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Algorithms
2nd Edition

by John Paul Mueller and Luca Massaron

Algorithms For Dummies®, 2nd Edition
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2022934261

ISBN: 978-1-119-86998-6; 978-1-119-86999-3 (ebk); 978-1-119-87000-5 (ebk)

Contents at a Glance
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Part 1: Getting Started with Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 1: Introducing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
CHAPTER 2: Considering Algorithm Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CHAPTER 3: Working with Google Colab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
CHAPTER 4: Performing Essential Data Manipulations Using Python. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
CHAPTER 5: Developing a Matrix Computation Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Part 2: Understanding the Need to Sort and Search . . . . . . . . 97

CHAPTER 6: Structuring Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
CHAPTER 7: Arranging and Searching Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Part 3: Exploring the World of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

CHAPTER 8: Understanding Graph Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
CHAPTER 9: Reconnecting the Dots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
CHAPTER 10: Discovering Graph Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
CHAPTER 11: Getting the Right Web page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Part 4: Wrangling Big Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CHAPTER 12: Managing Big Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
CHAPTER 13: Parallelizing Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
CHAPTER 14: Compressing and Concealing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Part 5: Challenging Difficult Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

CHAPTER 15: Working with Greedy Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
CHAPTER 16: Relying on Dynamic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
CHAPTER 17: Using Randomized Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
CHAPTER 18: Performing Local Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
CHAPTER 19: Employing Linear Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
CHAPTER 20: Considering Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Part 6: The Part of Tens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

CHAPTER 21: Ten Algorithms That Are Changing the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
CHAPTER 22: Ten Algorithmic Problems Yet to Solve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
About This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Foolish Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Icons Used in This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Beyond the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Where to Go from Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

PART 1: GETTING STARTED WITH ALGORITHMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 1: Introducing Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Describing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The right way to make toast: Defining algorithm uses . . . . . . . . . . 12
Finding algorithms everywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Using Computers to Solve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Getting the most out of modern CPUs and GPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Working with special-purpose chips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Networks: Sharing is more than caring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Leveraging available data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Distinguishing between Issues and Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Being correct and efficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Discovering there is no free lunch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Adapting the strategy to the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Describing algorithms in a lingua franca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Facing problems that are like brick walls, only harder. . . . . . . . . . . 21
Structuring Data to Obtain a Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Understanding a computer’s point of view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Arranging data makes the difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER 2: Considering Algorithm Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Starting to Solve a Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Modeling real-world problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Finding solutions and counterexamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Standing on the shoulders of giants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Dividing and Conquering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Avoiding brute-force solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Keeping it simple, silly (KISS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Breaking down a problem is usually better. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Learning that Greed Can Be Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Applying greedy reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Reaching a good solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Computing Costs and Following Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table of Contents v
 Representing the problem as a space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Going random and being blessed by luck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Using a heuristic and a cost function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Evaluating Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Simulating using abstract machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Getting even more abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Working with functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

CHAPTER 3: Working with Google Colab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Defining Google Colab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Understanding what Google Colab does. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Getting familiar with Google Colab features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Working with Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Creating a new notebook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Opening existing notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Saving notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Performing Common Tasks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Creating code cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Creating text cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Creating special cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Editing cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Moving cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Using Hardware Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Executing the Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Getting Help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

CHAPTER 4: Performing Essential Data Manipulations

Using Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Performing Calculations Using Vectors and Matrixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Understanding scalar and vector operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Performing vector multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Creating a matrix is the right way to start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Multiplying matrixes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Defining advanced matrix operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Creating Combinations the Right Way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Distinguishing permutations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Shuffling combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Facing repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Getting the Desired Results Using Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Explaining recursion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Eliminating tail call recursion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Performing Tasks More Quickly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Considering divide and conquer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Distinguishing between different possible solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . 78

vi Algorithms For Dummies

CHAPTER 5: Developing a Matrix Computation Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Avoiding the Use of NumPy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Understanding Why Using a Class is Important. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Building the Basic Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Creating a matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Printing the resulting matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Accessing specific matrix elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Performing scalar and matrix addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Performing multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Manipulating the Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Transposing a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Calculating the determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Flattening the matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

PART 2: UNDERSTANDING THE NEED

TO SORT AND SEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
CHAPTER 6: Structuring Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Determining the Need for Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

Making it easier to see the content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Matching data from various sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Considering the need for remediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Stacking and Piling Data in Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Ordering in stacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Using queues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Finding data using dictionaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Working with Trees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Understanding the basics of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Building a tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Representing Relations in a Graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Going beyond trees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Building graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

CHAPTER 7: Arranging and Searching Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Sorting Data Using Merge Sort and Quick Sort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Understanding why sorting data is important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Employing better sort techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Using Search Trees and the Heap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Considering the need to search effectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Building a binary search tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Performing specialized searches using a binary heap. . . . . . . . . . 131
Relying on Hashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Putting everything into buckets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Avoiding collisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Creating your own hash function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Table of Contents vii

 PART 3: EXPLORING THE WORLD OF GRAPHS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
CHAPTER 8: Understanding Graph Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Explaining the Importance of Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Considering the essence of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Finding graphs everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Showing the social side of graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Understanding subgraphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Defining How to Draw a Graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Distinguishing the key attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Drawing the graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Measuring Graph Functionality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Counting edges and vertexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Computing centrality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Putting a Graph in Numeric Format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Adding a graph to a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Using sparse representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Using a list to hold a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

CHAPTER 9: Reconnecting the Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Traversing a Graph Efficiently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Creating the graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Applying breadth-first search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Applying depth-first search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Determining which application to use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Sorting the Graph Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Working on Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Relying on topological sorting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Reducing to a Minimum Spanning Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Getting the minimum spanning tree historical context. . . . . . . . . 170
Working with unweighted versus weighted graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Creating a minimum spanning tree example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Discovering the correct algorithms to use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Introducing priority queues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Leveraging Prim’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Testing Kruskal’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Determining which algorithm works best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Finding the Shortest Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Defining what it means to find the shortest path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Adding a negative edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Explaining Dijkstra’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Explaining the Bellman-Ford algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Explaining the Floyd-Warshall algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

viii Algorithms For Dummies

CHAPTER 10: Discovering Graph Secrets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Envisioning Social Networks as Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Clustering networks in groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Discovering communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Navigating a Graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Counting the degrees of separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Walking a graph randomly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

CHAPTER 11: Getting the Right Web page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Finding the World in a Search Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Searching the Internet for data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Considering how to find the right data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Explaining the PageRank Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Understanding the reasoning behind the
PageRank algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Explaining the nuts and bolts of PageRank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Implementing PageRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Implementing a Python script. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Struggling with a naive implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Introducing boredom and teleporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Looking inside the life of a search engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Considering other uses of PageRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Going Beyond the PageRank Paradigm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Introducing semantic queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Using AI for ranking search results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

PART 4: WRANGLING BIG DATA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CHAPTER 12: Managing Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Transforming Power into Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Understanding Moore’s implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Finding data everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Getting algorithms into business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Streaming Flows of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Analyzing streams with the right recipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Reserving the right data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Sketching an Answer from Stream Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Filtering stream elements by heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Demonstrating the Bloom filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Finding the number of distinct elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Learning to count objects in a stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Table of Contents ix
 CHAPTER 13: Parallelizing Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Managing Immense Amounts of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Understanding the parallel paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Distributing files and operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Employing the MapReduce solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Working Out Algorithms for MapReduce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Setting up a MapReduce simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Inquiring by mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

CHAPTER 14: Compressing and Concealing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Making Data Smaller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Understanding encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Considering the effects of compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Choosing a particular kind of compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Choosing your encoding wisely. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Encoding using Huffman compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Remembering sequences with LZW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Hiding Your Secrets with Cryptography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Substituting characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Working with AES encryption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

PART 5: CHALLENGING DIFFICULT PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . 289

CHAPTER 15: Working with Greedy Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Deciding When It Is Better to Be Greedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Understanding why greedy is good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Keeping greedy algorithms under control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Considering NP complete problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Finding Out How Greedy Can Be Useful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Arranging cached computer data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Competing for resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Revisiting Huffman coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

CHAPTER 16: Relying on Dynamic Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Explaining Dynamic Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Obtaining a historical basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Making problems dynamic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Casting recursion dynamically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Leveraging memoization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Discovering the Best Dynamic Recipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Looking inside the knapsack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Touring around cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Approximating string search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

x Algorithms For Dummies

CHAPTER 17: Using Randomized Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Defining How Randomization Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Considering why randomization is needed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Understanding how probability works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Understanding distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Simulating the use of the Monte Carlo method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Putting Randomness into your Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Calculating a median using quick select. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Doing simulations using Monte Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Ordering faster with quick sort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

CHAPTER 18: Performing Local Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Understanding Local Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Knowing the neighborhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Presenting local search tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Explaining hill climbing with n-queens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Discovering simulated annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Avoiding repeats using Tabu Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Solving Satisfiability of Boolean Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Solving 2-SAT using randomization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
Implementing the Python code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Realizing that the starting point is important. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

CHAPTER 19: Employing Linear Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

Using Linear Functions as a Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Grasping the basic math you need. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Learning to simplify when planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Working with geometry using simplex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Understanding the limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Using Linear Programming in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Setting up PuLP at home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Optimizing production and revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

CHAPTER 20: Considering Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

Differentiating Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Considering the goals of heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Going from genetic to AI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Routing Robots Using Heuristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Scouting in unknown territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Using distance measures as heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Explaining Path Finding Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Creating a maze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Looking for a quick best-first route. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Going heuristically around by A* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Table of Contents xi
 PART 6: THE PART OF TENS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
CHAPTER 21: Ten Algorithms That Are Changing the World. . . . . 403
Using Sort Routines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Looking for Things with Search Routines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Shaking Things Up with Random Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Performing Data Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Keeping Data Secret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Changing the Data Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Analyzing Links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Spotting Data Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Dealing with Automation and Automatic Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Creating Unique Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

CHAPTER 22: Ten Algorithmic Problems Yet to Solve. . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

Solving Problems Quickly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Solving 3SUM Problems More Efficiently. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Making Matrix Multiplication Faster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Determining Whether an Application Will End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Creating and Using One-Way Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Multiplying Really Large Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Dividing a Resource Equally. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Reducing Edit Distance Calculation Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Playing the Parity Game. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Understanding Spatial Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

xii Algorithms For Dummies

Introduction
Y
ou need to learn about algorithms for school or work. Yet, all the books
you’ve tried on the subject end up being more along the lines of really good
sleep-inducing aids rather than texts to teach you something. Assuming
that you can get past the arcane symbols obviously written by a demented
two-year-old with a penchant for squiggles, you end up having no idea of why
you’d even want to know anything about them. Most math texts are boring!
However, Algorithms For Dummies, 2nd Edition is different. The first thing you’ll
note is that this book has a definite lack of odd symbols (especially of the squiggly
sort) floating about. Yes, you see a few (it is a math book, after all), but what you
find instead are clear instructions for using algorithms that actually have names
and a history behind them and that perform useful tasks. You’ll encounter simple
coding techniques to perform amazing tasks that will intrigue your friends. You
can certainly make them jealous as you perform feats of math that they can’t
begin to understand. You get all this without having to strain your brain, even a
little, and you won’t even fall asleep (well, unless you really want to do so). New
in this edition of the book are more details about how algorithms work, and you
even get to create your own basic math package so that you know how to do it for
that next job interview.

About This Book

Algorithms For Dummies, 2nd Edition is the math book that you wanted in college
but didn’t get. You discover, for example, that algorithms aren’t new. After all,
the Babylonians used algorithms to perform simple tasks as early as 1,600 BC. If
the Babylonians could figure this stuff out, certainly you can, too! This book actu-
ally has three things that you won’t find in most math books:

»» Algorithms that have actual names and a historical basis so that you can
remember the algorithm and know why someone took time to create it

»» Simple explanations of how the algorithm performs awesome feats of data

manipulation, data analysis, or probability prediction

»» Code that shows how to use the algorithm without actually dealing with
arcane symbols that no one without a math degree can understand

Introduction 1
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Finance - Solution Manual
Winter 2024 - Department

Prepared by: Professor Jones

Date: July 28, 2025

Quiz 1: Learning outcomes and objectives

Learning Objective 1: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 7: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 2: Key terms and definitions
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 14: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 19: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 3: Study tips and learning strategies
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 21: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Results 4: Literature review and discussion
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 31: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 37: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 39: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Discussion 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 40: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 43: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 47: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 6: Theoretical framework and methodology
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 51: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 7: Experimental procedures and results
Example 60: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 64: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 8: Literature review and discussion
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 78: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 9: Key terms and definitions
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 83: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 10: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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