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Advanced Perl Programming Second Edition Simon
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Author(s): Simon Cozens
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 SECOND EDITION

Advanced Perl Programming

Simon Cozens

Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Köln • Paris • Sebastopol • Taipei • Tokyo

Advanced Perl Programming, Second Edition
by Simon Cozens

Copyright © 2005, 1997 O’Reilly Media, Inc. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.

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Editor: Allison Randal

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Printing History:
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June 2005: Second Edition.

Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trademarks of
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are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.

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While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information
contained herein.

This book uses RepKover™, a durable and flexible lay-flat binding.

ISBN: 0-596-00456-7
[M]
 Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1. Advanced Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introspection 2
Messing with the Class Model 20
Unexpected Code 25
Conclusion 42

2. Parsing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Parse::RecDescent Grammars 44
Parse::Yapp 68
Other Parsing Techniques 73
Conclusion 78

3. Templating Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Formats and Text::Autoformat 80
Text::Template 84
HTML::Template 90
HTML::Mason 96
Template Toolkit 107
AxKit 114
Conclusion 116

4. Objects, Databases, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Beyond Flat Files 118
Object Serialization 119
Object Databases 129

v
 Database Abstraction 134
Practical Uses in Web Applications 142
Conclusion 148

5. Natural Language Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Perl and Natural Languages 149
Handling English Text 150
Modules for Parsing English 154
Categorization and Extraction 159
Conclusion 171

6. Perl and Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Terminology 172
What Is Unicode? 174
Unicode Transformation Formats 176
Handling UTF-8 Data 179
Encode 184
Unicode for XS Authors 190
Conclusion 193

7. POE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Programming in an Event-Driven Environment 195
Top-Level Pieces: Components 207
Conclusion 213

8. Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Test::Simple 215
Test::More 217
Test::Harness 220
Test::Builder 222
Test::Builder::Tester 224
Keeping Tests and Code Together 225
Unit Tests 226
Conclusion 232

9. Inline Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Simple Inline::C 233
More Complex Tasks with Inline::C 237
Inline:: Everything Else 250
Conclusion 255

vi | Table of Contents
 10. Fun with Perl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Obfuscation 256
Just Another Perl Hacker 261
Perl Golf 263
Perl Poetry 264
Acme::* 266
Conclusion 270

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Table of Contents | vii

 Preface

It was all Nathan Torkington’s fault. Our Antipodean programmer, editor, and
O’Reilly conference supremo friend asked me to update the original Advanced Perl
Programming way back in 2002.
The Perl world had changed drastically in the five years since the publication of the
first edition, and it continues to change. Particularly, we’ve seen a shift away from
techniques and toward resources—from doing things yourself with Perl to using
what other people have done with Perl. In essence, advanced Perl programming has
become more a matter of knowing where to find what you need on the CPAN,*
rather than a matter of knowing what to do.
Perl changed in other ways, too: the announcement of Perl 6 in 2000 ironically
caused a renewed interest in Perl 5, with people stretching Perl in new and interest-
ing directions to implement some of the ideas and blue-skies thinking about Perl 6.
Contrary to what we all thought back then, far from killing off Perl 5, Perl 6’s devel-
opment has made it stronger and ensured it will be around longer.
So it was in this context that it made sense to update Advanced Perl Programming to
reflect the changes in Perl and in the CPAN. We also wanted the new edition to be
more in the spirit of Perl—to focus on how to achieve practical tasks with a mini-
mum of fuss. This is why we put together chapters on parsing techniques, on deal-
ing with natural language documents, on testing your code, and so on.
But this book is just a beginning; however tempting it was to try to get down every-
thing I ever wanted to say about Perl, it just wasn’t possible. First, because Perl usage
covers such a wide spread—on the CPAN, there are ready-made modules for folding
DNA sequences, paying bills online, checking the weather, and playing poker. And
more are being added every day, faster than any author can keep up. Second, as
we’ve mentioned, because Perl is changing. I don’t know what the next big advance

* The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network (http://www.cpan.org) is the primary resource for user-contributed
Perl code.

ix

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Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
in Perl will be; I can only take you through some of the more important techniques
and resources available at the moment.
Hopefully, though, at the end of this book you’ll have a good idea of how to use
what’s available, how you can save yourself time and effort by using Perl and the Perl
resources available to get your job done, and how you can be ready to use and inte-
grate whatever developments come down the line.
In the words of Larry Wall, may you do good magic with Perl!

Audience
If you’ve read Learning Perl and Programming Perl and wonder where to go from
there, this book is for you. It’ll help you climb to the next level of Perl wisdom. If
you’ve been programming in Perl for years, you’ll still find numerous practical tools
and techniques to help you solve your everyday problems.

Contents
Chapter 1, Advanced Techniques, introduces a few common tricks advanced Perl pro-
grammers use with examples from popular Perl modules.
Chapter 2, Parsing Techniques, covers parsing irregular or unstructured data with
Parse::RecDescent and Parse::Yapp, plus parsing HTML and XML.
Chapter 3, Templating Tools, details some of the most common tools for templating and
when to use them, including formats, Text::Template, HTML::Template, HTML::Mason,
and the Template Toolkit.
Chapter 4, Objects, Databases, and Applications, explains various ways to efficiently
store and retrieve complex data using objects—a concept commonly called object-
relational mapping.
Chapter 5, Natural Language Tools, shows some of the ways Perl can manipulate
natural language data: inflections, conversions, parsing, extraction, and Bayesian
analysis.
Chapter 6, Perl and Unicode, reviews some of the problems and solutions to make
the most of Perl’s Unicode support.
Chap ter 7, POE, looks at the popular Perl event-based environment for task sched-
uling, multitasking, and non-blocking I/O code.
Chapter 8, Testing, covers the essentials of testing your code.
Chapter 9, Inline Extensions, talks about how to extend Perl by writing code in other
languages, using the Inline::* modules.

x | Preface

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Chapter 10, Fun with Perl, closes on a lighter note with a few recreational (and edu-
cational) uses of Perl.

Conventions Used in This Book

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tags, the contents of files, or the output from commands.
Constant width bold
Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user.
Constant width italic
Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values.

This icon signifies a tip, suggestion, or general note.

This icon indicates a warning or caution.

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, you may use the code in
this book in your programs and documentation. You do not need to contact us for
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code from this book into your product’s documentation does require permission.

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Acknowledgments
I’ve already blamed Nat Torkington for commissioning this book; I should thank him
as well. As much as writing a book can be fun, this one has been. It has certainly been
helped by my editors, beginning with Nat and Tatiana Apandi, and ending with the
hugely talented Allison Randal, who has almost single-handedly corrected code, col-
lated comments, and converted my rambling thoughts into something publishable.
The production team at O’Reilly deserves a special mention, if only because of the tor-
ture I put them through in having a chapter on Unicode.
Allison also rounded up a great crew of highly knowledgeable reviewers: my thanks to
Tony Bowden, Philippe Bruhat, Sean Burke, Piers Cawley, Nicholas Clark, James Dun-
can, Rafael Garcia-Suarez, Thomas Klausner, Tom McTighe, Curtis Poe, chromatic,
and Andy Wardley.
And finally, there are a few people I’d like to thank personally: thanks to Heather
Lang, Graeme Everist, and Juliet Humphrey for putting up with me last year, and to
Jill Ford and the rest of her group at All Nations Christian College who have to put
up with me now. Tony Bowden taught me more about good Perl programming than
either of us would probably admit, and Simon Ponsonby taught me more about
everything else than he realises. Thanks to Al and Jamie for being there, and to Mal-
colm and Caroline Macdonald and Noriko and Akio Kawamura for launching me on
the current exciting stage of my life.

Preface | xiii

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Chapter 1 CHAPTER 1
Advanced Techniques

Once you have read the Camel Book (Programming Perl), or any other good Perl
tutorial, you know almost all of the language. There are no secret keywords, no other
magic sigils that turn on Perl’s advanced mode and reveal hidden features. In one
sense, this book is not going to tell you anything new about the Perl language.
What can I tell you, then? I used to be a student of music. Music is very simple.
There are 12 possible notes in the scale of Western music, although some of the most
wonderful melodies in the world only use, at most, eight of them. There are around
four different durations of a note used in common melodies. There isn’t a massive
musical vocabulary to choose from. And music has been around a good deal longer
than Perl. I used to wonder whether or not all the possible decent melodies would
soon be figured out. Sometimes I listen to the Top 10 and think I was probably right
back then.
But of course it’s a bit more complicated than that. New music is still being pro-
duced. Knowing all the notes does not tell you the best way to put them together.
I’ve said that there are no secret switches to turn on advanced features in Perl, and
this means that everyone starts on a level playing field, in just the same way that
Johann Sebastian Bach and a little kid playing with a xylophone have precisely the
same raw materials to work with. The key to producing advanced Perl—or advanced
music—depends on two things: knowledge of techniques and experience of what
works and what doesn’t.
The aim of this book is to give you some of each of these things. Of course, no book
can impart experience. Experience is something that must be, well, experienced.
However, a book like this can show you some existing solutions from experienced
Perl programmers and how to use them to solve the problems you may be facing.
On the other hand, a book can certainly teach techniques, and in this chapter we’re
going to look at the three major classes of advanced programming techniques in Perl.
First, we’ll look at introspection: programs looking at programs, figuring out how
they work, and changing them. For Perl this involves manipulating the symbol

This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition

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table—especially at runtime, playing with the behavior of built-in functions and using
AUTOLOAD to introduce new subroutines and control behavior of subroutine dispatch
dynamically. We’ll also briefly look at bytecode introspection, which is the ability to
inspect some of the properties of the Perl bytecode tree to determine properties of the
program.
The second idea we’ll look at is the class model. Writing object-oriented programs
and modules is sometimes regarded as advanced Perl, but I would categorize it as
intermediate. As this is an advanced book, we’re going to learn how to subvert Perl’s
object-oriented model to suit our goals.
Finally, there’s the technique of what I call unexpected code—code that runs in places
you might not expect it to. This means running code in place of operators in the case
of overloading, some advanced uses of tying, and controlling when code runs using
named blocks and eval.
These three areas, together with the special case of Perl XS programming—which
we’ll look at in Chapter 9 on Inline—delineate the fundamental techniques from
which all advanced uses of Perl are made up.

Introspection
First, though, introspection. These introspection techniques appear time and time
again in advanced modules throughout the book. As such, they can be regarded as
the most fundamental of the advanced techniques—everything else will build on
these ideas.

Preparatory Work: Fun with Globs

Globs are one of the most misunderstood parts of the Perl language, but at the same
time, one of the most fundamental. This is a shame, because a glob is a relatively
simple concept.
When you access any global variable in Perl—that is, any variable that has not been
declared with my—the perl interpreter looks up the variable name in the symbol table.
For now, we’ll consider the symbol table to be a mapping between a variable’s name
and some storage for its value, as in Figure 1-1.
Note that we say that the symbol table maps to storage for the value. Introductory
programming texts should tell you that a variable is essentially a box in which you
can get and set a value. Once we’ve looked up $a, we know where the box is, and we
can get and set the values directly. In Perl terms, the symbol table maps to a refer-
ence to $a.

2 | Chapter 1: Advanced Techniques

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Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Symbol table

a 4

...

Figure 1-1. Consulting the symbol table, take 1

You may have noticed that a symbol table is something that maps names to storage,
which sounds a lot like a Perl hash. In fact, you’d be ahead of the game, since the
Perl symbol table is indeed implemented using an ordinary Perl hash. You may also
have noticed, however, that there are several things called a in Perl, including $a, @a,
%a, &a, the filehandle a, and the directory handle a.
This is where the glob comes in. The symbol table maps a name like a to a glob,
which is a structure holding references to all the variables called a, as in Figure 1-2.

‘a $a
4

Symbol table

a glob a @a

a &a %a
c

... <test.txt sub{}

Figure 1-2. Consulting the symbol table, take 2

As you can see, variable look-up is done in two stages: first, finding the appropriate
glob in the symbol table; second, finding the appropriate part of the glob. This gives
us a reference, and assigning it to a variable or getting its value is done through this
reference.

Introspection | 3

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Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Aliasing
This disconnect between the name look-up and the reference look-up enables us to
alias two names together. First, we get hold of their globs using the *name syntax,
and then simply assign one glob to another, as in Figure 1-3.

*b =*a;
*a $a
4

Symbol table

a glob a @a

a &a %a
c

... <test.txt sub{}

old b

glob b

Figure 1-3. Aliasing via glob assignment

We’ve assigned b’s symbol table entry to point to a’s glob. Now any time we look up
a variable like %b, the first stage look-up takes us from the symbol table to a’s glob,
and returns us a reference to %a.
The most common application of this general idea is in the Exporter module. If I
have a module like so:
package Some::Module;
use base 'Exporter';
our @EXPORT = qw( useful );

sub useful { 42 }

then Exporter is responsible for getting the useful subroutine from the Some::Module
package to the caller’s package. We could mock our own exporter using glob assign-
ments, like this:
package Some::Module;
sub useful { 42 }

4 | Chapter 1: Advanced Techniques

This is the Title of the Book, eMatter Edition

Copyright © 2007 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 How many oranges are seven and three fourths oranges?

There being no hyphen in the above example, the “seven” and

“three” are in the same category as “peach” and “apple” in the last
previous example. The answer is ten‐fourths, or 2⁠½.
If “seven” is meant to express a whole number, a hyphen should
be inserted after “three.”

A prolific source of trouble in correcting is wrong syllabication

when it is thought necessary to carry part of a word to the
succeeding line. Neither the English method of dividing on vowels,
where this can be conveniently done, nor the American method of
dividing on syllables, obtains exclusively in this country.
Convenience, and the desire of spacing in such a manner as to make
the lines look well, frequently determine the dividing letter; so that,
in the same work, you may find “pro‐perty” and “prop‐erty,” “trea‐
sure” and “treas‐ure.” In a recent English work, we note the
following divisions: {p88} Pre‐bendaries, mea‐sure, pre‐decessors,
supre‐macy, the Re‐formation, pro‐perty, theo‐logy, bre‐thren, pre‐
paration.
But the division on the syllable is the mode most generally
practiced in the United States, and we must, however reluctantly,
adhere to it as closely as possible, until a convention of publishers
shall sanction the adoption of the English usage. Our authorities
close the first syllable of “fa‐ther” on the a, of “moth‐er” on the th,
so that, practically, the latter word should not be divided at all; the
English printer, without hesitation, places the hyphen after the a and
the o respectively.
 As to the word “discrepancy” there is a discrepancy. Webster
accents the second syllable, and divides “discrep‐ancy”; while
Worcester accents the first syllable, and divides “discre‐pancy.” In
this, printers and readers must be governed by the “style” of the
work upon which they are engaged.
One of the most frequently recurring errors noticed in reading
first proof is the placing of an s at the end of a line when it should
have been carried over. Corres‐pondence, des‐cribe, des‐cription,
Aus‐tralian, are wrong, and are corrected daily; and their
reappearance proves that in this, as in weightier matters, “error is
wrought by want of thought.”
In newspapers, or any work which is to be read once and then
cast aside, the carrying over of an ed or ly, or any other syllable of
two letters, may perhaps be tolerated; but in bookwork such a
division is inexcusable, except in side‐notes, or when the {p89}
measure is very narrow. To avoid extremely wide or thin spacing,
and to escape the trouble and expense of overrunning pages already
imposed, it must be considered admissible, in certain cases, to carry
over a consonant preceding the final syllable ed; as, expec‐ted, divi‐
ded. We state this with some misgivings; but, as we have known it
to be done by excellent readers and skillful printers, even by John
Wilson himself, of blessed memory, we lay it down as allowable in
extreme cases. Theories are elastic,—are expansible and
compressible; but types of metal have set dimensions of extension,
and, in some circumstances, absolutely refuse to budge,—wherefore
theories must gracefully yield, and allow, it may be, a two‐letter
division even in wide measure. Types are tyrannical, and will
sometimes perpetrate solecisms under the plea of necessity.
 An author can sometimes much improve the appearance of a
page, by slight changes in the phraseology.
A good compositor studies to avoid divisions. Some printers,
rather than divide a word, will justify a line by separating the words
with two three‐em spaces. But no arbitrary rule can be laid down in
this regard. A well‐spaced page with several divided words looks
much better than a page unevenly spaced in which no divisions
occur. The number of hyphens occurring in succession at the end of
the lines on any page, should never exceed three.

In manuscript the dash occurs more frequently than any other

mark of punctuation, many writers {p90} using it as a substitute for
every other point. This habit very much retards the compositor in his
task; for, as we have already intimated, he feels obliged to study the
sense of his copy, and to waste his valuable time in considering how
he shall best supply those aids to meaning which the author has
rejected, and without which any work would be wholly
unpresentable.
That the author of the paragraph quoted below pointed it with
perfect accuracy before sending it to press, does not admit of a
doubt. For the nonce, however, we will, with his leave, punctuate the
passage in the manner in which the compositor frequently finds
passages pointed on his “takes”; thus:
“It has been said—and—no doubt—truthfully—that the smartest boys do not
go to college. Yet—it is evident—to every one competent to judge—that the ablest
men have been at college.”

With so many dashes before him, it would not be strange if the

compositor were to retain some of them; and the proof might,
perhaps, appear as follows:
 “It has been said—and no doubt truthfully—that the smartest boys do not go
to college. Yet it is evident to every one competent to judge, that the ablest men
have been at college.”

This is much improved; and, if we substitute commas for the

dashes in the first sentence, the punctuation may be considered
unobjectionable.
Beginners at the “case” are often puzzled in regard to the
insertion of commas before the dashes which {p91} inclose a
parenthetic clause. To decide this point, it is enough to notice
whether or not a comma would be used, were the parenthetic clause
omitted. This, we think, will be readily understood by reference to
the following examples:
“It was necessary not only that Christianity should assume a standard
absolutely perfect, but that it should apply a perfect law to those complex and
infinitely diversified cases which arise when law is violated.”

Now, if a parenthetic clause is inserted before the word “but,” the

comma should be retained, and another placed at the end of the
inserted clause; thus:
“It was necessary, not only that Christianity should assume a standard
absolutely perfect,—which, however far from anything that man has ever done,
would be comparatively easy,—but that it should apply a perfect law,” etc.

If there is no comma where the clause is to be inserted, dashes

alone should be used:
“In the completed volume of the third report, the countries wherein education
has received the most attention are treated of at length.”

If a parenthetic clause be inserted after “countries,”—where there

is no comma,—only dashes are required; thus:
“In the completed volume of the third report, the countries—Prussia, for
instance—wherein education has received the most attention are treated of at
length.”
 A thin space should be placed before, and also after, a dash.
If a parenthesis is inserted in a part of a sentence {p92} where no
point is required, no point should be placed before or after the
marks of parenthesis.
“By living sparingly, and according to the dictates of reason, in less than a year
I found myself (some persons, perhaps, will not believe it) entirely freed from all
my complaints.”—Cornaro.

As a general rule, if the parenthesis occur after a punctuated

clause, the point should be placed after the latter mark of
parenthesis.
“Popham’s monument, by the intercession of his wife’s friends (who had
interest at Court), was left in St. John’s Chapel on condition either of erasing the
inscription, or turning it inwards.”
“Artist: Kneller (1723). Architects: Taylor (1788); Chambers (1796); Wyatt
(1813).”
“Antiquities of St. Peter’s, by J. Crull (usually signed J. C.).”

If a parenthesis which closes with a note of exclamation or in­ter­‐

ro­ga­tion is inserted where a point occurs, that point should precede
the first mark of parenthesis.
“Where foresight and good morals exist, (and do they not here?) the taxes do
not stand in the way of an industrious man’s comforts.”
“He directed the letter to Gnat Smith, (spelling Nat with a G!) and deposited it
in a fire‐alarm box.”

An exclamation point is often found preceding the first mark of

parenthesis.
“Ay, here now! (exclaimed the Critic,) here come Coleridge’s metaphysics!”—
Biographia Literaria.
“I am, sir, sensible”—“Hear! Hear!” (they cheer him.) {p93}

When a parenthesis occurs within a parenthesis, brackets should

be substituted for the first and last parenthetic marks.
 “As for the other party [I mean (do not misunderstand me) the original
inventor], he was absent from the country, at that time.”

“Brackets are generally used . . . to inclose an explanation, note,

or observation, standing by itself.”—Parker’s Aids.
A short comment inserted in a paragraph by a reviewer is placed
in brackets.
“The sacks were badly eaten by rags [so in the affidavit], and the almonds had
run out.”

In transcripts of trials at law, brackets are used to inclose

statements of things done in court, which things would not appear in
a report of the verbal proceedings alone; as,—
“Ans. About a quarter past ten, he came into my shop, and picked out a cane.
....
“Gore. Of what wood was it made?
“Ans. It was a good piece of hickory—heavy for hickory. . . . .
“[The stick was handed to the witness, who declared it to be the same he had
sold Mr. Charles Austin.]
“Gore. What sticks had he usually bought of you?”—Trial of Selfridge.

Whether the words in brackets should also be in italics is a

matter of style. In the following passage from the same report,
italics are used: {p94}
“Gore. [Showing the fracture of the hat on the fore‐part.] Is not that the fore‐
part of the hat, as this leather [that on the hinder part] marks the part of the hat
that is worn behind?”

For inserting commas or other points after, before, or within

brackets, the same rules apply as in case of marks of parenthesis.
Whether when a noun singular terminates in s, its possessive
case requires an additional s is yet an open question. We have no
hesitation in giving an affirmative answer, especially in the case of
proper names. If Mr. Adams were to manufacture ale, one might,
perhaps, from prohibitory considerations, advise him to advertise it
as “Adams’ ale”; but should Mr. Adams have no fear of the law, he
would avoid all misunderstanding by calling it “Adams’s ale.” It may
be objected that the position of the apostrophe makes the matter
sufficiently clear without the additional s. Yes,—to the eye; but to
the ear the propriety of the additional s becomes very apparent.
“Jacob’s pillow” and “Jacobs’s pillow” may be of very different
materials. But, to avoid too much sibilation, we read “for conscience’
sake,” “for goodness’ sake,” etc.
The apostrophe, with s subjoined, is used to denote the plural of
letters and figures.
“The discipline which is imposed by proving that some x’s are some y’s, and
that other x’s are all y’s, will enable you to pulverize any hot‐headed deacon who
may hereafter attempt to prove that you had better be looking out for another
pastorate.”—Ad Clerum.
“This 7 differs from the other 7’s.” {p95}

The apostrophe may be used in denoting the plural whenever its

use will assist in avoiding obscurity.
“The children called loudly for their pa’s and ma’s.”

For convenient reference we append a series of rules and

examples, which, we think, will be found useful by teachers and
scholars, and our friends of the press.
 RULES OF PUNCTUATION.

I. PERIOD, OR FULL POINT.

1. The period is used at the end of every complete sentence
which is not interrogative or exclamatory.
2. Sentences interrogative and exclamatory in form, sometimes
take the period.
Will you call at my office, say on Tuesday next, or whenever you happen to be
in town, and much oblige—
Yours truly,
J OHN S MITH .
How much better it is, considering the saving of distance to the pupils, that
two small schoolhouses should be built, rather than one large one.

3. The period is put after initials when used alone; also after ab­‐
bre­vi­a­tions.
J. Q. Adams.
Supt. of R. R.
A. M.

4. Place a period before decimals, and between pounds and

shillings.
The French meter is 3.2808992 feet.
£24. 6s. 8d.
5.75 miles.

5. A period should always be put after roman numerals, except

when used in the paging of prefaces, etc.
George III. came to the throne in 1760.
O BSERVATION 1. In many modern works the period is omitted; as,—
William I made a mistake.
There being no comma after “William,” it is supposed to be obvious that the
mistake was made by William the First. The insertion or omission of the period is
becoming wholly a matter of printing-office style.
 II. COLON.
6. A colon is put at the end of a clause complete in sense, when
something follows which tends to make the sense fuller or clearer.
(See Rules 9 and 13.)
There is yet another sphere for the electric motor to fill: that of street railway
propulsion.—N. A. Review; April, 1888.
In free states no man should take up arms, but with a view to defend his
country and its laws: he puts off the citizen when he enters the camp; but it is
because he is a citizen, and would continue to be so, that he makes himself for a
while a soldier.—Blackstone’s Commentaries, Book I., Ch. 13.

7. The last of several clauses that introduce a concluding remark

or sentiment should be followed by a colon, if the preceding clauses
have been punctuated with semicolons.
A pickpocket in every car; a cheat at every station; every third switch on the
road misplaced; the danger of being hurled from the track, and then burned alive:
these considerations prevent my traveling on the railroad of which you speak.
O BS. 2. In examples like the above, a very common and perhaps better
method is to put a comma and dash in place of the colon. The colon is neater, but
more old-fashioned. (See second example under Rule 10.)
8. The colon is commonly used whenever an example, a
quotation, or a speech is introduced.
The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these words:
“God is love.”
O BS. 3. Modern writers, instead of the colon, mostly use the semicolon, dash,
or period. Our first example, under Rule 9,—with a colon substituted for the
semicolon,—might with propriety have been placed under Rule 6. We prefer the
semicolon, however; {p98} and if the word for were inserted in the example
mentioned, the colon would be inadmissible:
“Let there be no strife between theology and science; for there need be none.”
In reprinting old works, the colon should be carefully retained, as essential to a
clear understanding of them.
 The colon is generally placed after as follows, the following, in these words,
thus, or any other word or phrase which formally introduces something; and when
the matter introduced forms a distinct paragraph, the colon may or may not be
followed by a dash, as the style of the author or office may require.

III. SEMICOLON.
9. When two or more clauses of a sentence are not so closely
connected as to admit the use of a comma, a semicolon is used.
Let there be no strife between theology and science; there need be none.
Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; she hath
killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath also furnished her table.

10. When a number of particulars depend on an introductory or a

final clause, such particulars may be separated from each other by a
semicolon.
There are three difficulties in authorship: to write anything worth the
publishing; to get honest men to publish it; and to get sensible men to read it.
To present a general view of the whole Vedic literature; to define its extent; to
divide it into well-distinguished classes of writings; to portray the circumstances of
their origin, and the stage of cultural development which they represent; and to
explain the method of their preservation and transmission to us,—were some of
the objects which Müller had in view. {p99}

11. Loosely connected clauses of a sentence should be separated

by semicolons, if those clauses or any of them are subdivided by
commas.
As the rays of the sun, notwithstanding their velocity, injure not the eye by
reason of their minuteness; so the attacks of envy, notwithstanding their number,
ought not to wound our virtue by reason of their insignificance.
O BS. 4. In the first sentence of the following example, a comma between the
clauses is sufficient, because there are no points in the clauses; but the second
sentence may serve to illustrate Rules 11 and 12:
As there are some faults that have been termed faults on the right side, so
there are some errors that might be denominated errors on the safe side. Thus,
we seldom regret having been too mild, too cautious, or too humble; but we often
repent having been too violent, too precipitate, or too proud.
 12. When two clauses not closely dependent on each other, are
connected by but, for, and, or some similar connective, they are
separated by a semicolon.
I will not be revenged, and this I owe to my enemy; but I will remember, and
this I owe to myself.
A wise minister would rather preserve peace than gain a victory; because he
knows that even the most successful war leaves nations generally more poor,
always more profligate, than it found them.
Ingratitude in a superior is very often nothing more than the refusal of some
unreasonable request; and if the patron does too little, it is not unfrequently
because the dependent expects too much.

13. Phrases are often set off by a semicolon, viz.:

a. Explanatory phrases.
There remain to us moderns, only two roads to success; discovery and
conquest.

b. Participial and adjective phrases. {p100}

I have first considered whether it be worth while to say anything at all, before
I have taken any trouble to say it well; knowing that words are but air, and that
both are capable of much condensation.
These roads are what all roads should be; suitable for light carriages, and for
heavy-laden wagons.

c. Any phrase, especially if elliptical, or if divisible into smaller

portions by commas.
(O BS. 5. In speaking or in writing, we “almost always leave out some of the
words which are necessary to a full expression of our meaning. This leaving out is
called the ellipsis.”)
John Milton; born Dec. 9, 1608; completed Paradise Lost, 1665; died Nov. 10,
1674.

IV. COMMA.
14. Repeated words or expressions; three or more serial terms;
two unconnected serial terms,—are separated from each other by
the comma.
a. Repeated words or expressions.
Shut, shut the door.
I, I, I, I itself, I,
The inside and outside, the what and the why,
The when and the where, and the low and the high,
All I, I, I, I itself, I.
Give me back, give me back the wild freshness of morning.

b. Three or more serial terms.

Shakspeare, Butler, and Bacon have rendered it extremely difficult for all who
come after them to be sublime, witty, or profound.
The firm of Smith, Longman, Jones, Llewellyn, & Co.
But some printers, while observing the above rule in general, except the
names of firms and railroad companies; which, in their publications, appear as
follows: {p101}
The firm of Longman, Jones, Llewellyn & Co.
The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé R. R. Co.

c. Two unconnected serial terms.

He had a keen, ready wit.
O BS. 6. The second example under a (“The inside and outside, the what and
the why,”) furnishes an il­lus­tra­tion of the mode of punctuating terms joined in
pairs.
O BS. 7. Style sometimes requires the omission of the comma before and, or,
nor, when one of these connectives precedes the last term of a series: as
“Shakspeare, Butler and Bacon have rendered it extremely difficult for all who
come after them to be sublime, witty or profound.” But when the words are all in
the same predicament, the comma should be inserted; e. g.,—if you wish to state
that three certain persons are wise, you would point thus:
“Thomas, Richard, and John are wise.”
But if Richard and John are the Solons, and you wish to inform Thomas of that
fact, you would point thus:
“Thomas, Richard and John are wise.”
 So, in the first example under b, if it is desired to qualify the three adjectives
by the phrase “in the highest degree,” the comma after witty must stand: “in the
highest degree sublime, witty, or profound.” But if that phrase is intended to apply
to sublime only, the pointing should be thus: “in the highest degree sublime, witty
or profound.”
15. Phrases, clauses, and words, inverted, or otherwise not in
their natural position, generally require to be set off by a comma.
Into this illustrious society, my friend was joyfully received.
When we quarrel with ourselves, we are sure to be losers.
To satisfy you on that point, I will make a short argument.
He, like the world, his ready visits pays,
Where fortune smiles.
Roe, Richard. Doe, John.
O BS. 8. The exceptions to this rule are numerous. If the first and last words of
a passage are related (for him the summer wind murmured); if the inverted
phrase be brief, and can be read in close connection with what follows (in youth
we have little sympathy with the misfortunes of age); or if the principal clause is
itself inverted (In the center of the common rises a noble monument),—the
comma is usually omitted.
O BS. 9. In long lists of proper names, as Directories, etc., it is usual to omit the
comma, although the names are transposed, and to print thus:
Smith James W.
Thomson Theophilus.

16. When the principal sentence is broken to receive an

incidental or parenthetic expression, a comma is placed at the break,
and another at the end of the inserted clause.
Rulers and magistrates should attempt to operate on the minds of their
respective subjects, if possible, by reward rather than punishment.
Some writers, in a vain attempt to be cutting and dry, give us only that which
is cut and dried.
It is known to every physician, that, whatever lazy people may say to the
contrary, early rising tends to longevity.
Go, then, where, wrapt in fear and gloom,
Fond hearts and true are sighing.
 O BS. 10. The former comma is frequently omitted. Especially is this the case
when the previous part of the sentence has required commas. Liberal pointing
would omit the comma after “where,” in the above example. And in the following
sentence, from General Marcy’s “Ramblings in the West,” note the omission of the
comma after “and,” and from the parenthetic clause “it was believed”:
This, with the destruction of our trains, consumed the greater part of our
winter supplies, and as they could not be replenished from the Missouri River
before the following June, General Johnston, the commander, determined to send
a detachment directly over the mountains to New Mexico, from whence it was
believed supplies could be obtained earlier than from farther east. {p103}
Notice, also, the omission of the comma after “and” and “but,” in the following
paragraphs:
He left college; and forsaken by his friends, he took refuge with the parliament
party.—Marsh, Eccl. Hist.
The written law is sufficient to decide this case; but inasmuch as the
irregularity in question is a fertile source of disputes, the case has been deemed
worthy of insertion.—Cavendish.
(The most common parenthetic expressions are at least, at most, accordingly,
as it were, beyond question, consequently, doubtless, furthermore, generally
speaking, in the mean time, on the other hand, etc.)
17. Words or phrases expressing contrast, or emphatically
distinguished, and terms having a common relation to some other
term that follows them, require the comma.
a. Contrast or notable difference.
His style is correct, yet familiar.
I asked for money, not advice.
’Twas fat, not fate, by which Napoleon fell.
Although Prince Hohenlohe was far more specific in pointing out what ought to
be avoided than in showing what ought to be done, yet there could be no
mistaking the course which the government was intending to pursue.
They are charitable, not to benefit the poor, but to court the rich.
O BS. 11. Two contrasted words having a common dependence, and connected
by but, though, yet, or as well as, should not be separated; as, There are springs
of clear but brackish water.
b. Terms having a common relation to a succeeding term.
 Ordered, That the Committee on Banking be, and they hereby are, instructed
to report a bill. {p104}
That officer was not in opposition to, but in close alliance with, thieves.
O BS. 12. Some proof-readers, however, omit the second comma, when but a
single word follows the latter proposition; as, “Many states were in alliance with,
and under the protection of Rome.” The better method is to insert the point.
“[Bonner was] an accomplished Italian, and probably also a Spanish, scholar.”—
Froude.
18. Correlative terms, or expressions having a reciprocal relation,
are separated by a comma.
The farther we look back into those distant periods, all the objects seem to
become more obscure.
The more a man has, the more he wants.
As he that knows how to put proper words in proper places evinces the truest
knowledge of books, so he that knows how to put fit persons in fit stations
evinces the truest knowledge of men.
It is not so difficult a task to plant new truths, as to root out old errors.
Where MacDonald sits, there is the head of the table.
Cincinnatus and Washington were greater in their retirement, than Cæsar and
Napoleon at the summit of their ambition; since it requires less magnanimity to
win the conquest, than to refuse the spoil.
O BS. 13. Sometimes when that, and generally when as or than, so that or such
that is used, the connection is too close to admit the comma.
Cromwell’s enemies say that he always fought with more sincerity than he
prayed.
Your house is larger than mine.
Paper is not so good as gold.
The old gentleman is so infirm that he can scarcely move.
He told such a story that we were all deceived by it. {p105}

19. Words used in direct address, and independent and absolute

words, with what belongs to them, are separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas.
Q. You say, Mr. Witness, that you were present?
A. Yes, sir.
 Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes.
My son, give me thy heart.
At length, having fought the good fight, he left the world in peace.
To confess the truth, I was in fault.
Richard Roe, his father being dead, succeeded to the estate.
Silence having been obtained, the speaker went on with his remarks.

20. The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by a

comma when the connection is too close for the semicolon.
The winds roared in the woods, and the torrents tumbled from the hills.
Hasten to your homes, and there teach your children to detest the deeds of
tyranny.
It has, by some grammarians, been given as a rule, to use a comma to set off
every part of a compound sentence, which part has in it a verb not in the infinitive
mode.
O BS. 14. A dependent clause should be separated by a comma, unless closely
connected.
It argues a defect of method, when an author is obliged to write notes upon
his own works.
Unless we hurry to the beach, the tide will overtake us.
Whatever reception the present age may give this work, we rest satisfied with
our endeavors to deserve a kind one.
When the Tartars make a Lama, their first care is to place him in a dark corner
of the temple.
O BS. 15. If a clause beginning with as, because, if, wherever, how, lest, than,
that, when, where, whether, while, why, or any {p106} adverb of time, place, or
manner, follows a clause with which it is closely connected in sense, it is not set
off by a comma: “He went away when the boat left.” “We love him because he
first loved us.” “He will pay if he is able.” “Tell me whether you will return.”
O BS. 16. An infinitive phrase closely connected with what it modifies, should
not be set off by a comma; as, “We use language to express our thoughts.”
“Nouns do not vary their endings to denote certain cases.” But if the infinitive
phrase is preceded by in order, or if it is remote from what it modifies, it should
be set off by a comma. “He collected a great many young elms from various parts
of England, to adorn his grounds.” “If dissimulation is ever to be pardoned, it is
that which men have recourse to, in order to obtain situations which will enlarge
their sphere of general usefulness.”
 21. A word or phrase used in apposition, to explicate or illustrate
a previous word or phrase, should be set off by commas; but if the
words in apposition constitute a single phrase or a proper name,
they should not be separated.
a. Comma required.
Johnson, that mighty Caliban of literature, is held up to view in the pages of
Boswell.
The alligator, or cayman, is found in the Orinoco.
Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge.

If the position of the terms in apposition is reversed, commas are

required.
The apostle of the Gentiles, Paul, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge.
That old last century poet, Crowley, sings thus.

b. Comma not required.

Johnson the lexicographer completed his dictionary in seven years. {p107}

We the undersigned agree to pay the sums set against our names respectively.
Jeremy the prophet commanded them that were carried away to take of the
fire, as it hath been signified.
I Paul have written it with mine own hand.
The poet Chaucer lived in the reign of Richard II.
Sir John Walpole understood two grand secrets of state: the power of
principal, and the weakness of principle.

22. A simple sentence usually requires no point except the period

at the end of it.
Count Bismarck has preserved a pleasant intimacy with his old preceptor.
O BS. 17. When the subject is a clause ending with a verb, or with a noun that
might be mistaken for the nominative, a comma should be inserted before the
predicate.
That winter campaigns are undertaken, shows a desire to kill the Indians.
Captain Smith’s obedience to orders, issued in his promotion.
 Every year that is added to the age of the world, serves to lengthen the thread
of its history.
He that gives a portion of his time and talent to the investigation of
mathematical truth, will come to all other questions with a decided advantage
over his opponents.
In the following sentence, a comma after “them” might not be improper (for
we once heard a reader place a pause after “attacked”),—but we shall not attack
one of General Sherman’s sentences, lest we “get the worst of it.”
During this campaign hundreds if not thousands of miles of similar
intrenchments were built by both armies, and as a rule whichever party attacked
one of them got the worst of it.—Memoirs Gen. W. T. Sherman.
O BS. 18. Whether a comma should be inserted after the verb to be, when that
verb is followed by an infinitive clause which might by transposition be made the
nominative, is a question on which the best authorities differ.
First Method.—The highest art of the mind of man is to possess itself with
tranquillity in the hour of danger. {p108}
Second Method.—The highest art of the mind of man is, to possess itself with
tranquillity in the hour of danger.
We are of opinion that usage is in favor of the omission of the comma, as in
the following examples:
The proposed object of the Union Dictionary is to comprehend at once all that
is truly useful in Johnson, Sheridan, and Walker.—Thomas Browne.
The grandest of all conditions is to be at once healthy and wise and good.—
D’Arcy Thompson.
O BS. 19. When the subject is an infinitive phrase, the better method is not to
separate it; as, “To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in
character.” Still there is excellent authority for inserting a comma, thus: “To be
totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character.” In sentences
of this kind we advise the proof-reader to omit the comma unless the author is
uniform in the insertion of it.
O BS. 20. Some grammarians set off by a comma the predicate, when it refers
to separated nominatives preceding it; as, “The benches, chairs, and tables, were
thrown down.” And, again, we find this example given: “Veracity, justice, and
charity, are essential virtues.” So, in the ordinances of the City of Boston, “if any
person or persons shall roast any cocoa,” without having complied with certain
conditions, “he, she, or they, shall forfeit and pay for every such offense,” etc.,—a
comma appearing after they, although a conjunction precedes it. But the weight
of authority is against separating the last noun or pronoun of such compound
subject from the verb when the conjunction is used. The last quotation, above
given, should read, “he, she, or they shall forfeit,” etc.
23. A comma should be placed before or after a word or phrase,
to associate it with the group to which it belongs, if, without the
comma, the sentence would be equivocal; and generally, a comma
may be inserted wherever its use will prevent ambiguity.
This man, only cared to lay up money.
This man only, cared to lay up money.
Whoever lives opprobriously, must perish.
The first maxim among philosophers is, that merit only, makes distinction.
{p109}

The delight which I found in reading Pliny, first inspired me with the idea of a
work of this nature.—Goldsmith.
My communication was offered and refused.
My communication was offered, and refused on account of its length.
O BS. 21. We recently met with this last sentence, pointed as follows: “My
communication was offered and refused, on account of its length”; but it is not
easy to see why the length of a communication should be assigned as the reason
for having offered it.
“Every favor a man receives in some measure sinks him below his dignity.”—
Goldsmith.
O BS. 22. A comma should have been placed after receives.
24. No comma is put between two words or phrases in
apposition, following the verbs think, name, make, consider, and
others of a similar meaning.
They made him their ruler.
They called him captain.
They saluted him king.
I esteem you my friend.
Believing him an honest man, we elected him treasurer.
We constituted our Secretary a depositary of German books.
I consider him a gentleman.
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