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Fundamentals of Image Data Mining: Analysis, Features,

Classification and Retrieval 2nd Edition Dengsheng Zhang

The Data Science Design Manual Texts in Computer Science

Skiena

Deep Learning for Hyperspectral Image Analysis and

Classification Linmi Tao

Essentials of Food Chemistry Jianquan Kan

Research Design Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods
Arts Based and Community Based Participatory Research
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JavaScript Cookbook, 3rd Edition Adam D. Scott

The Lookback Window A Novel 1st Edition Kyle Dillon Hertz

Sports Fields: Design, Construction, and Maintenance 3rd

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The Social Origins of Political Regionalism France 1849

1981 William Brustein
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Texts in Computer Science

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series/​3191
Dengsheng Zhang

Fundamentals of Image Data Mining

Analysis, Features, Classification and Retrieval
2nd ed. 2021
Dengsheng Zhang
Federation University Australia, Churchill, VIC, Australia

ISSN 1868-0941 e-ISSN 1868-095X

Texts in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-69250-6 e-ISBN 978-3-030-69251-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69251-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
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To my beloved wife Qin
Preface
Due to the rapid development of Internet and digital technology, a
mammoth amount of digital data has been created in the world in just a
few decades. The processing and management of big data including
image data have become one of the greatest challenges facing
humankind. Images are a dominant information source and
communication method along with text. However, the processing and
understanding of image data are far more difficult than dealing with
textual data. Tremendous efforts have been made, and a large amount
of research work has been carried out around the world in the past few
decades to overcome the challenges of efficient management of image
data. A significant progress has been achieved in the field of image data
mining during this period of intensive research and experiments,
highlighted by those breakthrough technologies such as wavelets,
MPEG, Google Image search, convolutional neural network, machine
learning, ImageNet, Matlab toolboxes, etc.
Given the complexity of image data mining, there is a need for a
deep analysis of and insight into the field, especially the latest
development, to help researchers understand opportunities and
challenges in the field. This book timely captures and presents cutting-
edge techniques in the field of image data mining as well as
foundational know-how for processing images. The book also provides
a complete recipe for image data mining and is a treasure trove of
techniques on image analysis, image understanding, feature extraction,
machine learning and image retrieval. The book is built upon the
author’s career-long and high-impact research in the frontier of this
exciting research field. Theories and concepts in the book are typically
formulated with practical mathematical models which are realized
using algorithms and data from actual experiments or working
examples. Students and researchers in mathematics and the broader
science disciplines will be able to use this book to understand the
actual problems in computing world and gain firsthand experience of
computing. Students and researchers in many areas of the computing
discipline will be able to use this book to understand how to apply
fundamental and advanced math tools to solve the variety of computing
problems.
Dr. Dengsheng Zhang
Melbourne, Australia
January 2021
About This Book
The book covers the complete know-how on image data mining
including math tools, analysis, features, learning and presentation. It
has been organized into four parts: fundamentals, feature extraction,
image classification and image retrieval.
Part I of the book aims to equip readers with some essential tools
for image mining. Specifically, Part I provides a brief and evolutionary
journey from the classical Fourier transform (Chap. 1) to Gabor filters
(Chap. 2) and to contemporary wavelet transform (Chap. 3). It prepares
readers with fundamental math for some of the advanced mining
techniques discussed in the book. Apart from the theories, this part also
uses Fourier spectra, STFT spectrogram, Gabor filter spectra, DCT
spectra and wavelet spectra to demonstrate how key information or
features in an image can be captured by these fundamental transforms.
Part II and Part III are the core of the book, which examine and
analyze varieties of state-of-the-art models, tools,
algorithms/procedures and machines for image mining. In contrast to
Part I which is mostly theoretical, these two parts focus on dealing with
real image data and real image mining. Part II demonstrates how a
variety of features can be mined or extracted from images for image
representation, and it covers three chapters which focus on color
(Chap. 4), texture (Chap. 5) and shape, respectively (Chap. 6). Each
chapter typically begins with simple methods or methods at intro level
and moves on to the more advanced methods in a natural flow. Most of
the methods in Part II are demonstrated with intuitive illustrations.
If Part II is analogue to raw mining, Part III is about refinery.
Specifically, Part III presents readers with four powerful learning
machines to classify image data, including Bayesian machine (Chap. 7),
SVM (Chap. 8), ANN/CNN (Chap. 9) and DT (Chap. 10). Each chapter in
this part begins with an icebreaking and introductory journey to give
readers a big picture and a direction to follow. It then navigates to the
more advanced topics with illustrations to key concepts and
components of the learning machine. The story of each machine
learning method is typically told with concise maths, demonstrations,
applications and implementations.
 After a breathtaking and arduous journey on image mining
involving feature extraction and machine learning, readers are soothed
with a recovery journey on image retrieval in Part IV. Part IV deals with
putting images in order, inspecting the quality of a haul and organizing
them for presentation or display. Indexing techniques suitable for
image data are first described in details in Chap. 11 followed by the
analysis of a number of image ranking techniques in Chap. 12. The part
concludes in Chap. 13 with a number of interesting image presentation
techniques and powerful image database visualization methods.

Key Features
A shortcut to AI. AI and machine learning are usually intimidating to
many who don’t have the sophisticated mathematics background. This
book, however, offers readers a surprising shortcut to AI on machine
learning by introducing four major machine learning tools with gentle
and easy to understand mathematics using rich illustrations.
A natural marriage between maths and data. Maths and data can
only be understood well when they are well matched. This book brings
mathematics and computing into a single display and tells image stories
with maths by a trained mathematician.
Visualization of image data mining. With more than 200
illustrations (multiple illustrations in some figures), it can be said that
the book is a visualization of image data mining, making it very easy to
read and understand for readers.
End of chapter summary. Every chapter of the book is equipped
with an end of chapter summary to highlight the key points and
connect the dots in the chapter. The summary also gives insights into
some of the essentials which can be missed during the reading.
Project-based exercises. High-quality exercises with instructions
or Matlab code have been created for each chapter to give readers the
opportunities to test their skills learnt from the book. Each exercise is
designed as a mini project which helps students to gain skills on solving
a real-world problem. Instructors can expand most of them into
internship projects and final year projects for undergraduates.
Writing for scanning. The book makes extensive use of powerful
writing techniques tailored for modern readers, including inverted
pyramid writing, blurbs, bullet lists, plain language, keyword headings,
text chunking, analogies, scannable content, etc. Due to the use of a
variety of writing for scanning techniques, it makes reading of the book
very efficient and a good experience.

New Features of the Second Edition

1. A new section of discrete cosine transform or DCT has been added
to Chap. 2. DCT features are widely used in many machine learning
methods. Block-based DCT extends the series of windowed FT and
shows the power of windowed FT from another perspective.

2. A new section of pre-processing has been added to Chap. 4. Noise

removal and contrast enhancement are essential for image
processing. The inclusion of techniques such as Gaussian filter,
median filter and histogram equalization in the chapter further
enhances the power of feature extraction.

3. A new section of statistical testing has been added to Chap. 12.

Often researchers need to evaluate their work against existing
approaches, hypothesis test provides a tool to verify the
performance of their work and make the result more convincing.
The additional section equips the readers with essential theories of
statistical inference and provides a toolkit on how to conduct
hypothesis test. This section offers readers a shortcut to statistical
inference which is a complex topic.

4. New exercises have been added to Chaps. 8–13 and more quality
exercises have been added to other chapters. Most of the exercises
are provided with Matlab code and instructions, making them a
valuable resource and experience for readers.
Contents
Part I Preliminaries
1 Fourier Transform
1.​1 Introduction
1.​2 Fourier Series
1.​2.​1 Sinusoids
1.​2.​2 Fourier Series
1.​2.​3 Complex Fourier Series
1.​3 Fourier Transform
1.​4 Discrete Fourier Transform
1.​4.​1 DFT
1.​4.​2 Uncertainty Principle
1.​4.​3 Nyquist Theorem
1.​5 2D Fourier Transform
1.​6 Properties of 2D Fourier Transform
1.​6.​1 Separability
1.​6.​2 Translation
1.​6.​3 Rotation
1.​6.​4 Scaling
1.​6.​5 Convolution Theorem
1.​7 Techniques of Computing FT Spectrum
1.​8 Summary
1.​9 Exercises
References
2 Windowed Fourier Transform
2.​1 Introduction
 2.​2 Short-Time Fourier Transform
2.​2.​1 Spectrogram
2.​3 Gabor Filters
2.​3.​1 Gabor Transform
2.​3.​2 Design of Gabor Filters
2.​3.​3 Spectra of Gabor Filters
2.​4 Discrete Cosine Transform
2.​4.​1 1D DCT Model
2.​4.​2 DCT Bases
2.​4.​3 2D DCT
2.​4.​4 Computation of 2D DCT
2.​5 Summary
2.​6 Exercises
References
3 Wavelet Transform
3.​1 Discrete Wavelet Transform
3.​2 Multiresolution Analysis
3.​3 Fast Wavelet Transform
3.​3.​1 DTW Decomposition Tree
3.​3.​2 1D Haar Wavelet Transform
3.​3.​3 2D Haar Wavelet Transform
3.​3.​4 Application of DWT on Image
3.​4 Summary
3.​5 Exercises
Part II Image Representation and Feature Extraction
4 Color Feature Extraction
4.​1 Introduction
4.​2 Color Space
4.2.1 CIE XYZ, xyY Color Spaces
4.​2.​2 RGB Color Space
4.​2.​3 HSV, HSL and HSI Color Spaces
4.​2.​4 CIE LUV Color Space
4.​2.​5 Y′CbCr Color Space
4.​3 Image Clustering and Segmentation
4.3.1 K-means Clustering
4.​3.​2 JSEG Segmentation
4.​4 Color Feature Extraction
4.​4.​1 Color Histogram
4.​4.​1.​1 Component Histogram
4.​4.​1.​2 Indexed Color Histogram
4.​4.​1.​3 Dominant Color Histogram
4.​4.​2 Color Structure Descriptor
4.​4.​3 Dominant Color Descriptor
4.​4.​4 Color Coherence Vector
4.​4.​5 Color Correlogram
4.​4.​6 Color Layout Descriptor
4.​4.​7 Scalable Color Descriptor
4.​4.​8 Color Moments
4.​5 Image Enhancement
4.​5.​1 Noise Removal
4.​5.​2 Contrast Enhancement
4.​6 Summary
 4.​7 Exercises
References
5 Texture Feature Extraction
5.​1 Introduction
5.​2 Spatial Texture Feature Extraction Methods
5.​2.​1 Tamura Textures
5.​2.​2 Gray-Level Co-Occurrence Matrices
5.​2.​3 Markov Random Field
5.​2.​4 Fractal Dimension
5.​2.​5 Discussions
5.​3 Spectral Texture Feature Extraction Methods
5.​3.​1 DCT-Based Texture Feature
5.​3.​2 Texture Features Based on Gabor Filters
5.​3.​2.​1 Gabor Filters
5.​3.​2.​2 Gabor Spectrum
5.​3.​2.​3 Texture Representation
5.​3.​2.​4 Rotation Invariant Gabor Features
5.​3.​3 Texture Features Based on Wavelet Transform
5.​3.​3.​1 Selection and Application of Wavelets
5.​3.​3.​2 Contrast of DWT and Other Spectral Transforms
5.​3.​3.​3 Multiresolution Analysis
5.​3.​4 Texture Features Based on Curvelet Transform
5.​3.​4.​1 Curvelet Transform
5.​3.​4.​2 Discrete Curvelet Transform
5.​3.​4.​3 Curvelet Spectra
5.​3.​4.​4 Curvelet Features
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