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The document is about the second edition of the textbook 'Statistics: Learning from Data' by Roxy Peck and Tom Short, published by Cengage Learning. It provides a comprehensive overview of statistical concepts, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques, structured into various sections and chapters. The textbook is available in multiple formats, including a PDF eBook, and is highly rated by users.

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STATISTICS:
EDITION

2 LEARNING
FROM DATA
Roxy Peck
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Tom Short
West Chester University of Pennsylvania

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Student Edition:
Art Director: Vernon Boes
ISBN: 978-133-755808-2
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Cover Designer: Irene Morris ISBN: 978-133-755885-3

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Nicholas Rougeaux

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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017

To Jerry Moreno and Jerry Senturia for inspiring

me to become a statistician
Tom Short

About the Cover

Artist Nicholas Rougeux used data extracted from the maps of metro systems from around the world to create a graphic
image that grouped the colors used to represent the different transit lines into a single image. The sizes of the rectangles
that make up the image are based on the number of stations on each transit line. For more information and for an interactive
version of this image, see www.c82.net/work/?id=355.

ROXY PECK is a professor emerita of statistics at California

Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. She was a faculty
member in the Statistics Department for thirty years, serving for
six years as Chair of the Statistics Department and thirteen years
as Associate Dean of the College of Science and Mathematics.
Nationally known in the area of statistics education, Roxy was made
a Fellow of the American Statistical Association in 1998, and in 2003
she received the American Statistical Association’s Founders Award
in recognition of her contributions to K-12 and undergraduate statistics education. In
2009, she received the USCOTS Lifetime Achievement Award in Statistics Education.
In addition to coauthoring the textbooks Statistics: Learning from Data, Introduction to
Statistics and Data Analysis, and Statistics: The Exploration and Analysis of Data, she
is also editor of Statistics: A Guide to the Unknown, a collection of expository papers
that showcases applications of statistical methods. Roxy served from 1999 to 2003 as the
Chief Faculty Consultant for the Advanced Placement Statistics exam, and she is a past
chair of the joint ASA/NCTM Committee on Curriculum in Statistics and Probability
for Grades K-12 and of the ASA Section on Statistics Education. Outside the classroom,
Roxy enjoys travel and has visited all seven continents. She collects Navajo rugs and
heads to Arizona and New Mexico whenever she can find the time.

TOM SHORT is an Associate Professor in the Statistics Program

within the Department of Mathematics at West Chester University
of Pennsylvania. He previously held faculty positions at Villanova
University, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and John Carroll
University. He is a Fellow of the American Statistical Association and
received the 2005 Mu Sigma Rho Statistics Education Award. Tom is
part of the leadership team for readings of the Advanced Placement
(AP) Statistics Exam, and was a member of the AP Statistics
Development Committee. He has also served on the Board of Directors of the American
Statistical Association. Tom treasures the time he shares with his four children and the
many adventures experienced with his wife, Darlene.

Preface xi

SECTION I COLLECTING DATA

CHAPTER 1 Collecting Data in Reasonable Ways 2

SECTION II DESCRIBING DATA DISTRIBUTIONS

CHAPTER 2 Graphical Methods for Describing Data Distributions 44
CHAPTER 3 Numerical Methods for Describing Data Distributions 118
CHAPTER 4 Describing Bivariate Numerical Data 174

SECTION III A FOUNDATION FOR INFERENCE: REASONING ABOUT PROBABILITY

CHAPTER 5 Probability 240
CHAPTER 6 Random Variables and Probability Distributions 310

SECTION IV LEARNING FROM SAMPLE DATA

CHAPTER 7 An Overview of Statistical Inference—Learning from Data 380
CHAPTER 8 Sampling Variability and Sampling Distributions 400
CHAPTER 9 Estimating a Population Proportion 424
CHAPTER 10 Asking and Answering Questions About a Population Proportion 472
CHAPTER 11 Asking and Answering Questions About the Difference Between Two
Proportions 522
CHAPTER 12 Asking and Answering Questions About a Population Mean 566
CHAPTER 13 Asking and Answering Questions About the Difference Between
Two Means 622

SECTION V ADDITIONAL OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN FROM DATA

CHAPTER 14 Learning from Categorical Data 696
CHAPTER 15 Understanding Relationships—Numerical Data 736
CHAPTER 16 Asking and Answering Questions About More Than Two Means 782

SECTION I COLLECTING DATA

CHAPTER 1 Collecting Data in Reasonable Ways 2
Preview 2
Chapter Learning Objectives 3
1.1 Statistics—It’s All About Variability 4
1.2 Statistical Studies: Observation and Experimentation 5
1.3 Collecting Data: Planning an Observational Study 9
1.4 Collecting Data—Planning an Experiment 19
1.5 The Importance of Random Selection and Random Assignment: What Types of
Conclusions Are Reasonable? 30
1.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes 35
Chapter Activities 35
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 37
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 1 Review Exercises 38

S E C T I O N II DESCRIBING DATA DISTRIBUTIONS

CHAPTER 2 Graphical Methods for Describing Data
Distributions 44
Preview 44
Chapter Learning Objectives 45
2.1 Selecting an Appropriate Graphical Display 46
2.2 Displaying Categorical Data: Bar Charts and Comparative Bar Charts 50
2.3 Displaying Numerical Data: Dotplots, Stem-and-Leaf Displays, and Histograms 58
2.4 Displaying Bivariate Numerical Data: Scatterplots and Time Series Plots 85
2.5 Graphical Displays in the Media 92
2.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes 99
Chapter Activities 103
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 103
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 2 Review Exercises 105
Technology Notes 110

CHAPTER 3 Numerical Methods for Describing Data

Distributions 118
Preview 118
Chapter Learning Objectives 119
3.1 Selecting Appropriate Numerical Summaries 120
3.2 Describing Center and Variability for Data Distributions That Are Approximately
Symmetric 123
3.3 Describing Center and Variability for Data Distributions That Are Skewed or Have
Outliers 133
3.4 Summarizing a Data Set: Boxplots 142
3.5 Measures of Relative Standing: z-scores and Percentiles 154

3.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes 159

Chapter Activities 160
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 161
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 3 Review Exercises 164
Technology Notes 167

CHAPTER 4 Describing Bivariate Numerical

Data 174
Preview 174
Chapter Learning Objectives 175
4.1 Correlation 176
4.2 Linear Regression: Fitting a Line to Bivariate Data 193
4.3 Assessing the Fit of a Line 207
4.4 Describing Linear Relationships and Making Predictions—Putting It
All Together 227
4.5 Avoid These Common Mistakes 229
Chapter Activities 230
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 231
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 4 Review Exercises 232
Technology Notes 236
Want to Know More? See Chapter 4 Online Materials for coverage of Logistic
Regression.

S E C T I O N III
A FOUNDATION FOR INFERENCE: REASONING
ABOUT PROBABILITY

CHAPTER 5 Probability 240

Preview 240
Chapter Learning Objectives 241
5.1 Interpreting Probabilities 242
5.2 Calculating Probabilities 247
5.3 Probabilities of More Complex Events: Unions, Intersections, and
Complements 253
5.4 Conditional Probability 266
5.5 Calculating Probabilities—A More Formal Approach (Optional) 280
5.6 Probability as a Basis for Making Decisions 292
5.7 Estimating Probabilities Empirically and Using Simulation (Optional) 295
Chapter Activities 304
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 5 Review Exercises 305

CHAPTER 6 Random Variables and Probability

Distributions 310
Preview 310
Chapter Learning Objectives 311
6.1 Random Variables 312
6.2 Probability Distributions for Discrete Random Variables 315
6.3 Probability Distributions for Continuous Random Variables 321
6.4 Mean and Standard Deviation of a Random Variable 329
6.5 Normal Distributions 336
6.6 Checking for Normality 353
6.7 Binomial and Geometric Distributions (Optional) 358
6.8 Using the Normal Distribution to Approximate a Discrete Distribution (Optional) 368

Chapter Activities 373

Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 6 Review Exercises 373
Technology Notes 376
Want to know more? See Chapter 6 Online Materials for coverage of Counting Rules
and the Poisson Distribution

S E C T I O N IV LEARNING FROM SAMPLE DATA

CHAPTER 7 An Overview of Statistical Inference—Learning
from Data 380
Preview 380
Chapter Learning Objectives 381
7.1 Statistical Inference—What You Can Learn from Data 382
7.2 Selecting an Appropriate Method—Four Key Questions 388
7.3 A Five-Step Process for Statistical Inference 395
Chapter Activities 397
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 7 Review Exercises 397

CHAPTER 8 Sampling Variability and Sampling

Distributions 400
Preview 400
Chapter Learning Objectives 401
8.1 Statistics and Sampling Variability 403
8.2 The Sampling Distribution of a Sample Proportion 409
8.3 How Sampling Distributions Support Learning from Data 415
Chapter Activities 420
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 421
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 8 Review Exercises 421

CHAPTER 9 Estimating a Population Proportion 424

Preview 424
Chapter Learning Objectives 425
9.1 Selecting an Estimator 426
9.2 Estimating a Population Proportion—Margin of Error 431
9.3 A Large-Sample Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion 438
9.4 Choosing a Sample Size to Achieve a Desired Margin of Error 453
9.5 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals for a Population Proportion (Optional) 455
9.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes 462
Chapter Activities 464
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 466
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 9 Review Exercises 467
Technology Notes 469

CHAPTER 10 Asking and Answering Questions About

a Population Proportion 472
Preview 472
Chapter Learning Objectives 473
10.1 Hypotheses and Possible Conclusions 474
10.2 Potential Errors in Hypothesis Testing 480
10.3 The Logic of Hypothesis Testing—An Informal Example 486
10.4 A Procedure for Carrying Out a Hypothesis Test 490
10.5 Large-Sample Hypothesis Test for a Population Proportion 494

10.6 Randomization Tests and Exact Binomial Tests for One Proportion
(Optional) 507
10.7 Avoid These Common Mistakes 516
Chapter Activities 517
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 517
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 10 Review Exercises 518
Technology Notes 520

CHAPTER 11 Asking and Answering Questions About the

Difference Between Two Proportions 522
Preview 522
Chapter Learning Objectives 523
11.1 Estimating the Difference Between Two Population Proportions 524
11.2 Testing Hypotheses About the Difference Between Two Population
Proportions 532
11.3 Inference for Two Proportions Using Data from an Experiment 541
11.4 Simulation-Based Inference for Two Proportions (Optional) 550
11.5 Avoid These Common Mistakes 559
Chapter Activities 560
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 560
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 11 Review Exercises 561
Technology Notes 562

CHAPTER 12 Asking and Answering Questions About

a Population Mean 566
Preview 566
Chapter Learning Objectives 567
12.1 The Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean 568
12.2 A Confidence Interval for a Population Mean 578
12.3 Testing Hypotheses About a Population Mean 592
12.4 Simulation-Based Inference for One Mean (Optional) 606
12.5 Avoid These Common Mistakes 614
Chapter Activities 615
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 616
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 12 Review Exercises 617
Technology Notes 619

CHAPTER 13 Asking and Answering Questions About the

Difference Between Two Means 622
Preview 622
Chapter Learning Objectives 623
13.1 Two Samples: Paired versus Independent Samples 624
13.2 Learning About a Difference in Population Means Using Paired
Samples 628
13.3 Learning About a Difference in Population Means Using Independent
Samples 643
13.4 Inference for Two Means Using Data from an Experiment 661
13.5 Simulation-Based Inference for Two Means (Optional) 673
13.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes 685
Chapter Activities 686
Explorations in Statistical Thinking 687
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 13 Review Exercises 687
Technology Notes 691

SECTION V ADDITIONAL OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN FROM DATA

CHAPTER 14 Learning from Categorical Data 696
Preview 696
Chapter Learning Objectives 697
14.1 Chi-Square Tests for Univariate Categorical Data 698
14.2 Tests for Homogeneity and Independence in a Two-Way Table 712
14.3 Avoid These Common Mistakes 728
Chapter Activities 729
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 14 Review Exercises 729
Technology Notes 732

CHAPTER 15 Understanding Relationships—Numerical

Data 736
Preview 736
Chapter Learning Objectives 737
15.1 The Simple Linear Regression Model 738
15.2 Inferences Concerning the Slope of the Population Regression Line 750
15.3 Checking Model Adequacy 762
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 15 Review Exercises 777
Technology Notes 779

CHAPTER 16 Asking and Answering Questions About More

Than Two Means 782
Preview 782
Chapter Learning Objectives 783
16.1 The Analysis of Variance—Single-Factor ANOVA and the F Test 784
16.2 Multiple Comparisons 798
ANOVA Computations (Optional) 806
Are You Ready to Move On? Chapter 16 Review Exercises 806
Technology Notes 808

Appendix A Statistical Tables 811

Table 1 Random Numbers 812
Table 2 Standard Normal Probabilities (Cumulative z Curve Areas) 814
Table 3 t Critical Values 816
Table 4 Tail Areas for t Curves 817
Table 5 Upper-Tail Areas for Chi-Square Distributions 820
Table 6 Binomial Probabilities 822
Table 7 Values That Capture Speciﬁed Upper-Tail F Curve Areas 825
Table 8 Critical Values of q for the Studentized Range Distribution 831
Answers 833
Index 883

S tatistics is about learning from data and the role that variability plays in drawing
conclusions from data. To be successful, it is not enough for students to master the com-
putational aspects of descriptive and inferential statistics—they must also develop an
understanding of the data analysis process at a conceptual level. The second edition of
Statistics: Learning from Data is informed by careful and intentional thought about how
the conceptual and the mechanical should be integrated in order to promote three key types
of learning objectives for students:
● conceptual understanding
● mastery of the mechanics
● the ability to demonstrate conceptual understanding and mastery of the mechanics by
“putting it into practice”

A Unique Approach
A number of innovative features distinguish this text from other introductory statistics books:
● A New Approach to Probability
There is now quite a bit of research on how students develop an understanding of
probability and chance. Using natural frequencies to reason about probability, espe-
cially conditional probability, is much easier for students to understand. The treatment
of probability in this text is complete, including conditional probability and Bayes’
Rule type probability calculations, but is done in a way that eliminates the need for
the symbolism and formulas that are a roadblock for so many students. For those who
also want to provide students with a more traditional coverage, there is an optional
new section that introduces probability rules.
● Chapter on Overview of Statistical Inference (Chapter 7)
This short chapter focuses on the things students need to think about in order to select
an appropriate method of analysis. In most texts, this is “hidden” in the discussion that
occurs when a new method is introduced. Considering this up front in the form of four
key questions that need to be answered before choosing an inference method allows
students to develop a general framework for inference and makes it easier for students
to make correct choices.
● An Organization That Reflects the Data Analysis Process
Students are introduced early to the idea that data analysis is a process that begins with
careful planning, followed by data collection, data description using graphical and
numerical summaries, data analysis, and finally interpretation of results. The ordering
of topics in the text book mirrors this process: data collection, then data description,
then statistical inference.
● Inference for Proportions Before Inference for Means
Inference for proportions is covered before inference for means for the following
reasons:
● This makes it possible to develop the concept of a sampling distribution via simula-
tion, an approach that is more accessible to students than a more formal, theoretical
approach. Simulation is simpler in the context of proportions, where it is easy to
construct a hypothetical population from which to sample (it is more complicated

to create a hypothetical population in the context of means because this requires

making assumptions about shape and spread).
● Large-sample inferential procedures for proportions are based on the normal dis-
tribution and don’t require the introduction of a new distribution (the t distribution).
Students can focus on the new concepts of estimation and hypothesis testing
without having to grapple at the same time with the introduction of a new probabil-
ity distribution.
● Parallel Treatments of Inference Based on Sample Data and Inference Based on
Experiment Data
Many statistical studies involve collecting data from a statistical experiment. The
same inference procedures used to estimate or test hypotheses about population
parameters also are used to estimate or test hypotheses about treatment effects.
However, the necessary assumptions are slightly different (for example, random
assignment replaces the assumption of random selection), and the wording of hypoth-
eses and conclusions is also different. Trying to treat both cases together tends to
confuse students. This text makes the distinction clear.

New in This Edition

● New Sections on Randomization-Based Inference Methods
Research indicates that randomization-based instruction in statistical inference may
help learners to better understand the concepts of confidence and significance. The
second edition includes new optional sections on randomization-based inference
methods. These methods provide alternative analyses that can be used when the
conditions required for normal distribution-based inference are not met. Each of the
inference chapters (Chapters 9 through 13) now contains a new optional section on
randomization-based inference that includes bootstrap methods for simulation-based
confidence intervals and randomization tests of hypotheses. These new sections are
accompanied by online Shiny apps, which can be used to construct bootstrap confi-
dence intervals and to carry out randomization tests. The App collection that accom-
panies this text can be found at statistics.cengage.com/Peck2e/Apps.html.
● Restructured Chapters on Statistical Inference
The chapters on statistical inference have been restructured to include methods for learn-
ing from experiments in the same chapter as methods for learning from samples. While
the coverage of inference based on data from statistical experiments (Chapter 14 in the
first edition) has been integrated into earlier chapters, the important distinction between
inferences based on data from experiments and inferences based on data from sampling
is maintained in order to highlight the differences in how hypotheses are worded, in
conditions, and in the wording of conclusions in these two situations. The sections of the
chapter on inference for two means have also been reordered to put inference for paired
samples before inference for independent samples, in order to better connect the paired
samples structure with one sample inference for a mean in Chapter 12.
● Expanded Treatment of Probability
The second edition contains a new section titled “Calculating Probabilities—A More
Formal Approach” for instructors who want to also provide a more traditional cover-
age of probability. For those who prefer the “hypothetical 1000” approach from the
first edition, the newly added traditional section is optional and can be omitted with-
out compromising any of the probability student learning objectives.
● Updated Examples and Exercises
In our continuing effort to keep things interesting and relevant, the second edition
contains many updated examples and exercises on topics of interest to students that
use data from recent journal articles, newspapers, and web posts.

Features That Support Student Engagement and Success

The text also includes a number of features that support conceptual understanding, mastery
of mechanics, and putting ideas into practice.

● Simple Design
There is now research showing that many of the “features” in current textbooks are
not really helpful to students. In fact, cartoons, sidebars, historical notes, and the
like, actually distract students and interfere with learning. The second edition of
Statistics: Learning from Data has a simple, clean design in order to minimize
clutter and maximize student understanding.
● Chapter Learning Objectives—Keeping Students Informed About Expectations
Chapter learning objectives explicitly state the expected student outcomes. Learning
objectives fall under three headings: Conceptual Understanding, Mastery of Mechan-
ics, and Putting It into Practice.
● Preview—Motivation for Learning
Each chapter opens with a Preview and Preview Example that provide motivation for
studying the concepts and methods introduced in the chapter. They address why the
material is worth learning, provide the conceptual foundation for the methods covered
in the chapter, and connect to what the student already knows. A relevant and current
example provides a context in which one or more questions are proposed for further
investigation. This context is revisited in the chapter once students have the necessary
understanding to more fully address the questions posed.
● Real Data
Examples and exercises with overly simple settings do not allow students to practice
interpreting results in authentic situations or give students the experience necessary to
be able to use statistical methods in real settings. The exercises and examples are a
particular strength of this text, and we invite you to compare the examples and exer-
cises with those in other introductory statistics texts.
Many students are skeptical of the relevance and importance of statistics. Con-
trived problem situations and artificial data often reinforce this skepticism. Examples
and exercises that involve data extracted from journal articles, newspapers, and other
published sources and that are of interest to today’s students are used to motivate and
engage students. Most examples and exercises in the book are of this nature; they
cover a very wide range of disciplines and subject areas. These include, but are not
limited to, health and fitness, consumer research, psychology and aging, environmen-
tal research, law and criminal justice, and entertainment.
● Exercises Organized into a Developmental Structure—Structuring the Out-of-Class
Experience
End-of-section exercises are organized into developmental sets. At the end of each sec-
tion, there are two grouped problem sets. The exercises in each set work together to
assess all of the learning objectives for that section. In addition to the two exercise sets,
each section also has additional exercises for those who want more practice.
Answers for the exercises of Exercise Set 1 in each section are included at the end
of the book. In addition, many of the exercises in Exercise Set 1 include hints directing
the student to a particular example or a relevant discussion that appears in the text. This
feature provides direction for students who might need help getting started on a particular
exercise. Instructors who prefer that students be more self-directed can assign Exercise
Set 2. Answers and hints are not provided for the exercises in Exercise Set 2.
● Are You Ready to Move On?—Students Test Their Understanding
Prior to moving to the next chapter, “Are You Ready to Move On?” exercises allow
students to confirm that they have achieved the chapter learning objectives. Like the
developmental problem sets of the individual sections, this collection of exercises is
developmental in nature. These exercises assess all of the chapter learning objectives
and serve as a comprehensive end-of-chapter review.
● Explorations in Statistical Thinking—Real Data Algorithmic Sampling Exercises
and Multivariable Thinking
Most chapters contain extended sampling-based, real-data exercises at the end of the
chapter. Each student goes online to get a different random sample for the same exer-
cise. These unique exercises are designed to develop conceptual understanding and to
teach about sampling variability.

New guidelines from the American Statistical Association recommend that stu-
dents in the introductory statistics course be provided with opportunities to develop
multivariable thinking. To facilitate this, several chapters include an exploration that
allows students to work with data sets that include more than two variables.
● Data Analysis Software
JMP data analysis software may be bundled for free with the purchase of a new text-
book. See Student Resources for more information.
● Technology Notes
Technology Notes appear at the end of most chapters and give students helpful hints
and guidance on completing tasks associated with a particular chapter. The following
technologies are included in the notes: JMP, Minitab, SPSS, Microsoft Excel 2007,
TI-83/84, and TI-nspire. They include display screens to help students visualize and
better understand the steps. More complete technology manuals are also available on
the text web site.
● Chapter Activities—Engaging Students in Hands-On Activities
There is a growing body of evidence that students learn best when they are actively
engaged. Chapter activities guide students’ thinking about important ideas and concepts.
● Support for Co-Requisite and Pre-Requisite Courses
In recognition of the emerging trend of placing students who might previously have
been placed into a developmental mathematics sequence directly into the college-
level introductory statistics course with co-requisite support, Statistics Companion:
The Math You Need to Know provides a text companion for the co-requisite course.
Also written by Peck and Short, this companion volume provides a just-in-time treat-
ment of the mathematics needed for success in introductory statistics. While Statistics
Companion can be adapted for use with any introductory statistics text book, it was
written specifically with Statistics: Learning from Data, Second Edition, in mind and
matches the terminology, notation and ordering of topics. The companion can also be
adapted for use in a one-semester pre-statistics course for schools that prefer to have
students complete their math preparation prior to beginning the statistics course. For
more information or to receive a sample copy of Statistics Companion: The Math You
Need to Know, contact your Cengage Learning Consultant.

Consistent with Recommendations for the Introductory

Statistics Course Endorsed by the American Statistical
Association
In 2005, the American Statistical Association endorsed the report “College Guidelines in
Assessment and Instruction for Statistics Education (GAISE Guidelines),” which included
the following six recommendations for the introductory statistics course:
1. Emphasize statistical literacy and develop statistical thinking.
2. Use real data.
3. Stress conceptual understanding rather than mere knowledge of procedures.
4. Foster active learning in the classroom.
5. Use technology for developing conceptual understanding and analyzing data.
6. Use assessments to improve and evaluate student learning.
In 2016, these guidelines were revised. The new guidelines reaffirmed the six recommenda-
tions and also included two new recommendations. The two new recommendations were:
● Teach statistics as an investigative process of problem-solving and decision making.
● Give students experience with multivariable thinking.
The second edition of Statistics: Learning from Data is consistent with these recommenda-
tions and supports the GAISE guidelines in the following ways:
1. Emphasize Statistical Literacy and Develop Statistical Thinking.
Statistical literacy is promoted throughout the text in the many examples and exer-
cises that are drawn from the popular press. In addition, a focus on the role of

variability, consistent use of context, and an emphasis on interpreting and communi-

cating results in context work together to help students develop skills in statistical
thinking.
2. Use Real Data.
The examples and exercises are context driven, and the reference sources include the
popular press as well as journal articles.
3. Stress Conceptual Understanding Rather Than Mere Knowledge of Procedures.
Nearly all exercises in the text are multipart and ask students to go beyond just calcu-
lation, with a focus on interpretation and communication. The examples and
explanations are designed to promote conceptual understanding. Hands-on activities
in each chapter are also constructed to strengthen conceptual understanding. Which
brings us to . . .
4. Foster Active Learning in the Classroom.
While this recommendation speaks more to pedagogy and classroom practice, the
second edition of Statistics: Learning from Data provides more than 30 hands-on
activities in the text and additional activities in the accompanying instructor resources
that can be used in class or assigned to be completed outside of class.
5. Use Technology for Developing Conceptual Understanding and Analyzing Data.
The computer has brought incredible statistical power to the desktop of every investiga-
tor. The wide availability of statistical computer packages, such as JMP, Minitab, and
SPSS, and the graphical capabilities of the modern microcomputer have transformed
both the teaching and learning of statistics. To highlight the role of the computer in
contemporary statistics, sample output is included throughout the book. In addition,
numerous exercises contain data that can easily be analyzed using statistical software.
JMP data analysis software can be bundled with new purchases of the text, and
technology manuals for JMP and for other software packages, such as Minitab and
SPSS, and for the graphing calculator are available in the online materials that
accompany this text. The second edition of Statistics: Learning from Data also includes
a number of Shiny web apps that can be used to illustrate statistical concepts and to
implement the simulation-based inference methods covered in new optional sections.
The App collection can be found at statistics.cengage.com/Peck2e/Apps.html.
6. Use Assessments to Improve and Evaluate Student Learning.
Comprehensive chapter review exercises that are specifically linked to chapter learn-
ing objectives are included at the end of each chapter. In addition, assessment materi-
als in the form of a test bank, quizzes, and chapter exams are available in the instructor
resources that accompany this text. The items in the test bank reflect the data-in-
context philosophy of the text’s exercises and examples.
7. Teach Statistics as an Investigative Process of Problem-Solving and Decision
Making.
A systematic approach to inference helps students to see how data are used to answer
questions and to learn about the world around them. Without such a foundation, stu-
dents may see the methods they are learning in their statistics course as just a loose
collection of tools and may not develop a real sense of the complete data analysis
process. The organization of this text helps to highlight this process, addressing meth-
ods of data collection, followed by methods for summarizing data, followed by meth-
ods for learning from data. The data analysis process is also featured in Chapter 7,
which provides an overview of statistical inference.
8. Give Students Experience with Multivariable Thinking.
Several new explorations have been included in the second edition as part of the Ex-
plorations in Statistical Thinking sections. These new explorations provide students
with opportunities to work with data sets that include more than one variable in order
to develop multivariable thinking.

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Instructor and Student Resources
JMP Statistical Software
JMP is a statistics software for Windows and Macintosh computers from SAS, the market
leader in analytics software and services for industry. JMP Student Edition is a streamlined,
easy-to-use version that provides all the statistical methods and graphical displays covered in
this textbook. Once data is imported, students will find that most procedures require just two or
Access to JMP is free with the
three mouse clicks. JMP can import data from a variety of formats, including Excel and other
purchase of a new book.
statistical packages, and you can easily copy and paste graphs and output into documents.
JMP also provides an interface to explore data visually and interactively, which will
help your students develop a healthy relationship with their data, work more efficiently
with data, and tackle difficult statistical problems more easily. Because its output provides
both statistics and graphs together, the student will better see and understand the applica-
tion of concepts covered in this book as well. JMP Student Edition also contains some
unique platforms for student projects, such as mapping and scripting. JMP functions in
the same way on both Windows and Mac platforms and instructions contained with this
book apply to both platforms.
Access to this software is available for free with new copies of the book and avail-
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Student Resources
Digital
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● Applets used in the Activities found in the text.
Prepare for class with confidence using WebAssign from Cengage Statistics:
Learning from Data, Second Edition. This online learning platform fuels practice, so you
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Print
Student Solutions Manual (ISBN: 9781337558389): Contains fully worked-out solutions
to all of the Exercise Set 1 and odd-numbered additional exercises in the text, giving stu-
dents a way to check their answers and ensure that they took the correct steps to arrive at
an answer.

xvi

Instructor Resources
Digital
WebAssign from Cengage Statistics: Learning from Data, Second Edition, is a fully cus-
tomizable online solution for STEM disciplines that empowers you to help your students
learn, not just do homework. Insightful tools save you time and highlight exactly where
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tions to every exercise in the book. You can download the solutions manual from the
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Print
Teacher’s Resource Binder (ISBN: 9781337559263): The Teacher’s Resource Binder is
full of wonderful resources for both AP Statistics teachers and college professors. These
include:
● Recommendations for instructors on how to teach the course, including sample syl-
labi, pacing guides, and teaching tips.
● Recommendations for what students should read and review for a particular class
period or set of class periods.
● Extensive notes on preparing students to take the AP exam.
● Additional examples from published sources (with references), classified by chapter
in the text. These examples can be used to enrich your classroom discussions.
● Model responses—examples of responses that can serve as a model for work that
would be likely to receive a high mark on the AP exam.
● A collection of data explorations that can be used throughout the year to help students
prepare for the types of questions that they may encounter on the investigative task on
the AP Statistics Exam.
● Activity worksheets that can be duplicated and used in class.
● A test bank that includes assessment items, quizzes, and chapter exams.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our thanks and gratitude to the following people who made this
book possible:
Cassie Van Der Laan, our editor at Cengage, for her support of this project.
Spencer Arritt and Gabriela Carrascal, our content developers at Cengage, for their helpful
suggestions and for keeping us on track.
Andrea Wagner, the content project manager.
Ed Dionne, our manager at MPS Limited.
Hunter Glanz and Alex Boyd for creating the Shiny Apps that accompany the text.
Stephen Miller, for his careful and complete work on the huge task of creating the student
and instructor solutions manuals.
Roger Lipsett, for his attention to detail in checking the accuracy of examples and solutions.

Kathy Fritz, for creating the interactive PowerPoint presentations that accompany this text.
Melissa Sovak, for creating the Technology Notes sections.
Mike Saver, the Marketing Manager.
Chris Sabooni, the copy editor for the book.
MPS, for producing the artwork used in the book.
We would also like to give a special thanks to those who served on the Editorial Board for
the book and those who class tested some of the chapters with their students:
Many people provided invaluable comments and suggestion as this text was being
developed.

Reviewers Kim Massaro, University of Texas, San Antonio

Susan Andrews, The College of Saint Rose Nola McDaniel, McNeese State
Melanie Autin, Western Kentucky University Glenn Miller, Borough of Manhattan Community College
Jordan Bertke, Central Piedmont Community College Philip Miller, Indiana University SE
Gregory Bloxom, Pensacola State College Sumona Mondal, Clarkson University
Denise Brown, Collin College Kathy Mowers, Owensboro Community and Technical College
Elena Buzaianu, University of North Florida Linda Myers, Harrisburg Area Community College
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Community College And last, but certainly not least, we thank our families,
Hoon Kim, Calfornia State Polytechnic University, Pomona friends, and colleagues for their continued support.
Cathy Lockwood, Sam Houston State University
Jackie MacLaughlin, Central Piedmont Roxy Peck and Tom Short

2 LEARNING
FROM DATA

1 Collecting Data
in Reasonable Ways
Preview
Chapter Learning Objectives
1.1 Statistics—It’s All About
Variability
1.2 Statistical Studies: Observation
and Experimentation
1.3 Collecting Data: Planning an
Observational Study
1.4 Collecting Data: Planning an
Experiment
1.5 The Importance of Random
Selection and Random
Assignment: What Types of
Conclusions Are Reasonable?
1.6 Avoid These Common Mistakes
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

Chapter Activities
Explorations in Statistical
Thinking
Are You Ready to Move On?
Chapter 1 Review Exercises

PREVIEW
There is an old saying attributed to statistician Ed Deming, “without data, you
are just another person with an opinion.” Although anecdotes and coincidences
may make for interesting stories, you wouldn’t want to make important decisions
on the basis of anecdotes alone. For example, just because a friend of a friend ate
16 apricots and then experienced relief from joint pain doesn’t mean that this is
all you would need to know to help one of your parents choose a treatment for
arthritis. Before recommending apricots, you would definitely want to consider
relevant data on the effectiveness of apricots as a treatment for arthritis.

Statistical methods help you to make sense of data and gain insight into
the world around you. The ability to learn from data is critical for success in
your personal and professional life. Data and conclusions based on data are
everywhere—in newspapers, magazines, online resources, and professional

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
publications. But should you believe what you read? For example, should you
supplement your diet with black currant oil to stop hair loss? Will playing
solitaire for 20 minutes each day help you feel less tired? If you eat proteins
before carbohydrates when you eat a meal, will it lower your blood sugar? Should
you donate blood twice a year to lower your risk of heart disease? These are just
four recommendations out of many that appear in one issue of Woman’s World
(april 4, 2016), a magazine with more than 1.3 million readers. In fact, if you
followed all of the recommendations in that issue, you would also be loading up
on prickly pear oil, hot chocolate, ginger tea, bread, bananas, sweet potatoes, bell
peppers, tomatoes, and onions! Some of these recommendations are supported
by evidence (data) from research studies, but how reliable is this evidence? Are
the conclusions drawn reasonable, and do they apply to you? These important
questions will be explored in this chapter.

chaPter learning conceptual Understanding

objectiveS After completing this chapter, you should be able to
c1 Understand the difference between an observational study and an experiment.
c2 Understand that the conclusions that can be drawn from a statistical study depend
on the way in which the data are collected.
c3 Explain the difference between a census and a sample.
c4 Explain the difference between a statistic and a population characteristic.
c5 Understand why random selection is an important component of a sampling plan.
c6 Understand why random assignment is important when collecting data in an
experiment.
c7 Understand the difference between random selection and random assignment.
c8 Explain why volunteer response samples and convenience samples are unlikely to
produce reliable information about a population.
c9 Understand the limitations of using volunteers as subjects in an experiment.
c10 Explain the purpose of a control group in an experiment.
c11 Explain the purpose of blinding in an experiment.

Mastering the Mechanics

After completing this chapter, you should be able to
M1 Create a sampling plan that could produce a simple random sample from a given
population.
M2 Describe a procedure for randomly assigning experimental units to experimental
conditions (for example, subjects to treatments) given a description of an
experiment, the experimental conditions, and the experimental units.

Putting it into Practice

After completing this chapter, you should be able to
P1 Distinguish between an observational study and an experiment.
P2 Evaluate the design of an observational study.
P3 Evaluate the design of a simple comparative experiment.
P4 Evaluate whether conclusions drawn from a study are appropriate, given a
description of the statistical study.
3

Section 1.1 Statistics—it’s all about variability

Statistical methods allow you to collect, describe, analyze, and draw conclusions from
data. If you lived in a world where all measurements were identical for every indi-
vidual, these tasks would be simple. For example, consider a population consisting
of all of the students at a college. Suppose that every student is enrolled in the same
number of courses, spent exactly the same amount of money on textbooks, and favors
increasing student fees to support expanding library services. For this population, there
is no variability in number of courses, amount spent on books, or student opinion on
the fee increase. A person studying students from this population to draw conclusions
about any of these three variables would have an easy task. It would not matter how
many students were studied or how the students were selected. In fact, you could col-
lect information on the number of courses, amount spent on books, and opinion on the
fee increase by just stopping the next student who happened to walk by the library.
Because there is no variability in the population, this one individual would provide
complete and accurate information about the population, and you could draw conclu-
sions with no risk of error.
The situation just described is obviously unrealistic. Populations with no variability
are exceedingly rare, and they are of little statistical interest because they present no chal-
lenge. In fact, variability is almost universal. It is variability that makes life interesting. To
be able to collect, describe, analyze, and draw conclusions from data in a sensible way,
you need to develop an understanding of variability.
The following example illustrates how describing and understanding variability pro-
vide the foundation for learning from data.

example 1.1 Monitoring water Quality

As part of its regular water quality monitoring efforts, an environmental control board
selects five water specimens from a particular well each day. The concentration of con-
taminants in parts per million (ppm) is measured for each of the five specimens, and then
the average of the five measurements is calculated. The graph in Figure 1.1 is an example
of a histogram. (You will learn how to construct and interpret histograms in Chapter 2.)
This histogram summarizes the average contamination values for 200 days.

FigUre 1.1 Frequency

Histogram of average
contamination 40

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Average contamination

Suppose that a chemical spill has occurred at a manufacturing plant 1 mile from
the well. It is not known whether a spill of this nature would contaminate groundwater in
the area of the spill and, if so, whether a spill this distance from the well would affect the
quality of well water.
One month after the spill, five water specimens are collected from the well, and the
average contamination is 15.5 ppm. Considering the variation before the spill shown in
the histogram, would you interpret this as evidence that the well water was affected by the
spill? What if the calculated average was 17.4 ppm? How about 22.0 ppm?

Before the spill, the average contaminant concentration varied from day to day. An
average of 15.5 ppm would not have been an unusual value, so seeing an average of
15.5 ppm after the spill isn’t necessarily an indication that contamination has increased.
On the other hand, an average as large as 17.4 ppm is less common, and an average as
large as 22.0 ppm is not at all typical of the pre-spill values. In this case, you would prob-
ably conclude that the well contamination level has increased.
Reaching a conclusion requires an understanding of variability. Understanding vari-
ability allows you to distinguish between usual and unusual values. The ability to recog-
nize unusual values in the presence of variability is an important aspect of many statistical
methods and is also what enables you to quantify the chance of being incorrect when a
conclusion is based on available data.

Section 1.2 Statistical Studies: observation and experimentation

If the goal is to make good decisions based on data, it should come as no surprise that the
way you obtain the data is very important. It is also important to know what questions you
hope to answer with data. Depending on what you want to learn, two types of statistical
studies are common—observational studies and experiments.
Sometimes you are interested in answering questions about characteristics of a single
population or in comparing two or more well-defined populations. To accomplish this,
you select a sample from each population and use information from the samples to learn
about characteristics of the populations.

DeFinition
Population: The population is the entire collection of individuals or objects that
you want to learn about.
Sample: A sample is a part of the population that is selected for study.

For example, many people, including the author of “the ‘cSi effect’: Does it really
exist?” (National Institute of Justice [2008]: 1–7), have speculated that watching crime
scene investigation TV shows (such as CSI, Cold Case, Bones, or Numb3rs) may be as-
sociated with the kind of high-tech evidence that jurors expect to see in criminal trials. Do
people who watch such shows on a regular basis have higher expectations than those who
do not watch them? To answer this question, you would want to learn about two popula-
tions, one consisting of people who watch crime scene investigation shows on a regular
basis and the other consisting of people who do not. You could select a sample of people
from each population and interview these people to determine their levels of expectation
for high-tech evidence in a criminal case. This would be an example of an observational
study. In an observational study, it is important to obtain samples that are representative
of the corresponding populations.
Sometimes the questions you are trying to answer cannot be answered using data from
an observational study. Such questions are often of the form, “What happens when …?”
or “What is the effect of …?” For example, a teacher may wonder what happens to stu-
dent test scores if the lab time for a chemistry course is increased from 3 hours to 6 hours
per week. To answer this question, she could conduct an experiment. In such an experi-
ment, the value of a response (test score) would be recorded under different experimental
conditions (3-hour lab and 6-hour lab). The person carrying out the experiment creates
the experimental conditions and also determines which people will be assigned to each
experimental condition.

DeFinition
An observational study is a study in which the person conducting the study
observes characteristics of a sample selected from one or more existing popula-
tions. The goal of an observational study is to use data from the sample to learn
about the corresponding population. In an observational study, it is important to
obtain a sample that is representative of the population.
An experiment is a study in which the person conducting the study considers how
a response behaves under different experimental conditions. The person carrying
out the study determines who will be in each experimental group and what the
experimental conditions will be. In an experiment, it is important to have compa-
rable experimental groups.

Observational studies and experiments can both be used to compare groups. In an

observational study, the person carrying out the study does not control who is in which
population. However, in an experiment, the person conducting the study does control
who is in which experimental group. For example, in the observational study to compare
expectations of those who watch crime scene investigation shows and those who do not,
the person conducting the study does not determine which people will watch crime scene
investigation shows. However, in the chemistry experiment, the person conducting the
study does determine which students will be in the 3-hour lab group and which students
will be in the 6-hour lab group. This seemingly small difference is critical when it comes
to drawing conclusions from a statistical study. This is why it is important to determine
whether data are from an observational study or from an experiment. We will return to this
important distinction in Section 1.5.
The following two examples illustrate how to determine whether a study is an obser-
vational study or an experiment.

example 1.2 chew More, eat less?

The article “increasing the number of chews before Swallowing reduces Meal Size in
normal-weight, overweight and obese adults” ( Journal of the Academy of Nutrition
and Dietetics [2014]: 926–931) describes a study that investigated whether chewing each
bite of food more before swallowing would result in people eating less. Participants in the
study were adults between the ages of 18 to 45 years. At the beginning of the study, each
participant was observed as they ate five pizza rolls, and the number of chews made before
swallowing was observed to determine a baseline for that participant.
Participants were then invited back for a second session on a different day. They were
asked to eat their usual breakfast on that day and to not eat anything after breakfast. At
the second session, the participants were assigned to one of three groups. All participants
were provided with a platter of pizza rolls and were told to eat until they were comfortably
full. They were also told they could request more pizza rolls if they wanted more. Each
participant was also told how many times to chew each pizza roll before swallowing. The
participants in group 1 were given a number of chews equal to their baselines. The partici-
pants in group 2 were given a number of chews that was 150% of (one and a half times as
large as) their baselines. The participants in group 3 were given a number of chews that
was 200% of (twice as large as) their baselines.
After analyzing data from this study, the researcher concluded that people ate about
10% less when they increased the number of chews by 50% (group 2) and about 15% less
when they doubled the number of chews (group 3).
Is this study an observational study or an experiment? To answer this question, you
need to consider how the three groups in the study were formed. Because the study par-
ticipants were assigned to one of the three groups by the researchers conducting the study,
the study is an experiment. As you will see in Section 1.4, the way the researchers decide
which people go into each group is an important aspect of the study design.

example 1.3 caffeine and Sleep

The article “adolescents living the 24/7 lifestyle: effects of caffeine and technology
on Sleep Duration and Daytime Functioning” (Pediatrics [2009]: e1005–e1010) describes
a study in which researchers investigated whether there is a relationship between amount
of sleep and caffeine consumption. They found that teenagers who usually get less than
8 hours of sleep on school nights were more likely to report falling asleep during school and
consume more caffeine on average than teenagers who usually get 8 to 10 hours of sleep on
school nights.
In the study described, two populations of teenagers were compared—teenagers who
usually get less than 8 hours of sleep on school nights and teenagers who usually get 8 to
10 hours of sleep on school nights. Did the researchers determine which teenagers were
in each group? The researchers had no control over how long the study participants slept,
so the study is an observational study and not an experiment. It is still possible to make
reasonable comparisons between the two populations, as long as the groups of teenagers in
the study were chosen to be representative of the two populations of interest—all teenag-
ers who usually get less than 8 hours of sleep on school nights and all teenagers who usu-
ally get 8 to 10 hours of sleep on school nights. The way in which the teenagers in the two
study groups were chosen is an important aspect of the design of this observational study.

In the next sections, the design of observational studies and experiments will be con-
sidered in more detail.

Summing it Up—Section 1.2

The following learning objectives were addressed in this section:

conceptual Understanding
c1: Understand the difference between an observational study and an experiment.
An observational study is a study in which the person conducting the study observes
characteristics of a sample selected from a population. The goal of an observational study
is to learn about a population.
An experiment is a study in which the person conducting the study considers how
a response behaves under different experimental conditions. The person carrying out the
study determines who will be in each experimental group.

Putting it into Practice

P1: Distinguish between an observational study and an experiment.
Once you understand the difference between an observational study and an experiment, if
you are given a description of a study, you should be able to determine if it is an observa-
tional study or an experiment. See Examples 1.2 and 1.3.

Section 1.2 exerciSeS

Each Exercise Set assesses the following chapter learning objectives: C1, P1
SECTIOn 1.2 exercise Set 1 you’re far from alone. Half of all boomers sleep with their
For each of the statistical studies described in exercises 1.1 to cell phone within arm’s length. Two of three people ages 50
1.5, indicate whether the study is an observational study or an to 64 use a cell phone to take photos, according to a 2010
experiment. give a brief explanation for your choice. (hint: Pew Research Center report.”
See examples 1.2 and 1.3.)
1.2 The press release “Men need to Man Up, according
1.1 The following conclusion from a statistical study to ball Park brand Survey” (PR Newswire, october 14,
appeared in the article “Smartphone nation” (AARP 2015) describes the results of a study in which 1012 U.S.
Bulletin, September 2009): “If you love your smartphone, men were asked a number of questions about “life’s tough

conversations.” One result from this survey was summarized 1.7 The paper “health halos and Fast-Food consumption”
in a USA TODAY Snapshot (USA TODAY, november 6, 2015) ( Journal of Consumer Research [2007]: 301–314) described a
that said that “nearly 1 in 5 men would pay someone to study in which 46 college students volunteered to participate.
handle their breakup for them.” Half of the students were given a coupon for a McDonald’s
Big Mac sandwich and the other half were given a coupon
1.3 An article in USA TODAY (october 19, 2010) describes for a Subway 12-inch Italian BMT sandwich. (For compari-
a study of how young children learn. Sixty-four 18-month- son, the Big Mac has 600 calories, and the Subway 12-inch
old toddlers participated in the study. The toddlers were Italian BMT sandwich has 900 calories.) The research-
allowed to play in a lab equipped with toys, which also ers were interested in how the perception of Subway as a
had a robot hidden behind a screen. The article states: healthy fast-food choice and McDonald’s as an unhealthy
“After allowing the infants play time, the team removed the fast-food choice would influence what additional items
screen and let the children see the robot. In some tests, an students would order with the sandwich. The researchers
adult talked to the robot and played with it. In others the found that those who received the Subway coupon were less
adult ignored the robot. After the adult left the room, the likely to order a diet soft drink, more likely to order a larger
robot beeped and then turned its head to look at a toy to the size drink, and more likely to order cookies than those who
side of the infant. In cases where the adult had played with received the Big Mac coupon.
the robot, the infant was four times more likely to follow the
robot’s gaze to the toy.” 1.8 USA TODAY (august 25, 2015) reported that “American
women favor Kate Middleton as a shopping buddy over
1.4 In a survey of 2500 U.S. adults, 69% responded that they Michelle Obama by 10 percentage points.” This statement
were confident that “smart homes” will be a commonplace as was based on a study in which 1001 adults were surveyed
smartphones within 10 years (Intel Survey: Architecting the about their shopping preferences.
Future of the Smart Home 2025, [2015]: download.intel.com
/newsroom/kits/iot/pdfs/intelSmarthomeSurveybackgrounder 1.9 In a study of whether taking a garlic supplement reduc-
.pdf, retrieved September 25, 2016). es the risk of getting a cold, 146 participants were assigned
to either a garlic supplement group or to a group that did not
1.5 A paper appearing in The Journal of Pain (March 2010, take a garlic supplement (“garlic for the common cold,”
199–209) described a study to determine if meditation has cochrane Database of Systematic reviews, 2009). Based
an effect on sensitivity to pain. Study participants were on the study, it was concluded that the proportion of people
assigned to one of three groups. One group meditated for taking a garlic supplement who get a cold is lower than the
20 minutes; one group performed a distraction task (working proportion of those not taking a garlic supplement who get
math problems!) for 20 minutes; and one group practiced a cold.
a relaxation technique for 20 minutes. Sensitivity to pain
was measured both before and after the 20-minute session. 1.10 The article “baby Scientists experiment with
everything” (The Wall Street Journal, april 18, 2015) describes
a series of studies published in the journal Science. In one of
SECTIOn 1.2 exercise Set 2
these studies, 11-month old children were assigned to one
For each of the statistical studies described in exercises 1.6– of two groups. The children in one group were shown a ball
1.10, indicate whether the study is an observational study or behaving as expected, such as rolling into a wall or falling off
an experiment. give a brief explanation for your choice. an edge. The children in the other group were shown a ball
behaving in an unexpected way, such as rolling through what
1.6 A news release from Intel titled “intel’s Security
appeared to be a solid wall or rolling off an edge and remain-
international internet of things Smart home Survey
ing suspended in the air. The children were then given a ball
Shows Many respondents Sharing Personal Data
and another toy. The researchers found that the children in the
for Money” (March 30, 2016, newsroom.intel.com
group that saw the ball behaving as expected showed no pref-
/news-releases/intel-securitys-international-internet-of
erence for the ball over the other toy, but that the children who
-things-smart-home-survey/, retrieved September 25,
saw the ball behaving in an unexpected way tended to choose
2016) described a survey conducted in 2015. The news
the ball, and that they also played with it differently and tested
release states “A total of 9,000 consumers were inter-
the ball’s behavior by dropping it or rolling it.
viewed globally, including 2,500 from the United States,
1,000 from the United Kingdom, 1,000 from France,
1,000 from Germany, 1,000 from Brazil, 1,000 from
India, 500 from Canada, 500 from Mexico and 500 from aDDitional exerciSeS
Australia.” Among the findings from the survey were that 1.11 The article “how Dangerous is a Day in the hospital?”
54% of the respondents worldwide would be willing to (Medical Care [2011]: 1068–1075) describes a study to deter-
share personal data collected from devices in their homes mine if the risk of an infection is related to the length of a
with companies in exchange for money. hospital stay. The researchers looked at a large number of

hospitalized patients and compared the proportions who got 1.13 The article “why we Fall for this” (AARP Magazine,
an infection for two groups of patients—those who were May/june 2011) described a study in which a business
hospitalized overnight and those who were hospitalized professor divided his class into two groups. He showed
for more than one night. Indicate whether the study is an students a mug and then asked students in one of the
observational study or an experiment. Give a brief explana- groups how much they would pay for the mug. Students
tion for your choice. in the other group were asked how much they would sell
the mug for if it belonged to them. Surprisingly, the aver-
1.12 The authors of the paper “Fudging the numbers: age values assigned to the mug were quite different for the
Distributing chocolate influences Student evaluations of two groups! Indicate whether the study is an observational
an Undergraduate course” (Teaching in Psychology [2007]: study or an experiment. Give a brief explanation for your
245–247) carried out a study to see if events unrelated to choice.
an undergraduate course could affect student evaluations.
Students enrolled in statistics courses taught by the same 1.14 The same article referenced in Exercise 1.13 also
instructor participated in the study. All students attended the described a study which concluded that people tend to
same lectures and one of six discussion sections that met respond differently to the following questions:
once a week. At the end of the course, the researchers chose Question 1: Would you rather have $50 today or $52
three of the discussion sections to be the “chocolate group.” in a week?
Students in these three sections were offered chocolate Question 2: Imagine that you could have $52 in a week.
prior to having them fill out course evaluations. Students Would you rather have $50 now?
in the other three sections were not offered chocolate. The The article attributes this to the question wording: the second
researchers concluded that “Overall, students offered choco- question is worded in a way that makes you feel that you are
late gave more positive evaluations than students not offered “losing” $2 if you take the money now. Do you think that the
chocolate.” Indicate whether the study is an observational study which led to the conclusion that people respond differ-
study or an experiment. Give a brief explanation for your ently to these two questions was an observational study or an
choice. experiment? Explain why you think this.

Section 1.3 collecting Data: Planning an observational Study

In Section 1.2, two types of statistical studies were described—observational studies and
experiments. In this section, you will look at some important considerations when plan-
ning an observational study or when deciding whether an observational study performed
by others was well planned.

Planning an observational Study—collecting

Data by Sampling
The purpose of an observational study is to collect data that will allow you to learn about
a single population or about how two or more populations might differ. For example, you
might want to answer the following questions about students at a college:
What proportion of the students at the college support a proposed student fee for
improved recreational facilities?
What is the average number of hours per month that students at the college devote to
community service?
In each case, the population of interest is all students at the college. The “ideal” study
would involve carrying out a census of the population. A census collects data from every-
one in the population, so that every student at the college would be included in the study.
If you were to ask every student whether he or she supported the fee or how many hours
per month he or she devotes to community service, you would be able to easily answer
the questions above.
Unfortunately, very few observational studies involve a census of the population.
It is usually not practical to get data from every individual in the population of inter-
est. Instead, data are obtained from just a part of the population, called a sample. Then
statistics calculated from the sample are used to answer questions about population
characteristics.

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