelines Debate 196
FOOD FEATURE: Getting Enough but Not
Too Much Protein 226
Chapter 6 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Protein
The Proteins and Amino Intake 230
Self Check 231
Acids 201 CONTROVERSY 6: Vegetarian and Meat-
The Structure of Proteins 202 Containing Diets: What Are the Benefits and
Pitfalls? 232
Amino Acids 202
How Do Amino Acids Build Proteins?
The Variety of Proteins 204
204
Chapter 7
Denaturation of Proteins 207 The Vitamins 240
Think Fitness: Can Eating Extra Protein Make Definition and Classification of
Muscles Grow Stronger? 209
Vitamins 242
Digestion and Absorption of Dietary The Concept of Vitamin Precursors 242
Protein 209 Two Classes of Vitamins: Fat-Soluble
Protein Digestion 209 and Water-Soluble 242
What Happens to Amino The Fat-Soluble
Acids after Protein Is Vitamins 243
Digested? 210
Vitamin A 244
iStockphoto.com/only_fabrizio

The Importance
iStockphoto.com/only_fabrizio

Roles of Vitamin A
of Protein 212
and Consequences of
The Roles of Body Deficiency 244
Proteins 212

viii Contents 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Vitamin A Toxicity 246 The B Vitamins in Unison 264
Vitamin A Recommendations B Vitamin Roles in Metabolism 265
and Sources 247 B Vitamin Deficiencies 265

Evgeny Karandaev/
Shutterstock.com
Beta-Carotene 248
The B Vitamins as
MY TURN: Take Your
Vitamins? 249 Individuals 266
Thiamin 266
Vitamin D 249 Riboflavin Roles 268
Roles of Vitamin D 250 Niacin 269
Too Little Vitamin D—A Danger to Folate 269
Bones 250
Vitamin B12 272
Too Much Vitamin D—A Danger to Soft
Vitamin B6 273
Tissues 252
Biotin and Pantothenic Acid 275
Vitamin D from Sunlight 253
Non–B Vitamins 275
Vitamin D Intake Recommendations 254
FOOD FEATURE: Choosing Foods Rich
Vitamin D Food Sources 254
in Vitamins 280
Vitamin E 255 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Vitamin
Roles of Vitamin E 255 Intake 283
Vitamin E Deficiency 255 Self Check 284
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Sources of CONTROVERSY 7: Vitamin Supplements:
Vitamin D 256 What Are the Benefits and Risks? 285
Toxicity of Vitamin E 257
Vitamin E Recommendations and U.S. Chapter 8
Intakes 257
Water and Minerals 292
Vitamin E Food Sources 257
Water 294
Vitamin K 258 Why Is Water the Most Indispensable
Roles of Vitamin K 258 Nutrient? 295
Vitamin K Deficiency 259 The Body’s Water Balance 296
Vitamin K Toxicity 259 Quenching Thirst and Balancing Losses 296
Vitamin K Requirements and Sources 259 How Much Water Do I Need to Drink
in a Day? 298
The Water-Soluble Vitamins 260
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Liquid Calories 299
Vitamin C 260
Think Fitness: Vitamins for Athletes 261 Drinking Water: Types, Safety, and
Sources 301
The Roles of Vitamin C 261
Hard Water or Soft Water—Which Is
Deficiency Symptoms and Intakes 262
Best? 301
Vitamin C Toxicity 262
Safety of Public Water 301
Vitamin C Recommendations 263
Water Sources 302
Vitamin C Food Sources 263
Body Fluids and Minerals 304

Contents ix

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Water Follows Salt 304 Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Calcium
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance 305 Intakes 333
Acid-Base Balance 305 Self Check 334
CONTROVERSY 8: Osteoporosis: Can Lifestyle
The Major Minerals 305 Choices Reduce the Risk? 335
Calcium 305
Phosphorus
MY TURN: Drink Your Milk! 309
308
Chapter 9
Magnesium 310
Energy Balance and
Sodium 312
Healthy Body Weight 343
Potassium 316 The Problems of Too Little or Too Much
Chloride 317 Body Fat 344
Sulfate 317 What Are the Risks from Underweight? 345
What Are the Risks from Too Much
The Trace Minerals 318 Body Fat? 345
Iodine 318
What Are the Risks from Central
Iron 319 Obesity? 346
Think Fitness: Exercise-Deficiency How Fat Is Too Fat? 347
Fatigue 321
Zinc 324
The Body’s Energy Balance 349
Energy In and Energy Out 349
Selenium 326
How Many Calories Do I Need Each
Fluoride 326
Day? 349
Chromium 327
Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) 351
Copper 328
The DRI Method of Estimating Energy
Other Trace Minerals and Some
Requirements 351
Candidates 328
FOOD FEATURE: Meeting the Need for Body Weight vs. Body Fatness 352
Calcium 331 Using the Body Mass Index (BMI) 352
Measuring Body Composition and Fat
Distribution 352
How Much Body Fat Is Ideal? 353

The Appetite and Its Control 354

Hunger and Appetite—“Go” Signals 354
Satiation and Satiety—“Stop” Signals 356

Inside-the-Body Theories of Obesity 358

Robyn Mackenzie/Shutterstock.com

MY TURN: How Many Calories? 359

Outside-the-Body Theories of Obesity 359

Think Fitness: Activity for a Healthy Body
Weight 361

x Contents  

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
How the Body Loses and Gains How Do Muscles Adapt to
Weight 362 Physical Activity? 394
The Body’s Response to How Does Aerobic Training
Energy Deficit 362 Benefit the Heart? 395
The Body’s Response to Think Fitness: Exercise

Nativania/Shutterstock.com
Energy Surplus 364 Safety 396

Achieving and Maintaining Three Energy

a Healthy Body Weight 365 Systems 396
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Fad Diets 367 The Muscles’ Energy
Reservoir 397
What Food Strategies Are Best for Weight
Loss? 369 The Anaerobic Energy System 398
Physical Activity in Weight Loss The Aerobic Energy System 398
and Maintenance 372 The Active Body’s Use of Fuels 399
What Strategies Are Best for Weight The Need for Food Energy 399
Gain? 373
Glucose: A Major Fuel for Physical
Medical Treatment of Obesity 374 Activity 400
Obesity Medications 374 Other Factors Affecting Glycogen 402
Obesity Surgery 374 MY TURN: How Much Is Enough? 403
Herbal Products and Gimmicks 376 Carbohydrate Recommendations for
Once I’ve Changed My Weight, How Can Athletes 403
I Stay Changed? 377 Lipid Fuel for Physical Activity 404

Conclusion 378 Protein for Building Muscles and for

Fuel 406
FOOD FEATURE: Behavior Modification for
Weight Control 379 How Much Protein Should an Athlete
Consume? 407
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Energy
Balance 381 Vitamins and Minerals—Keys to
Self Check 382 Performance 408
CONTROVERSY 9: The Perils of Eating Do Nutrient Supplements Benefit Athletic
Disorders 383 Performance? 408
Iron—A Mineral of Concern 409
Chapter 10 Fluids and Temperature Regulation
Performance in Physical Activity 410
Nutrition 389 Water Losses during Physical
Activity 410
The Benefits of Fitness 390 Fluid and Electrolyte Needs during Physical
The Nature of Fitness 390 Activity 411
Physical Activity Guidelines 392 Sodium Depletion and Water
Intoxication 412
The Essentials of Fitness 393

Contents xi

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Selecting Sports CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Deciding about
Drinks 413 CAM 450
Other Beverages 414 How Does Cancer Develop? 453
Putting It All Together 415 Which Diet Factors Affect Cancer Risk? 455
FOOD FEATURE: Choosing a Performance
Conclusion 458
Diet 416
FOOD FEATURE: The DASH Diet: Preventive
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Diet Medicine 459
and Activities 420
Concepts in Action: Analyze Your Diet
Self Check 421
for Health Promotion 462
CONTROVERSY 10: Ergogenic Aids:
Self Check 463
Breakthroughs, Gimmicks, or Dangers? 422
CONTROVERSY 11: Nutritional Genomics:

11
Can It Deliver on Its Promises? 464
Chapter

Diet and Health 428 Chapter 12

The Immune System, Nutrition, Food Safety and Food
and Diseases 430
Technology 470
The Effects of Malnutrition 430
The Immune System and Chronic Microbes and Food Safety 472
Diseases 432 How Do Microbes in Food Cause Illness
in the Body? 472
The Concept of Risk Factors 433
Food Safety from Farm to Plate 473
Cardiovascular Diseases 435 Safe Food Practices for Individuals 477
Atherosclerosis 436
Which Foods Are Most Likely to Cause
Risk Factors for CVD 437 Illness? 481
Think Fitness: Ways to Include Physical Protein Foods 482
Activity in a Day 441
Raw Produce 484
Recommendations for Reducing CVD
Other Foods 485
Risk 442
Advances in Microbial Food Safety 487
Nutrition and Hypertension 444
Is Irradiation Safe? 488
How Does Blood Pressure Work
in the Body? 445 Other Technologies 489

Risk Factors for Toxins, Residues, and

Hypertension 446 Contaminants in
How Does Foods 490
Nutrition Affect
Viktar Malyshchyts/Shutterstock.com

Natural Toxins in
Hypertension? 446 Foods 490
MY TURN: Fast-Food Pesticides 491
Generation? 448
CONSUMER’S GUIDE
TO: Understanding Organic
Nutrition and Cancer 449 Foods 493

xii Contents 

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MY TURN: Organic: Does It Matter? 495 Some Cautions for the Pregnant
Animal Drugs—What Are the Risks? 495 Woman 530

Environmental Contaminants 497 Drinking during Pregnancy 532

Are Food Additives Safe? 499 Alcohol’s Effects 532

Regulations Governing Additives 500 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 533

Additives to Improve Safety and Experts’ Advice 534

Quality 500 Troubleshooting 534
Flavoring Agents 501 Diabetes 534
Fat Replacers and Artificial Fats 504 Hypertension 535
Incidental Food Additives 504 Preeclampsia 535
Conclusion 505 Lactation 535
FOOD FEATURE: Processing and the Nutrients MY TURN: Bringing Up Baby 536
in Foods 505
Nutrition during Lactation 536
Self Check 508
When Should a Woman Not Breastfeed? 537
CONTROVERSY 12: Genetically Engineered
Foods: What Are the Pros and Cons? 509 Feeding the Infant 538
Nutrient Needs 538
Chapter 13 Why Is Breast Milk So Good for

Life Cycle Nutrition: Mother Babies? 540

Formula Feeding 542
and Infant 516 CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Formula Advertising
Pregnancy: The Impact of Nutrition on the versus Breastfeeding Advocacy 543
Future 517 An Infant’s First Solid Foods 544
Preparing for Pregnancy 517 Looking Ahead 547
The Events of Pregnancy 519 FOOD FEATURE: Mealtimes with Infants 548
Increased Need for Nutrients 521 Concepts in Action: Analyze the Adequacy
Food Assistance Programs 526 of a Diet for Pregnancy 549
How Much Weight Should a Woman Self Check 550
Gain during Pregnancy? 526 CONTROVERSY 13: Childhood Obesity and
Weight Loss after Pregnancy 527 Early Chronic Diseases 551
Should Pregnant Women Be Physically
Active? 528 Chapter 14
Teen Pregnancy 528
Child, Teen, and Older
Think Fitness: Physical Activities for the
Pregnant Woman 529 Adult 558
Why Do Some Women Crave Pickles and Ice Early and Middle Childhood 559
Cream While Others Can’t Keep Anything Feeding a Healthy Young Child 559
Down? 529
Mealtimes and Snacking 563

Contents xiii

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 How Do Nutrient Concepts in Action: Analyze Three
Deficiencies Affect a Diets 592
Child’s Brain? 566 Self Check 593
The Problem of CONTROVERSY 14: Nutrient–
Lead 567 Drug Interactions: Who Should
Food Allergy, Be Concerned? 594
Intolerance, and
Aversion 568
iStockphoto.com/marmo81
iStockphoto.com/marmo81
Chapter 15
Can Diet
Make a Child
Hunger and the
Hyperactive? 571 Future of Food 599
Dental Caries 572
U.S. Food Insecurity 600
Is Breakfast Really the Most Important Meal
Food Poverty in the United States 600
of the Day for Children? 573
What U.S. Food Programs Address
How Nourishing Are the Meals Served at
Low Food Security? 602
School? 573
World Poverty and Hunger 604
Nutrition in Adolescence 574
Nutrient Needs 576 The Malnutrition of Extreme Poverty 606
Common Concerns 577 Hidden Hunger—Vitamin and Mineral
Deficiencies 606
Eating Patterns and Nutrient Intakes 578
Two Faces of Childhood Malnutrition 607
The Later Years 578 Rehabilitation 608
CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Nutrition for PMS
Relief 579 The Future Food Supply
and the Environment 608
Nutrition in the Later Years 581 Threats to the Food Supply 609
Energy, Activity, and the Muscles 581
Fisheries and Food Waste 610
Protein Needs 582
MY TURN: How Responsible Am I? 611
Think Fitness: Benefits of Physical Activity
for the Older Adult 583 How Can People Help? 612
Carbohydrates and Fiber 583 Government Action 612
Fats and Arthritis 583 Private and Community Enterprises 613
Vitamin Needs 584 Educators and Students 613
Water and the Minerals 585 Food and Nutrition Professionals 613
Can Nutrition Help People to Live Longer? 587 Individuals 613
Immunity and Inflammation 588 Conclusion 613
Can Foods or Supplements Affect the Course CONSUMER’S GUIDE TO: Making
of Alzheimer’s Disease? 588 “Green” Choices (Without Getting
“Greenwashed”) 614
Food Choices of Older Adults 589
Self Check 616
FOOD FEATURE: Single Survival and Nutrition
on the Run 590 CONTROVERSY 15: How Can We Feed Ourselves
Sustainably? 617
MY TURN: Eating Solo 591

xiv Contents 

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Appendixes G Answers to Chapter Questions G-1
A Table of Food Composition A-3 H Physical Activity Levels and Energy
B Dietary Guidelines B-1 Requirements H-1
C Aids to Calculations C-1 I Chemical Structures: Carbohydrates,
Lipids, and Amino Acids I-1
D Food Lists for Diabetes and Weight
Management D-1
E Eating Patterns to Meet the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans E-1
Glossary GL-1
F Notes F-1 Index IN-1

Contents xv

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Preface
A billboard in Louisiana reads, “Come as you are. Leave dif-
ferent,” meaning that once you’ve seen, smelled, tasted,
and listened to Louisiana, you’ll never be the same. This book
entitled A Consumer’s Guide To . . ., lead readers through an
often bewildering marketplace with scientific clarity, prepar-
ing them to move ahead with sound marketplace decisions.
extends the same invitation to its readers: come to nutrition Each Consumer’s Guide ends with review questions to improve
science as you are, with all of the knowledge and enthusiasm recall of the main points.
you possess, with all of your unanswered questions and mis- By popular demand, we have retained our Snapshots of
conceptions, and with the habits and preferences that now dic- vitamins and minerals, which now reflect the 2015 Daily Val-
tate what you eat. ues. These concentrated capsules of information depict food
But leave different. Take with you from this study a more sources of vitamins and minerals, present DRI values, and offer
complete understanding of nutrition science. Take a greater the chief functions of each nutrient along with deficiency and
ability to discern between nutrition truth and fiction, to ask ­toxicity symptoms.
sophisticated questions, and to find the answers. Finally, take New or major terms are defined in the margins of chapter
with you a better sense of how to feed yourself in ways that not pages or in nearby tables, and they also appear in the Glossary
only please you and soothe your spirit but nourish your body at the end of the book. The reader who wishes to locate any
as well. term can quickly do so by consulting the Index, which lists the
For over 35 years, Nutrition: Concepts and Controversies has page numbers of definitions in boldface type.
been a cornerstone of nutrition classes across North America, Two useful features close each chapter. First, our popular
serving the needs of students and professors. In keeping with Concepts in Action diet and exercise tracking activities inte-
our tradition, in this, our 14th edition, we continue exploring grate chapter concepts with the Diet & Wellness Plus program.
the ever-changing frontier of nutrition science, confronting its The second is the indispensible Self Check that provides study
mysteries through its scientific roots. We maintain our sense of questions, with answers in Appendix G to provide immediate
personal connection with instructors and learners alike, writ- feedback to the learner.
ing for them in the clear, informal style that has become our
trademark. Controversies
The Controversies of this book’s title invite you to explore
Pedagogical Features beyond the safe boundaries of established nutrition knowl-
Throughout these chapters, features tickle the reader’s inter- edge. These optional readings, which appear at the end of each
est and inform. For both verbal and visual learners, our logi- chapter, delve into current scientific topics and emerging con-
cal presentation and our lively figures keep interest high and troversies. These fast-changing topics are relevant to nutrition
understanding at a peak. The photos that adorn many of our science today.
pages add pleasure to reading.
Many tried-and-true features return in this edition: Each Chapter Contents
chapter begins with What Do You Think? questions to pique Chapter 1 begins the text with a personal challenge to stu-
interest. What Did You Decide? at the chapter’s end asks read- dents. It asks the question so many people ask of nutrition
ers to draw conclusions. A list of Learning Objectives (LO) ­educators—“Why should people care about nutrition?” We
offers a preview of the chapter’s major answer with a lesson in the ways in which
goals, and the LO reappear under sec- nutritious foods affect diseases and present a
tion headings to make clear the continuum of diseases from purely genetic in
main take-away messages. Do the origin to those almost totally preventable
Math margin features challenge by nutrition. After presenting some
readers to solve nutrition prob- beginning facts about the genes,
lems, with examples provided. nutrients, bioactive food compo-
My Turn features invite the nents, and nature of foods, the chap-
reader to hear stories from stu- ter goes on to present the Healthy
dents in nutrition classes around
Workmans Photos/Shutterstock.com

People goals for the nation. It con-

the nation offer solutions to real-life cludes with a discussion of scientific
Workmans Photos/
situations. Think Fitness reminders alert Shutterstock.com research and quackery.
readers to links among nutrition, ­ fitness, Chapter 2 brings together the con-
and health. Food Feature sections act as cepts of nutrient standards, such as
bridges between theory and practice; they are practical the Dietary Reference Intakes, and diet
applications of the chapter concepts. The consumer sections, planning using the Dietary Guidelines for

x vii

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Americans 2015–2020. Chapter 3 presents a thorough, but • Condensed and enhanced Tables C1–2 and C1–3.
brief, introduction to the workings of the human body from • Condensed Tables C1–5 and C1–6.
the genes to the organs, with major emphasis on the digestive
system and its microbiota. Chapters 4–6 are devoted to the Chapter 2
energy-yielding nutrients—carbohydrates, lipids, and protein. • Integration of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans
Controversy 4 has renewed its focus on theories and fables 2015–2020.
surrounding the health effects of added sugars in the diet. • New table of shortfall and overconsumed nutrients.
Controversy 5, new to this edition, considers the scientific • Defines empty calories.
debate surrounding lipid guidelines. • Introduces the American Diabetes Association’s Choose
Chapters 7 and 8 present the vitamins, minerals, and water. Your Foods lists.
Chapter 9 relates energy balance to body composition, obesity, • New figure of dining-out trends.
and underweight and provides guidance on lifelong weight • Updated labeling discussion and new figure to illustrate
maintenance. Chapter 10 presents the relationships among proposed changes to the Nutrition Facts Panel.
physical activity, athletic performance, and nutrition, with • Newly approved Daily Values used in inside back cover,
some guidance about products marketed to athletes. Chapter 11 figures, and discussions.
applies the essence of the first 10 chapters to disease prevention. • New front of package labeling information and figure.
Chapter 12 delivers urgently important concepts of food • New phytochemical Point/Counterpoint table.
safety. It also addresses the usefulness and safety of food addi-
tives, including artificial sweeteners and artificial fats, and Chapter 3
explains the widely varying effects of processing on nutrients in • Clarified Figure 3–4.
foods. Chapters 13 and 14 emphasize the importance of nutri- • New section to introduce microbiota of the intestinal tract.
tion through the life span, with issues surrounding childhood • New table of definitions of common digestive disorders.
obesity in Controversy 13. Chapter 14 includes nutrition advice • New Point/Counterpoint table summarizing issues of
for feeding preschoolers, schoolchildren, teens, and the elderly. alcohol and health.
Chapter 15 devotes attention to hunger and malnutrition,
both in the United States and throughout the world. It also Chapter 4
touches on the vast network of problems that threaten the • Expanded coverage of the health effects of fermentable
future food supply, and explores sustainable diets as part of fibers and their products.
the solution. • New coverage and table of the glycemic index.
• New nutrition guidelines for diabetes.
• New section on relationship between obesity and diabetes.
Our Message to You • Updated table of diabetes diagnostic criteria.
Our purpose in writing this text, as always, is to enhance our • New figure illustrating sugar alcohols on a label.
readers’ understanding of nutrition science. We also hope the • New table of added sugar intake through the life span.
information on this book’s pages will reach beyond the class- • New coverage of added sugars and blood pressure.
room into our readers’ lives. Take the information you find • New Point/Counterpoint table on the health effects of
inside this book home with you. Use it in your life: nourish added sugars.
yourself, educate your loved ones, and nurture others to be
healthy. Stay up with the news, too—for despite all the conflict- Chapter 5
ing messages, inflated claims, and even quackery that abound • Expanded coverage of dietary fat and satiety.
in the marketplace, true nutrition knowledge progresses with • Updated lipid intake recommendations.
a genuine scientific spirit, and important new truths are con- • New emphasis on fat sources in Mediterranean eating
stantly unfolding. patterns.
• Updated presentation of fast food choices.
• New figure explaining the Supplement Facts panel of a fish
New to This Edition oil supplement.
Every section of each chapter of this text reflects the changes in • New Do the Math feature on percentages of fat in ground
nutrition science occurring since the last edition. The changes meats.
range from subtle shifts of emphasis to entirely new sections • New practical tips for consuming fish and seafood in Food
that demand our attention. Appendix F supplies current ref- Feature.
erences; older references may be viewed in previous editions, • New Controversy on scientific debate surrounding lipid
available from the publisher. guidelines, concluding with new eating patterns approach.
• New Point, Counterpoint table on lipid guidelines debate.
Chapter 1
• New introductory section on water. Chapter 6
• Defines NHANES. • Expanded section on gluten-free diets, celiac disease, and
• Defines registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN). gluten sensitivity.

x viii Preface  

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Another Random Scribd Document
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(the), while we call the third a vocative, that is, an interjection. But
the very “!”-mark which concludes the stanza in each case
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 183 shows that all three are on
the same footing: “the general complexion of the sentence,” as
Lightfoot says, determines in what sense we are to take a
grammatical form which is indeterminate in itself. Lire A few more
words are called for upon Bome Elliptical. the subject of defective
clauses made into Imperative 2 ᾿ Sire. commands, prayers,
imprecations, etc., by the exclamatory form in which they are cast,
or by the nature of their context. In Rom 131 and Col 3” we have
already met with imperatives needing to be supplied from the
context: Mt 271% *, Col 45, Gal 1° (see Lightfoot) and Jn 20” are
interjectional clauses, and there is nothing conclusive to show
whether imperative or optative, or in some like clauses (6... Lk 138)
indicative, of εἶναι would be inserted if the sentence were expressed
in full logical form. Other exx. may be seen in WM 732 ff. But there
is one ease of heaped-up ellipses on which we must tarry a little,
that of Rom 125 8, There is much to attract, despite all the weight of
contrary authority, in the punctuation which places only a comma at
end of v.°, or—what comes to nearly the same thing—the treatment
of ἔχοντες as virtually equivalent to ἔχομεν: “But we have grace-gifts
which differ according to the grace that was given us, whether that
of prophecy (differing) according to the measure of our faith, or that
of service (differing) in the sphere of the service,.or he that teaches
(exercising—éyov—his gift) in his teaching, or he that exhorts in his
exhorting, he who gives (exercising this charism) in singleness of
purpose, he who holds office in a deep sense of responsibility, he
who shows compassion in cheerfulness.” In this way we have
διάφορον supplied with προφητείαν and διακονίαν, and then the
ἔχοντες χαρίσματα is taken up in each successive clause, in nearly
the same sense throughout: the durative sense of ἔχω, hold and so
exercise, must be once more remembered. But as by advancing this
view we shall certainly fall under the condemnation for “hardihood,”
pronounced by such paramount authorities as SH, we had better
state the alternative, which is the justification for dealing with this
well-known crux here. The imperatival idea, which on the usual view
is understood in the several clauses, must be derived from the fact
that the
 18 A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. prepositional
phrases are successively thrown out as interjections. If we put into
words the sense thus created, perhaps ἔστω will express as much as
we have the right to express: we may have to change it to ὦμεν
with ἐν τῇ διακονίᾳ (“let us be wrapped up in,” like ἐν τούτοις ἴσθι 1
Ti 4%). In this way we arrive at the meaning given in paraphrase by
the RV. We take next the most live of the Moods, the only one which
has actually increased its activities during the thirty-two centuries of
the history of the Greek language. According to the classification
adopted by Brugmann,? there are three main divisions of the
subjunctive, the volitive, the deliberative, and the futuristic.
Brugmann separates the last two, against W. G. Hale, because the
former has μή as its negative, while the latter originally had ov. But
the question may well be asked whether the first two are radically
separable. Prof. Sonnenschein well points out (CA xvi. 166) that the
“deliberative ” is only “a question as to what is or was to be done.” A
command may easily be put in to the interrogative tone: witness
οἶσθ᾽ οὖν ὃ δρᾶσον; quin redeamus? (=why should we not ?
answering to redeamus=Ilet us), and our own “ Have some?” The
objection to the term “ deliberative,” and to the separation of the
first two classes, appears to be well grounded. It should further be
observed that the future indicative has carried off not only the
futuristic but also the volitive and deliberative subjunctives ; cf such
a sentence as εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; ἢ τί δράσομεν ;? With the caveat
already suggested, we may outline the triple division. The Volitive
has been treated largely under the substitutes for the imperative.
We must add the use with μη in warning, which lies near that in
prohibition; cf Mt 2559. Introductory words like φοβοῦμαι, σκόπει,
etc., did not historically The Subjunctive. (1) Volitive ; 1 So if we
start from the mention of the Achaians on an Egyptian monument of
1275 B.c.— Akaiwaka=AxatFas, the prehistoric form of ᾿Αχαιοί. See
Hess and Streitberg in Zndog. Forsch. vi. 123 ff. 2 Gram.® 490 ff. 3
Eurip. Jon 771. On the subjunctive element in the Greek future see
above, p. 149. Lat. ero, faxo, Greek πίομαι, φάγομαι (Hellenistic
mixture of ἔδομαι and ἔφαγον), xéw, are clear subjunctive forms, to
name only a few.
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 185 determine the construction:
thus Heb 41 was really “Let us fear! haply one of you may .. .!”%
Out of the Volitive arose the great class of dependent clauses of
Purpose, also paratactic in origin. The closeness of relation between
future and subjunctive is seen in the fact that final clauses with ὅπως
ὁ. fut. were negatived with μή : the future did not by any means
restrict itself to the futuristic use of the mood which it pillaged. On
the so-called Deliberative we have (2) Deliberative ; Uteady said
nearly enough for our purpose. It is seen in questions, as Mk 12!
δῶμεν ἢ μὴ δῶμεν; Mt 23% πῶς φύγητε; Rom 10" πῶς
ἐπικαλέσωνται; The question may be dependent, as Lk 95: θέλεις
εἴπωμεν ; (MGr θὰ εἰποῦμε; is simple future, shall we say?) We see it
both with and without ἵνα in Lk 183, In the form of the future we
meet it in sentences like Lk 22% εἰ πατάξομεν ἐν μαχαίρῃ; The
present subjunctive is probably to be recognised in Mt 11° ἕτερον
προσδοκῶμεν; Finally, the (3) Futuristic. Futuristic is seen still
separate: from, the future tense in the Homeric καὶ ποτέ τις βείπῃσι,
and in isolated relics in Attic Greek, like τί πάθω; Its primitive use
reappears in the Κοινή, where in the later papyri the subjunctive
may be seen for the simple future. Blass (p. 208) quotes it occurring
as early as the LXX, Is 3374 ἀφεθῇ yap αὐτοῖς ἡ ἁμαρτία. It is from
the futuristic subjunctive that the dependent clauses with ἐάν and
ὅταν sprang: the negative μή, originally excluded from this division
of the subjunctive, has trespassed here from the earliest times.
There is one passage where the old use of the subjunctive in
comparisons seems to outcrop, Mk 430 ὡς ἄνθρωπος βάλῃ τὸν
σπόρον... Kat καθεύδῃ (οἴο., all pres. 511}}.).2 9 It is hard to say to
which of the three divisions this belongs—Brugmann remarks on the
impossibility of determining the classification of dependent clauses in
general, —nbut perhaps the futuristic is best, like our “as a man will
sow,” etc. The survival of this out-of-the-way subjunctive in the
artless Greek of Mk is not very easy to explain; 1 See some exx.
below, p. 240. (* See p. 248. > Sce p. 249. 2 It must be noted that
Blass? (p. 321) calls this impossible, and inserts ἐάν. But sBDLA and
the best cursives agree on this reading: why should they agree on
the lectio ardua? ‘Qs ἐάν (AC) has all the signs of an obvious
correction.
 186 A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. it is indeed
hardly likely, in the absence of evidence from the intermediate
period, that there is any real continuity of usage. But the root-ideas
of the subjunctive changed remarkably little in the millennium or so
separating Homer from the Gospels; and the mood which was more
and more winning back its old domain from the future tense may
well have come to be used again as a “gnomic future” without any
knowledge of the antiquity of such a usage. Other examples of this
encroachment will occur as we go on. The kind of action found in
the present, aorist, and perfect subjunctive hardly needs further
comment, the less as we shall have to return to them when we deal
with the dependent clauses. One result of the aorist action has
important exegetical consequences, which have been very
insufficiently observed. It affects relative, temporal or conditional
clauses introduced by pronoun or conjunction with ἄν (often ἐάν in
NT, see pp. 42f). The verbs are all futuristic, and the ἄν ties them up
to particular occurrences. The present accordingly is conative or
continuous or iterative: Mt 67 ὅταν ποιῇς ἐλεημοσύνην “whenever
thou art for doing alms,” 010 ὅταν νηστεύητε “ whenever ye are
fasting,” Jn 2° ὅτι ἂν λέγη “whatever he says (from time to time).”
The aorist, being future by virtue of its mood, punctiliar by its tense,
and consequently describing complete action, gets a future-perfect
sense in this class of sentence; and it will be found most important
to note this before we admit the less rigid translation. Thus Mt 5?! ὃς
ἂν φονεύσῃ “the man who has committed murder,” δ ἐὰν
ἀσπάσησθε “if you have only saluted,” Mk 918 ὅπου ἐὰν αὐτὸν
καταλάβῃ “ wherever it has seized him:” the cast of the sentence
allows us to abbreviate the future-perfect in these cases. Mt 551] at
first sight raises some difficulty, but ἀπολύσῃ denotes not so much
the carrying into effect as the determination. We may quote a
passage from the Meidias of Demosthenes (p. 525) which exhibits
the difference of present and aorist in this connexion very neatly :
χρὴ δὲ ὅταν μὲν τιθῆσθε τοὺς voOmous ὁποῖοί τινές εἰσιν σκοπεῖν,
ἐπειδὰν δὲ θῆσθε, φυλάττειν καὶ χρῆσθαι-- τιθῆσθε applies to bills,
θῆσθε to acts. The part which the Subjunctive plays in the scheme
of the Conditional Sentences demands a few lines here, though
Tenses.
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 187 any systematic treatment of
this large subject must be left for our second volume. The difference
between εἰ and Conditional ἐάν has been considerably lessened in
HellenSentences, Stic as compared with earlier Greek. We Simple,
have seen that ἐάν can even take the indiaes cative; while (as rarely
in classical Greek) ; εὖ can be found with the subjunctive. The latter
occurs only in 1 Co 14°, where the peculiar phrase accounts for it: ef
the inscription cited by Deissmann (BS 118), ἐκτὸς εἰ μὴ ἐὰν: . . .
θελήσῃ. We should hardly eare to build much on Rev 115. In Lk 918
and Phil 3" we probably have deliberative subjunctive, “unless we
are to go and buy,” “if after all I am to attain . . . to apprehend.” The
subjunctive with εὐ is rare in early papyri: cf OP 496 (ii/A.D.) εἰ δὲ ἣν
(= 7) ὁ γαμῶν πρότερος τετελευτηκώς, ἐχέτω «TA. The
differentiation of construction remains at present stereotyped: e¢
goes with indicative, is used exclusively when past tenses come in
(6... Mk 956), and uses οὐ as its negative ; while ἐών, retaining μή
exclusively, takes the subjunctive almost invariably, unless the
practically synonymous future indicative is used. ’Eav and εἰ are both
used, however, to express future conditions. This is not only the case
with εἰ e. fut.—in which the NT does not preserve the “ minatory or
monitory” connotation which Giuldersleeve discovered for classical
Greek—but even with εἰ ec. pres. in such documents as BU 326,
quoted above, p. 59. The immense majority of conditional sentences
in the NT belong to these heads. We deal with the unfulfilled
condition below, pp. 200 f., and with the relics of εἰ c. opt., p. 196.
Leaving the Dependent Clauses for subsequent treatment, let us
turn now to some aspects of the negative μή, mainly though not
exclusively concerning the Subjunctive. Into the vexed question of
the origin of the οὐ μή construction we must not enter with any
detail. The classical discussion of it in Goodwin M7 389 ff. leaves
some very serious difficulties, though it has advanced our
knowledge. Goodwin’s insistence that denial and prohibition must be
Some Uses of the Negatives :— Οὐ μή. 1 Cf what is said above (p.
169) about εἰ μήτι ἄν.
 188 A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. dealt with
together touches a weak spot in Prof. Sonnenschein’s otherwise very
attractive account of the prohibitory use, ina paper already quoted
(CR xvi 165 ff). Sonnenschein would make ov μὴ ποιήσῃς the
interrogative of the prohibition μὴ ποιήσῃς, “won't you abstain from
doing?” Similarly in Latin quin noli facere? is “why not refuse to do?”
The theory is greatly weakened by its having no obvious application
to denial. Gildersleeve (AJP iii. 202 ff.) suggests that the οὐ may be
separate: οὔ" μὴ σκώψης =n0 / dont jeer, od μὴ yévntar=no! let it
never be!* Brugmann (Gram. 502) practically follows Goodwin,
whom he does not name. We start from μή in cautious assertion, to
which we must return presently: μὴ γένηται = it may perchance
happen, μὴ σκώψῃς = you will perhaps jeer, μὴ ἐρεῖς τοῦτο -- you
will perhaps say this. Then the od negatives the whole, so that ov μή
becomes, as Brugmann says, “certainly not.” Non nostrum est tantas
componere lites: these questions go back upon origins, and we are
dealing with the language in a late development, in which it is
antecedently possible enough that the rationale of the usage may
have been totally obscured. The use of οὐ μη in the Greek Bible calls
for special comment, and we may take for our text some remarks of
Gildersleeve’s from the brief article just cited. “This emphatic form of
negative (οὐ μή) is far more common in the LXX and the NT than it
is in the classic Greek. This tendency to exaggeration in the use of
an adopted language is natural.” And again, “The combination has
evidently worked its way up from familiar language. So it occurs in
the mouth of the Scythian archer, Ar. Thesmoph. 1108 οὐκὶ μὴ
λαλῆσι ov;” Our previous inquiries have prepared us for some
modifications of this statement. “Zhe NT” is not a phrase we can
allow; nor will “adopted language” pass muster without qualification.
In Eup 1 xiv. 429 n. the writer ventured on a preliminary note
suggested by NP 51, a Christian letter about coeval with 8 and B, in
which Mt 10” or Mk 9* is loosely cited from memory and οὐκ amodri
(sic) substituted for οὐ μὴ ἀπολέσῃ. There are, if memory serves,
scarcely more than half-a-dozen cases of οὐ μή in the non-literary
papyri. On the other hand, we find it 13 times in OT citations in NT,
and abundantly in the α See p. 249.
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 189 Gospels, almost exclusively in
Logia. In all of these we have certain or probable Semitic originals.
Apart from these, and the special case of Rev, it occurs only four
times in Paul and once in 2 Pet. It will be seen therefore that if “
translation Greek” is put aside, we have no difference between
papyri and NT. Paul’s few exx. are eminentiy capable of bearing
emphasis in the classical manner. The frequency of οὐ μή in Rev may
partly be accounted for by recalling the extent to which Semitic
material probably underlies the Book; but the unlettered character of
most of the papyrus quotations, coupled with Gildersleeve’s remark
on Aristophanes’ Scythian, suggests that elementary Greek culture
may be partially responsible here, as in the rough translations on
which Mt and Lk had to work for their reproduction of the words of
Jesus. The question then arises whether in places outside the free
Greek of Paul we are to regard ov μή as bearing any special
emphasis. The analysis of W. G. Ballantine (AJP xviii. 453 ff.), seems
to show that it is impossible to assert this. In the LXX, x5 is
translated οὐ or οὐ μή indifferently within a single verse, as in Is δ,
The Revisers have made it emphatic in a good many passages in
which the AV had an ordinary negative; but they have left over fifty
places unaltered, and do not seem to have discovered any general
principle to guide their decision. Prof. Ballantine seems to be justified
in claiming (1) that it is not natural for a form of special emphasis to
be used in the majority of places where a negative prediction occurs,
and (2) that in relative clauses, and questions which amount to
positive assertions, an emphatic negative is wholly out of place: he
instances Mk 13” and Jn 18"—Mt 25° is decidedly more striking. In
commenting on this article, Gildersleeve cites other examples of the
“blunting of pointed idioms in the transfer from classic Greek”: he
mentions the disproportionate use of “the more pungent aorist” as
against the “quieter present imperative ”—the tendency of Josephus
to “overdo the participle ”—the conspicuous appearance in narrative
of the “articular infinitive, which belongs to argument.” So here, he
says, “the stress ” of οὐ μή “has been lost by over-familiarity.” One is
inclined to call in the survival among uneducated people of the older
English double negatives—“ He didn’t say nothing to nobody,”
190
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 19d the distribution of οὐ μὴ in
NT. It occurs 13 times in LXX citations. Apart from these, there are
no exx. in Ac, Heb, or the “General Epp”, except 2 Pet 11° Rev has it
16 times. Paul’s use is limited to 1 Th 45 (v. infr.) 58, 1 Co 88, Gal
515. Only 21 exx. in all come from these sources, leaving 64 for the
Gospels. Of the latter 57 are from actual words of Christ (Mt 17, Mk
8 [Mk] 1, Lk 17, Jn 14): of the remaining 7, Mt 162 and 26% (=Mk
14%), Jn 138 20” have most obvious emphasis, and so may Lk 115
(from the special nativity-source!) and Jn 11°°. That the locution
was very much at home in translations, and unfamiliar in original
Greek, is by this time abundantly clear. But we may attempt a
further analysis, by way of contribution to the minutiz of the
Synoptic problem. If we go through the exx. of οὐ μή in Mk, we find
that Mt has faithfully taken over every one, 8 in all. Lk has 5 of these
logia, once (Mk 13?= Lk 21°) dropping the μή. Mt introduces od μή
into Mk 713, and Lk into Mk 433 and 1059, both Mt and Lk into Mk
13*! (see above).? Turning to “Q”, so far as we can deduce it from
logia common to Mt and Lk, we find only two places (Mt 5%=Lk
1259. Mt 2.959 = Lk 15%) in which the evangelists agree in using
οὐ μή. Mt uses it in 518 (Lk 21° has a certain resemblance, but 16”
is the parallel), and Lk in 6% ds (contrast Mt 7). Finally, in the logia
peculiar to Mt or Lk, the presence of which in “Q” is therefore a
matter of speculation, we find οὐ μή 4 times in Mt and 7 in Lk. When
the testimony of Jn is added, we see that this negative is impartially
distributed over all our sources for the words of Christ, without
special prominence in any one evangelist or any one of the
documents which they seem to have used. Going outside the
Gospels, we find οὐ μή in the fragment of Aristion (?) " ((Mk] 168);
in 1 Th 4:5 (regarded by Ropes, DB v. 945, 85 an Agraphon); and in
the Oxyrhynchus “ Sayings ”—no. 2 of the first series, and 1]It
comes from the LXX of 1 Sam 1, if A is right there, with πίεται
changed to the aor. subj. But A of course may show a reading
conformed to the NT. 2 As to Mk 422, note that in the doublet from
‘‘Q” neither Mt (1036) nor Lk (12?) has οὐ μή : the new
Oxyrhynchus ‘‘ Saying,” no. 4, has also simple ov. 3 The criticisms of
B. W. Bacon, in Lupos. for Dec. 1905, may dispose us to double the
query.
 192 A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. the preface
of the second. The coincidence of all these separate witnesses
certainly is suggestive. Moreover in Rey, the only NT Book outside
the Gospels which has οὐ μη with any frequency, 4 exx. are from the
Epp. to the Churches, where Christ is speaker; and all of the rest,
except 181 (which is very emphatic), are strongly reminiscent of the
OT, though not according to the LXX except in 18% (= Ezek 26%).
It follows that od μή is quite as rare in the NT as it is in the papyri,
when we have put aside (a) passages coming from the OT, and (0)
sayings of Christ, these two classes accounting for nearly 90 per
cent. of the whole. Since these are just the two elements which
made up “ Scripture” in the first age of Christianity, one is tempted
to put it down to the same cause in both—a feeling that inspired
language was fitly rendered by words of a decisive tone not needed
generally elsewhere. In connexion with this use of negatives, we
may well pursue here the later developments of that construction of
μη from which the use of ov μή originally sprang, according to the
theory that for the present holds the field. It is obvious, whatever be
its antecedent history, that μή is often equivalent to our “perhaps.” A
well-known sentence from Plato’s Apology will illustrate it as well as
anything: Socrates says (p. 39a) ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐ τοῦτ᾽ ἢ χαλεπόν,
θάνατον ἐκφυγεῖν, “ perhaps it is not this which is hard, to escape
death.” This is exactly like Mt 25° as it stands in sALZ: the od μή
which replaces ov in BCD does not affect the principle. The
subjunctive has its futuristic sense, it would seem, and starts most
naturally in Greek from the use of μή in questions: how this
developed from the original use of μή in prohibition (whence comes
the final sentence), and how far we are to call in the sentences of
fearing, which are certainly not widely separable, it would not be
relevant for us to discuss in this treatise. Mz τοῦτ᾽ ἢ χαλεπόν, if
originally a question, meant “will this possibly be difficult?” So in the
indicative, as Plato Protag. 312A ἀλλ᾽ ἄρα μὴ οὐχ ὑπολαμβάνεις, “
but perhaps then you do not suppose” (Riddell 140). We have both
these forms abundantly before us in the NT:—thus Lk 11° σκόπει μὴ
TO φῶς... σκότος ἐστίν, “ Look! perhaps My in Cautious Assertions.
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 193 the light . . . is darkness”; Col
28 βλέπετε μή τις ἔσται ὁ συλαγωγῶν, “Take heed! perhaps there
will be someone who . ἢ (cf Heb 3”); Gal 41 φοβοῦμαι ὑμᾶς μή πως
εἰκῆ κεκοπίακα, “I am afraid about you: perhaps I have toiled in
vain.” So in the papyri, as Par P 49 (ii/B.c.) ἀγωνιῶ μήποτε ἀρρωστεῖ
τὸ παιδάριον, NP 17 (11|Δ.}.}) ὑφωροῦμε.... μὴ ἄρα ἐνθρώσκων
ἔλαθεν ὕδατι. In all these cases the prohibitive force of μη is more or
less latent, producing a strong deprecatory tone, just as in a direct
question μή either demands the answer No (as Mt 7° ete.), or puts a
suggestion in the most tentative and hesitating way (Jn 4”). The
fineness of the distinction between this category and the purpose
clause may be illustrated by 2 Co 27, where the paratactic original
might equally well be “ Perhaps he will be overwhelmed” or “Let him
not be overwhelmed.” In Gal 25 the purpose clause (if such it be),
goes back to the former type—“Can it be that I am running, or ran,
in _vain?”+ Cf 1 Th 35, The warning of Ac 5® might similarly start
from either “ Perhaps you vill be found,” or “ Do not be found”: the
former suits the ποτέ better. It will be seen that the uses in question
have mostly become hypotactic, but that no real change in the tone
of the sentence is introduced by the governing word. The case is the
same as with prohibitions introduced by ὅρα, βλέπετε, προσέχετε,
etc.: see above, p. 124. One very difficult case under this head
should be mentioned here, that of 2 Tim 27, We have already (p. 55)
expressed the conviction that doy is really δώῃ, subjunctive. Not
only would the optative clash with ἀνανήψωσιν, but it cannot be
justified in itself by any clear syntactic rule. The difficulty felt by WH
(App 168), that “its use for two different moods in the same Epistle
would be strange,” really comes to very little; and the survival of the
epic δώῃ is better supported than they suggest. There is an
apparent case of yvwy subj. in Clement Paed. iii. 1, ἑαυτὸν yap τις
ἐὰν γνώῃ, θεὸν εἴσεται. A respectable number of quotations for δώῃ
is given from early Christian litera 1 Toéxw is best perhaps
subjunctive, since the sentence as it stands is felt as final. This
interpretation as a whole has to reckon with the alternative
rendering, ‘‘Am I running (said I), or have I run, in vain?” There is
much to be said for this: see Findlay in Δ». p. 104. T3
 194. A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. ture in
Reinhold 90 f. Phrynichus (Rutherford VP 429. 456) may fairly be
called as evidence not only for the Hellenistic δῴη and διδώη (which
he and his editor regard as “utterly ridiculous”) but for the feeling
that there is a subjunctive δώῃ, though he only quotes Homer. But
we must not press this, only citing from Rutherford the statement
that some MSS read “δῴη for δῷ in Plato Gorg. 481A, where the
optative would be most obviously out of place. If we read the opt. in
2 Tim lc, we can only assume that the writer misused an obsolete
idiom, correctly used in Lk 3” in past sequence. Against this stands
the absence of evidence that Paul (or the auctor ad Timotheum, 1{
the eritics demur) concerned himself with literary archaisms, lke his
friends the authors of Lk, Ac, and Heb. Taking δώῃ and ἀνανήψωσιν
together, we make the μήποτε introduce a hesitating question, “to
try whether haply God may give”: cf the well-known idiom with εἰ,
“fo ΞΕΘ as in’ Ac 2772, Rom 1°sLk 1422. Phil 3"4) 9 seen favour of
the subj. δώῃ the careful note in WS 120. Blass (p. 50) agrees.? P
We take next the Optative, which makes ERD EO ς poor a figure in
the NT that we are tempted Optative ΐ : ἢ Proper ; to hurry on. In
MGr its only relic? is the phrase μὴ γένουτο, which appears in Lk
201% and 14 times in Rom (10), 1 Co (1) and Gal (3). This is of
course the Optative proper, distinguished by the absence of av and
the presence (if negative) of μή. Burton (77 79) cites 35 proper
optatives from the NT, which come down to 1 Unfortunately we
cannot call the LXX in aid: there are a good many exx. of δῴη, but
they all seem optative. Tis δῴη. .. ; in Num 11”, Judg 9”, 2 Sam
18%, Job 31%, Ca 8!, Jer 9°, might well seem deliberative subj., but
Ps 120(119)? τί δοθείη σοι καὶ τί προστεθείη σοι ; is unfortunately
quite free from ambiguity. We may regard these as real wishes
thrown into the interrogative form. The LXX use of the optative looks
a promising subject for Mr Thackeray’s much-needed Grammar. We
will only observe here that in Num Z.c. the Hebrew has the simple
imperf.—also that A has a tendency to change opt. into subj. (as
Ruth 19 60... . εὕρητε), which accords with the faint distinction
between them. In Dt 28"4% we have opt. and fut. indic. alternating,
with no variation in the Hebrew. A more surprising fusion still—worse
than 2 Tim 7.6. with 6—is seen in 2 Mac 95 ἐάν τι παράδοξον
ἀποβαίη καὶ προσαπέλθῃ. 2 But see p. 240,
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 195 20 when we drop μὴ γένοιτο.
Of these Paul claims 14 (Rom 155-8, Philem Ὁ; 2 Tim 11618 and the
rest in 1 and 2 Th), while Mk, Lk, Ac, Heb, 1 Pet and 2 Pet have one
apiece. ᾿Οναίμην in Philem”® is the only proper optative in the NT
which is not 3rd person.1. It will be noticed that though the use is
rare it is well distributed: even Mk has it, and Lk 158 and Ac 8539
come from the Palestinian stratum of Luke’s writing. We may bring in
here a comparison from our own language, which will help us for the
Hellenistic optative as a whole” The optative de still keeps a real
though diminishing place in our educated colloquial: “be it so” or “so
be it,” is preserved as a formula, like μὴ yévocro, but “ Be it my only
wisdom here ” is felt as a poetical archaism. So in the application of
the optative to hypothesis, we should not generally copy “Be it never
so humble,” or “If she be not fair to me”: on the other hand, “If I
were you” is the only correct form. “God bless you!” “Come what
may, “I wish I were at home,” are further examples of optatives still
surviving. But a somewhat archaic style is recognisable in “Were the
whole realm of nature mine, That were a present far too small.” We
shall see later that a Hellenist would equally avoid in colloquial
speech a construction like εἰ καὶ Ta πάντ᾽ ἔμ᾽ εἴη, τὰ πάντα μοι
γένοιτ᾽ ἂν ἔλασσον ἢ ὥστε δοῦναι. The Hellenist used the optative in
wishes and prayers very much as we use our subjunctive. It is at
home in formule, as in oaths passim: εὐορκοῦντι μέμ μοι εὖ εἴη,
ἐφιορκοῦντι δὲ τὰ ἐναντία (ΟΡ 240—i/a.p.), ἢ ἔνοχοι εἴημεν τῶι
ὅρκωι (OP 715 — ii/A.D.), ... παραδώσω... ἢ ἐνσχεθείην τῷ ὅρκῳ
(BM 301—ii/a.p.), ete. But it is also in free use, as OP 526 (ii/A.D.)
χαίροις, Καλόκαιρε, LPb (ii/B.c.) ὃς διδοίη σοι, LPw 1 Some support
for the persistence of this optative in the Kow7 may be found in its
appearance in a curse of iii/B.c., coming from the Tauric Chersonese,
and showing two Ionic forms (Audollent 144, no, 92). 2 Cf Sweet,
New English Grammar: Syntax 107 ff.
 196 κα GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. BU 741
(ii/A.p.) ὃ μὴ γείνοιτο, BM 21 (ii/B.c.) σοὶ δὲ γένουτο εὐημερεῖν, BOH
1902, p. 217, κεχολωμένον ἔχοιτο Mijva καταχθόνιον, Η] P 6 (iii/iv
A.D.) ἐρρωμένον ce ἡ Oia πρόνοια φυλάξαι. In hypotaxis the
optative of wish appears in clauses with εἰ, as is shown by the
negative’s being μή, as well as by the fact that we can add εἰ, si, if,
to a wish, or express a hypothesis without a conjunction, by a clause
of jussive or optative character. Ez with the optative in the NT occurs
in 11 passages, of which 4 must be put aside as indirect questions
and accordingly falling under the next head. The three exx. in Ac are
all in. on Sob. = θυ 1 want af 2 can 10 2”); and 27? tae will beach
her if we can”), are future conditions; and 2419 puts into the past
(unfulfilled) form the assertion “ They ought to bring their
accusation, if they have any ” (ἔχουσι). The remainder include εἰ
τύχοι in 1 Co 141° 15%, the only exx. in Paul, and two in 1 Pet, εἰ
καὶ πάσχουτε 31 and εἰ θέλοι Ὁ, The examination of these we may
defer till we take up Conditional Sentences together. We only note .
here that HR give no more than 12 exx. from LXX of εἰ ec. opt.
(apart from 4 Mac and two passages I cannot trace): about 2 of
these are wishes, and 4 are cases of ὥσ(περ) εἴ τις, while 2 seem to
be direct or indirect questions. Neither in LXX nor in NT is there an
ex. of εἰ ὁ. opt. answered with opt. c. ἄν, nor has one been quoted
from the papyri: To the optative proper belongs also that after final
particles, as we infer from the negative μή and from its being an
alternative for the (jussive) subjunctive. It does not however call for
any treatment in a NT grammar. We have seen already (p. 55) that
ἵνα δοῖ and iva yvot are unmistakably subjunctives: if ἵνα den be
read (2b. and pp. 195 f.) in Eph 1!" it will have to be a virtual wish
clause, ἵνα serving merely to link it to the previous verb; but δώῃ is
preferable. This banishment of the final optative only means that the
NT writers were averse to bringing in a in Hypothesis, in Final
clauses. 1 Meanwhile we may observe that Blass’s dictum (p. 213)
that the εἰ c. opt. form is used ‘‘if I wish to represent anything as
generally possible, without regard to the general or actual situation
at the moment,” suits the NT exx. well; and it seems to fit the
general facts better than Goodwin’s doctrine of a “less vivid future”
condition (Goodwin, Greek Gram. 301).
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 197 construction which was
artificial, though not quite obsolete. The obsolescence of the
optative had progressed since the time of the LXX, and we will only
compare the writers and papyri of i/aA.p. and ii/a.p. Diel in his
program De enuntiatis finalibus, pp. 20f. gives Josephus (i/aA.D.) 32
per cent. of optatives after ἵνα, ὅπως and os, Plutarch Lives (i/A.p.)
49, Arrian (ii/A.D.) 82, and Appian (ii/a.D.) 87, while Herodian
(iii/A.p.) has 75. It is very clear that the final optative was the hall-
mark of a pretty Attic style. The Atticisers were not particular
however to restrict the optative to past sequence, as any random dip
into Lucian himself will show. We may contrast the more natural
Polybius (ii/B.c.), whose percentage of optatives is only 7, or
Diodorus (i/B.c.), who falls to 5. The writer of 4 Mac (i/a.p.) outdoes
all his predecessors with 71, so that we can see the cacoethes
Atticissandi affecting Jew as well as Gentile. The papyri of our period
only give a single optative, so far as I have observed: OP 237 (late
ii/a.p.) ἵνα. . . δυνηθείην. A little later we have LPw (ii/iii a.p.) ἵν᾽
evodov ἄρτι por εἴην, in primary sequence; and before long, in the
Byzantine age, there is a riot of optatives, after ἐών or anything else.
The deadness of the construction even in the Ptolemaic period may
be well shown from TP 1 (ii/B.c.) ἠξίωσα ἵνα χρηματισθήσοιτο- —
future optative! Perhaps, these facts and citations will suffice to
show why the NT does not attempt to rival the littérateurs in the use
of this resuscitated elegance. : We turn to the other main division of
Chay the Optative, that of which ov and ay are frequent attendants.
With dv the Potential answers to our own JI should, you or he
would, generally following a condition. It was used to express a
future in a milder form, and to express a request in deferential style.
But it is unnecessary to dwell upon this here, for the table given
above (p. 166) shows that it was no longer a really living form in NT
times. It was literary, but not artificial, as Luke’s use proves. It
figures 30 times in LXX, or 19 times when 4 Mac is excluded, and its
occurrences are 1See Kilker’s observations, Quest. 288 f.
 198 A GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. tolerably
well distributed and not abnormal in form. We should note however
the omission of ἄν, which was previously cited in one phrase (p. 194
π.}} We shall see that av tends to be dropped with the indicative;
the general weakening of the particle is probably responsible for its
omission with the optative as well. Tis ἂν δῴη, Job 9151: al, does
not differ from tis δῴη elsewhere; and no distinction of meaning is
conveyed by such an omission as appears in 4 Mac 5%
συγγνωμονήσειεν, “even if there is (ἐστῷ [a God], he would forgive.”
In other ways we become aware how little difference ἄν makes in
this age of its senescence. Thus in Par P 35 (ii/B.c.) ἐξήνεγκεν ὁπόσ᾽
ἂν épevr[@]ro,” the dropping of ἄν would affect*the meaning hardly
at all, the contingent force being practically ni. So when Luke says in
1° évevevov . . . TO τὸ av θέλοι “how he would like,’—cf Ac 10 Lk
1576 1836 (D) 946there is a minimum of difference as compared
with Ac 21° ἐπυνθάνετο τίς εἴη “ who he might be,” or Lk 1880 SAB
τί εἴη τοῦτο. Not that av 6. opt. in an indirect question is always as
near as in this case to the unaccompanied optative which we treat
next. Thus in the inser. Magn. 215 (i/A.D.) ἐπερωτᾷ... τί αὐτῷ
σημαίνει ἢ τί ἂν ποιήσας ἀδεῶς διατελοίη represents the conditional
sentence, “ If I were to do what, should I be secure ?” 4.6. “ what
must I do that I may .. .?” So in Lk 6" τί ἂν ποιήσαϊεν is the
hesitating substitute for the direct τί ποιήσομεν; Ac 5% τί ἂν γένοιτο
τοῦτο answers to “ What will this come to?” Cf Esth 13° πυθομένου.
. . πῶς ἂν ἀχθείη. . . “how this might be brought to pass” (RV). In
direct question we have Ac 17!8 τί ἂν θέλοι. . . λέγειν; The idiomatic
opt. ec. av in a softened assertion meets us in Ac 2059 ΝΑ, εὐξαίμην
ἄν “1 could pray.” Among all the exx. of ἄν ο. opt. in Luke there is
only one which has a protasis, Ac 8°! πῶς yap ἂν δυναίμην, ἐὰν μή
τις ὁδηγήσει we ;—a familiar case of future 1Par P 638 (ii/B.c.) has a
dropped ἄν in a place where it is needed badly: ἀλλὰ μὲν οὐθένα
ἐπείπαιμι πλὴν ὅτι ἕλκεσθαι βεβούλευται. But I should prefer to read
οὐθὲν Av >—if one may conjecture without seeing the papyrus. “It
is unfortunate that this crucial ᾧ is missing, for ἐρευνᾶτο (an
unaugmented form) is quite possible, though less likely. The papyrus
has another optative, in indirect question, εἴησαν εἰσπορευσάμενοι.
 THE VERB: THE MOODS. 199 condition with the less vivid
form in the apodosis.! No more need be said of this use; nor need
we add much about the other use of the Potential, that seen in
indirect questions. The tendeney of Greek has been exactly opposite
to that of Latin, which by the classical period had made the optative
(“subjunctive”) de rigueur in indirect questions, whatever the tense
of the main verb. Greek never admitted τίς εἴην = quis sim into
primary sequence, and even after past tenses the optative was a
refinement which Hellenistic vernacular made no effort to preserve.
On Luke’s occasional use of it we need not tarry, unless it be to
repeat Winer’s remark (p. 375) on Ac 2155, where the opt. is
appropriate in asking about the unknown, while the accompanying
indicative, “ what he has done,” suits the conviction that the prisoner
had committed some crime. The tone of remoteness and uncertainty
given by the optative is well seen in such a reported question as Lk
3% μήποτε αὐτὸς εἴη ὁ Χριστός, or 225 τὸ τίς ἄρα εἴη ... ὁ ταῦτα
μέλλων πράσσειν. It will be noted that Luke observes the rule of
sequence, as he does in the use of πρίν (p. 169).” ‘“‘Unreal”
Indicative. The Indicative—apart from its Future, which we have
seen was originally a subjunctive in the main—is suited by its whole
character only to positive and negative statements, and not to the
expression of contingencies, wishes, commands, or other subjective
conceptions. We are not concerned here with the forces which
produced what is called the “ unreal” use of the indicative, since
Hellenistic Greek received it from the earlier age as a fully grown
and normal usage, which it proceeded to limit in sundry directions.
Its most prominent use is in the two parts of the unfulfilled
conditional statement. We must 1]t is sentences of this kind to which
Goodwin’s ‘‘less vivid form” does apply : his extension of this to be
the rule for the whole class I should venture to dissent from—see
above, p. 196 n. 2 On the general question of the obsolescence of
the optative, reference may be made to F. G. Allinson’s paper in
Gildersleeve Studies 353 ff., where itacism is alleged to be a
contributory cause. Cf OP 60 (iv/A.D.) ἵν᾽ οὖν ἔχοιτε. .. καὶ
καταστήσηται (=-e), Where ἔχητε is meant ; OP 71 (ib) where εἰ cot
δοκοῖ is similarly a misspelt subj. (or indic.). When ov had become
the complete equivalent of ἡ, ἢ, εἰ, and αἱ of ε, the optative forms
could no longer preserve phonetic distinctness. Prof. Thumb
dissents: see p. 240.
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