Short Notes for CSS Beginners'

Pakistan Affairs
Written by: Dr. M. Moiz Khan
Assistant Professor, Dept. of History,
University of Karachi.

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REFORMERS

Shah Wali Ullah

Shah Wali Ullah was born in 1703. He belonged to a family of religious preachers.
He was raised up in an environment where people use to have discourses on Quran, shariah,
Muslim morality and social values. His father was a religious scholar of repute. Madrasa
Rahimia was established by father of Shah Wali Ullah, Shah Abdur Rahim in Delhi. This
madrasa served the Muslims of Northern India. Shah Wali Ullah received his early
education from the same college. After graduating he started to teach over there. He
continued teaching till 1730 when he went to Saudia Arabia for further studies in theology.
There he spent more than a year. During his stay there he met Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim
for whom he had great regard. He returned to sub-continent with a vivid aim in his mind to
serve the Muslims of sub-continent and Islam.
When he was just 4 years old in 1707 the last Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir
died and the history of sub-continent took a new turn and the power and social status of
Muslims in sub-continent started to decline. Since his death the political decline of Mughals
and social decline of Muslims started and it is still declining. Shah Wali Ullah experienced
this decline as he grew up and was worried about it. Throughout his life he wanted to revive
Islam and the status of Muslims in the subcontinent he tried to solve problems faced by
Muslims systematically.

Weaknesses of Muslims of subcontinent. (realized by Shah Wali Ullah).

I. Muslims were not following Islam according to its true teaching because they
didn’t understand it properly.
II. Muslims were divided among themselves on the basis of different sects.
III. Muslims were indulging themselves in the luxuries of life.
IV. Muslims were losing status and their rule in Subcontinent because of loss of
political power.

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His Efforts:-

Message:-
The first message Shah Wali Ullah spread amongst the Muslims was regarding unity.
He said that one of the major causes behind the decline of Muslims in subcontinent is the
disintegration and disunity amongst them. He further stated that Shias are not "Kafirs" and
are Muslims. He said this division between them has weakened Muslims. That is why other
nations like Marathas are becoming stronger and overtaking Muslims.

Translation of Holy Quran:-

Shah Wali Ullah believed that Holy Quran was not understandable to all the readers
because of the language barrier. That is why he translated the Holy Quran into Persian.
Persian was understood and spoken by many Muslims at that time. He believed that if
Muslims can understand the message of Quran than it would be easy for them to act upon it.

Different books:-
Shah Wali Ullah wrote many books throughout his life on religion. The main
purpose behind all the books was to make the teachings of Islam understandable to most
of the Muslims. His two most famous works are "Izlat ul Akhfa" and "Hujratulah ul
Baligha". Hujratulah ul Baligha was the explanation of Holy Quran and Izlat Ul Akhfa
was written on the principals of Quran and Islam.

Political efforts:-
Although he was a religious scholar but he didn’t stop there. He wanted to remove
Marathas from the throne of Delhi. To overpower Marathas he requested Ahmed Shah
Abdali of Persia to invade India, defeat Marathas and restore Muslim rule in India. Ahmed
Shah Abdali came in 1761and defeated Marathas in the famous battle field of "Panipat"
near Delhi. This battle is known as the third battle of Panipat. Ahmed Shah Abdali although
removed Marathas but did not stay in India so once again Delhi went under the weak
administration of Mughals.

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His social principles:-
He propagated the principles of Adl and Tawazun, “Adl” means Justice and
'Tawazun" means equilibrium. He persuaded Muslims to practice these principal in their
daily lives to make their lives better. He believed that these two principles are the back bone
of any economy and through this Muslims can make their economic conditions better.

Importance:-
Shah Wali Ullah was one of the most important religious reformers of Subcontinent.
There are other reformers as well however Shah Wali Ullah is the most prominent amongst
them. He not only tried to bring Muslims closer to their religion but he had a complete
chalked out plan for the restoration of Muslim power in India. Another distinction he has is
that he propagated such ideals which were long lasting and applicable at any time. For
example unity of Muslims and proper understanding of Islam by them.

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi:

He was a very ambitious man who wanted to see Muslims of India in a better
position than they were. He was born in 1786 in Barely. He belonged to Hasni Syed
family. It is believed that he was distantly related to Shah Wali Ullah. In his early days he
wanted to become a religious scholar but he lacked the abilities required to become one.
His ambition brought him to Shah Abdul Aziz, son of Shah Wali Ullah. Shah Abdul Aziz
He guided him about his future and told him that if he really wanted to do something for
Muslims he should conduct Jihad for the Muslims where ever the Muslims are in need
and weak. Shah Abdul Aziz declared India “Darul Harb”, place of war or a place where
Muslims cannot live their lives according to the teachings of Islam. For this purpose Syed
Ahmed was not properly trained. He needed some to guide him in the art of warfare and
teach all that is need to plan and conduct attacks on the enemy and how to survive when
attacked. For this purpose Shah Abdul Aziz sent Syed Ahmed Shaheed to Amir Khan a
commander of Pathan army to get combat and military training.

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 In 1821 he went to offer Hajj and stayed there for 2 years and learnt religion. He
came back and made Jihad his ambition. He visited many areas of India to gather support.
He was able to collect some thousand volunteers to fight along him. He came back to
Punjab and challenged the authority of Sikh rulers. In early years of their struggle to free the
Muslims of Punjab they were successful and the movement became popular. Many other
Muslims who came to know about the movement came and joined Syed Ahmed Shaheed.
At one stage the Muslim army reached around 80000 fighters.

Reason for the failure of Jihad Movement:

1. Threat to local rulers:

The local Muslim rulers who supported the movement in its early days started to feel
uncomfortable. Their main fear was the presence of such a large army in their area. This
army had everything except an area to rule. Basically it was not meant to rule any area the
main reason for the formation of this army was to support suppressed Muslims of Punjab.
The rulers of N.W.F.P. thought that after dealing with Sikhs in Punjab they might turn
towards us and would take our rule as well. Out of this fear the local rulers betrayed Syed
Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi.

2. Unpopular in Muslims of Punjab:

The people who came to fight in Punjab came from different places in India. They
did not have any means of income. So to survive they started to tax the Muslims of Punjab
on behalf of their support. The Muslims who were already under so much pressure were
unable to pay this tax. This created frustration amongst the Muslims of Punjab.

3. Heterogeneous army:
The army of Syed Ahmed Shaheed was a volunteer army and these volunteers came
from many different parts f India. They belonged to different areas and races. They had
different styles of fighting on which they argued a lot. The only thing bonding them
together was the leadership of Syed Ahmed Shaheed. This difference among them
contributed towards their defeat.

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Haji Sharyat Ullah:
He was a very devoted Muslim who wanted to serve Islam. He was worried about the
situation of Muslims of sub-continent and wanted to bring a change in their condition. After
some time he came up with the conclusion that Muslims have stop observing the obligatory
prayers like Namaz, Roza, Zakat etc.
He started Faraizi Movement with the believe that by offering all the obligatory prayers
Muslims would become better and closer to Islamic values.

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The Advent of British:
In 1600 C.E. East India Company was established in England. Queen Elizabeth
granted the charter to East India Company to trade in areas East of Africa. This included
Sub-continent, Indonesia, and Malaysia etc. In the start the East India Company tried
their luck in islands of Indonesia but they were unable to extract desirable profits from
there. To make trading more difficult they had a formidable opposition in the form of
Dutch. The Islands of Indonesia were already claimed by Dutch and Portuguese. In 1623
an incident permanently convinced British to turn towards India. Twenty one men were
killed by Dutch in Amboyna out of which ten were the servants of British East India
Company, the incident in known as Amboyna Massacre1.
The first British ship landed in India in 1608 at Calicut. This was the time period of
the fourth Mughal Emperor Jahangir. He did not allow British to trade in India. However
British did not lose hope and continued to convince Mughals for the permission. Finally in
1612 a limited permission was granted to British by Khurram (Shah Jahan) the governor of
Gujarat. As a result British erected their first factory in Surat. James I dispatched Sir
Thomas Roe to the royal court of Jahangir in 1614.
The main reason of coming of British to India was trade of spices, cotton, jute,
rice etc. Secondly they also wanted markets for selling their products. The things which
were easily available in India had a high demand in Europe. The traders of Europe always
wanted to trade with India and they had come to India by land. However the route from
land took years to reach to India from Europe. It took more than two years for Marco
Polo to come to India. The major breakthrough in the travel to India was in 1496 when
Vasco de Gama of Portugal crossed the much feared Cape of Storms in the South of
Africa (later the same place was named as Cape of Good Hope).
Portuguese opened the sea route to India. They were first people who started to trade
with India from Europe. The next European people to follow them were Dutch. England
was the third European country to trade with India. Portuguese and Dutch restricted
themselves to small areas with in India. On the other hand British tried their luck all over
India and it paid off. Within 150 years of their stay in India British were in such a strong
position that they started to challenge the local rulers and even the Mughal
1
In 1623 the Dutch governor, Herman Van, stationed there was suspicious about the presence and activities of
British. He believed that British are conspiring with Japanese to kill him. As preemptive measure he ordered the
killing of 10 British 10 Japanese and one Portuguese man. See, D. K. Bassett (1960). The “Amboyna Massacre” of
1623. Journal of Southeast Asian History, 1, pp 1-19. http://doi:10.1017/S0217781100000107.
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Emperors.
They challenged and defeated Siraj-ud-Daula the nawab of Bengal in 1757 in the
famous battle of Plassey.

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Different attempts by Indians to prevent British from
taking control over India:
Since British arrive in India they were trying to take control over India one way or
another. In the early days of their stay they were taking control over the economic
activity of India. Then after spending some decades they felt more comfortable and
strong enough to challenge the authority of Indians.
British challenged the authority of Aurangzeb on the issue of tax exemption.
However he was a powerful Mughal Emperor that is why he was able to crush British easily
in 1691.
Then British tried to take control of Bengal. In 1757 they challenged Nawab of
Bengal Siraj-ud-Dauala. The dispute was over the fortification of one factory of British.
Although the Nawab was able to defeat British in early battles but he was finally defeated in
the famous battle of Plassey. His minister Mir Jaffer betrayed him in the battle and made the
British victory possible.
In 1764 the Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim, Nawab of Oudh Shuja-ud-Daula and
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II fought with British at the battle of Buxar. British defeated
the alliance of these three rulers and took control of more lands in sub-continent.
Then Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were challenged by British in their territory,
Mysore. Hyder was able to defeat British and signed a treaty in which British agreed not to
disturb him again. His son Tipu was again challenged by British however he was not able to
overpower British despite early victories.
British also took over Sindh in 1843. The conquest of Sindh was a result of
frustration of British defeat in Afghanistan. They had been trying to capture Afghanistan
and successive British failures diverted their attention towards Sindh.
In Punjab Ranjeet Singh also did not accept the supremacy of British. British tried to
take control over Punjab but Ranjeet defended it well It was after his death, that British
annexed Punjab in 1849.
The last attempt by Indians to prevent British from taking control over India was the
War independence 1857. This was the biggest struggle against British in India. It was
supported by many Indians from different parts.
In short all the efforts by Indians to resist against British control failed. The main
reason behind these failures was that Indians were not united at any time and had their
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own personal interest.

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MUHGALS
i. Babur 1526-1530
ii. Humayun 1530-1540 and
iii. Akbar 1555-56 1556-1605
iv. Jahangir 1605-1627
v. Shah Jahan 1628-1658
vi. Aurangzeb 1658-1707

Mughal dynasty in India started from Babur in 1526, when he defeated the last ruler
of Lodi dynasty Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat. Although Mughal dynasty
officially lasted till 1858, the first six rulers were worth discussing. After the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707 the Mughal dynasty lost its grip over India.

DECLINE OF MUGHALS

The dynasty, which was started by Babur in 1526 in India, was one of the greatest
dynasties in the history of the world. We do not find many kings or emperors who can
match the glory and might of Mughal Emperors.
Aurangzeb was the sixth and the last strong ruler of Mughal dynasty who controlled
his territories with authority. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 the Mughal Empire
started to decline and never recovered. Finally in 1858 the Mughal rule was officially ended
by British. There are several factors, which resulted in the decline of the Mughal dynasty,
which are as under:

i. Wars of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb was a very ambitious ruler. He wanted to capture whole of India
especially southern states. These south Indian states were very strong and had defended
themselves against Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. On the other hand he was trying to
control Afghanistan and Persia. Other than wars of annexations he was also faced by many
rebellions. He invested almost all of the treasures of Mughal dynasty into his wars. At the
end of his reign Mughal treasury was exhausted and the successors of Aurangzeb

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did not have sufficient money to control the vast Empire of India.

ii. Incapable successors of Aurangzeb:

Aurangzeb did not train his sons as his father had trained him and his brothers. His
sons were weak and were unable to stamp their authority over all the lands, which were
ruled by Aurangzeb. Governors of different provinces started to declare themselves,
independent of Mughal rule. Rebellions started immediately after the death of Aurangzeb
and these weak successors were unable to crush them.

iii. Rise of Marathas:

Marathas were Hindus of South India. Marathas started to hate Aurangzeb due to
his anti-Hindu policies. Shivajee was one of the noble amongst them and he united them
on the basis of nationalism. He said to get rid of Aurangzeb the Marathas need to raise
arms against him. They although started their struggle in the reign of Aurangzeb but he
was successful in crushing them. Shivajee was very powerful and a good general. He
fought many battles with Aurangzeb however he was finally killed by the Mughal armies
and Aurangzeb was able to control the Maratha rebellion. After the death of Aurangzeb
Marathas rose again this time there was no one on the Mughal throne to stop them. They
grew stronger and finally took Delhi from Mughal.

vi. Rise of British in Sub-continent:

British East India Company was established in 1600. It was given a charter to trade in
East of Africa by Queen Elizabeth. British took a long time to establish themselves in India.
British were more advanced than Indians in every field. They had experience of external
diplomacy due to their interaction with other nations of Europe. British after spending a
century in India realized that they can control the politics of India for their own favor. Since
the start of the 18th century British had started to interfere in the local politics of India. By
mid-18th century British got control of Bengal. Then they expanded their circle of
influence. British finally took the power from the hands of Mughals officially in 1858.

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War of Independence:
Different aspects to be covered in this topic;

1. Why this war was started? (causes)

2. Why did Indians lose this war? (causes of failure)
3. In what aspects this war was a failure? (comments)
4. What did Indians gain from this war? (comments)

Till 1858 a Company based in England controlled India. This company had started to
influence the politics of India, since the start of 18th century. They molded every aspect of
the lives of Indian people for their own benefits. East India Company made huge profits
from India without giving any thing back to its people.

1. Causes:
i. Economic Causes:

British started to take administrative control over India since the battle of Plassey
in 1757. The main objectives of this take over was extracting maximum profits out of
India. India provided multiple exploitation opportunities to British.
i) It provided raw material for the newly started Industrial Revolution in England2.
ii) Mass production means need for larger market, India provided single largest
market in the world.
iii) For extraction of raw material British pressurized the local rulers for tax
exemptions and later completely waived the taxes for their trade.
iv) They also made tax exemption for selling their products in the local markets.
As a result the local rulers and merchants started to suffer. When mass produced
products were pumped into Indian markets the prices decreased and the local manual
production failed to cope up with the change. Contrary to the British local merchants
were paying all the taxes in their own land according to the various laws prevailing in
different kingdoms with India. This disparity lead to the frustration in the hearts and
minds of locals.

2
Industrial Revolution started in England in 1750 when first steam powered machine ‘Spinning Jenny’ was
invented for textile industry. Mechanization meant mass production and more raw material for production needs.
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ii. Political Causes:
For the first century of their stay in India British did not indulge themselves into local
politics. Then from the start of 18th century we see British influence over local politics. The
first major ruler to lose his land was Siraj-ud-Daula 1757. Then Nawab of Oudh also lost his
hegemony over his land 1764. British accelerated the capture of power and land of India
from the start of 19th century.
During 1782 till 1799 British fought in Mysore. The Nawab of Mysore Tipu Sultan
put up a great effort to resist British with the help of French however despite his several
victories over British he was finally defeated by them. Mir Sadiq was the traitor who
betrayed his benefactor and conspired against his countrymen.
The conquest of Sindh took place in 1843. On September 11, 1803 British attacked
Delhi, which was under Marratha rule and three days later they took the charge of it.
British conquest of the capital of northern India was a significant one. After it they were
able to dominate all India psychologically and stamped their authority. Later in Punjab
British tried to expand, however their aims were checked by Maharaja Ranjeet Singh until
his death in 1839. They took capital of Punjab, Lahore in 1849.
The famous Doctrine of Lapse in 1852 of Dalhousie also deprived many rulers from
their lands. According to this doctrine the British would confiscate any land of such rulers,
who did not have a direct male heir, after his death. Through the implementation of this
doctrine British were able to take control many territories which resulted into further hatred
in the hearts of locals for them. Most of them were unable to fight British alone however
when the war started they came out in the support for the anti-British forces and tried to take
revenge.

iii. Social causes:

India was home to very staunch and conservative people. British in early days of
their occupation did not interfere in the social traditions and customs of Indian people. From
the beginning of 19th century British started to introduce many new reforms, which were
seen as attack by the local people on their culture. They opened schools where English was
made compulsory. English replaced Persian in 1835 as official language. Lord McCauley
introduced his famous education policy of 1835, which particularly attacked local teachings
and culture. He even made an insulting statement about the local literature,” a single shelf of
a European Library is better than all the books ever written in
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Sub-continent.”

iv. Religious causes:

India had always been a very conservative society. The two major communities
Muslims and Hindus both had always been very orthodox towards their religious believes.
Earlier the British East India Company decided upon the policy of no interference in the
religious matter of the locals. They were aware of the fact that by indulging in religion or
propagating Christianity they would rattle the locals. However with time policies changed.
i) Afghan Invasion by East India Company was an event that created a rift
between the Hindu soldiers working under the company. Bengal and Bombay
regiments were ordered to March into Afghanistan in 1839. Several Hindu
soldiers refused to go beyond river Indus on behalf of their religious believe.
According to Hindu traditions if a Hindu crosses river Indus and goes west he
will lose their religion. This was a major concern for British and Hindus at the
time.
ii) Missionary activities were started by the order the British crown in the first
quarter of 19th century. It created a feeling of insecurities in the hearts and minds
of both Muslims and Hindus.
iii) British introduced a cartridge for a new riffle in India. The cartridge was
made of paper and was coated with animal fat to protect it from moisture. These
cartridges were to be opened by mouth before use. The cartridges were being
made locally in India by various venders. The manufacturers used cow and pig fat
on them. It was later reported by the Indian Sepoyees that we would not use these
cartridges because of caw and pig fat. In the beginning British called an inquiry
into the matter and ordered vendors not use the fat of said animals. Later in May
1857 the matters got worst when a British officer strictly ordered Indian Sepoyees
to use the cartridges when they were in doubt about the use of cow and pig fat on
them.
iv) Ban on Suttee3 was imposed by British in 1829. At the time this ban was
considered as unnecessary indulgence by British in the affairs and religious

3
Suttee was a religious ceremony of Hindus in which if the husband dies the widows used to be burned along with
the dead body of the deceased husband. Although this practice was not very wide spread amongst all Hindus
however at the time of British ban considerable section of Hindu community was distressed by the action.

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 matters of locals.

2. Reasons for the failure of Indians in the War:

This was not the first time that Indians took up arms against East India Company.
Siraj-ud-Daula, Shuja-ud-Daula, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Ranjeet Singh also took up
arms against East India Company but in 1857 this effort was collective rather than
individual. India was one of the largest countries at that time which had one of the
largest populations in the world. Then how such a great number of people were defeated
by handful British officers? There are some reasons behind this defeat, which are as
under:

i. No central leadership:
The war of independence was started by some soldiers who refused to use the
disputed cartridge. Although these sepoyees got support from other Indians as well but there
was a major weakness in the organization of the rebel army. There was no leader who could
command the volunteer army and fight the war with proper strategy. The sepoyees got the
official support of Bahadur Shah Zafar, but he was a very old man at that time and was
physically unable to take active part in the war. On the other hand British had a proper high
command and proper structured army. Due to this lack of central leadership the rebel army
was unable to achieve its objective.

ii. Lack of weapons:

The war is fought with weapons. The British had their factories which were
supplying weapons continuously. On the other hand the local people were fighting with the
weapons which they got from British. The other weapons which were locally made,
(swords, lances, bow and arrow) were useless against the advanced weapons of British like
guns and cannons.

iii. Lack of support from all over India:

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 This war is remembered as the war of Independence of India but in reality it was
not supported by all the Indians. Main fighting tribes like Punjabis and Ghurkhas were
supporting British. The three presidencies Calcutta, Madras and Bombay remained loyal
to the British. The war effort was concentrated only in the central India. The people of
other parts of India did not support the war.

iv. Lack of unity and coordination:

The people who were fighting against British were not united among themselves as
well. They were fighting for their own goals rather than the national goal. That is why they
did not have coordination with each other. Different rulers were fighting in different areas
for example, Nana Sahib at Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Oudh, Moulvi Liaquat Ali at
Allahabad and most famous Rani Laxmi Bai at Jhansi. If all these people would have been
fighting like a single machine and with coordination the results of the war would have been
different.

Comments:
3 This war was a failure because it was unable to achieve the goals for which it was
fought. The objectives of the war were;
i. To send British back to England
ii. To unite Indians against British
iii. To reinstall Mughal rule in India.

4 The people who fought this war were unable to achieve any of these goals
through the war. Although the war was unable to achieve the goals for which it was
fought but it achieved some in direct goals which were not considered as success at that
time. This indirect success proved very helpful for Indians to gain Independence 90
years later.

i. The people of India were able to abolish the tyrannical rule of British East India
Company and to replace it with comparatively better rule of British Crown. The
company was only working to gain profit for its people. They totally ignored the
rights of the Indian people. They were the main cause of the armed struggle against

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 British in India.
ii. The people of India convinced the British Government that they need recognition
and now their voice cannot be pressed. That is why the Government of England
took control of India directly into their hands and introduced acts which gave
Indians a chance to participate in the Government.

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Phases of Indo-Pak history from 1857 till 1947:

The history of India after the War of Independence till Independence of Sub-
Continent could be divided into four phases, which are as under:

First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British vs. Muslims)

This period is marked by good relations between Hindus and British. Muslims were
being ignored by both of them and persecuted.

Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims vs. Hindus)

During this period British made some administrative and legislative changes which favored
Muslims. Hindus during this period were very active against both British and Muslims.

Third Phase 1913 till 1928 (Muslims + Hindus vs. British)

Since the change of objectives by Muslim League the Congress found some common
grounds with them. This period is marked by Hindu Muslim Unity shown in Lucknow Pact,
Khilafat movement etc.

Fourth Phase 1928 till 1947 (British vs. Muslim vs. Hindus)
Since the Nehru Report the unity between Hindu and Muslims ended. Since then
both parties worked for their own rights without the help of each other.

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 First Phase 1858 till 1905
(Hindus + British Vs Muslims)

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Introduction:
The Great War had started in May 1857 and it ended in August 1858. The two
simultaneous and most significant aftermaths of the war were the dissolution of British East
India Company and the takeover of all Indian affairs by the British government under royal
authority of her highness Queen Victoria. On 1st November 1858 the queen declared the
takeover officially. For the first time during the British interaction with Indians were given
the status of British subject unlike the rule under the company. This might not be a status any
one would like to associate themselves with however it was a lesser evil. The queen
announced constitutional reforms in the new official colony. Act of India 1858 was the result
that intention.

Act of India 1858:

1. “India was to be governed directly by and in the name of the Crown, actin through a
Secretary of State.”4

“There shall be paid to each member of the ' Council the yearly salary of one thousand two
hundred pounds out of the revenues, of India.”5

“If a majority of the Council record as aforesaid their opinions against any act proposed to
be done the Secretary of State shall, if he do not defer to the opinions of the majority,
record his reasons for acting in opposition thereto.”6

4
95
5
Indian Constitutional Documents 12
6
Ibid 15
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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: (1817-1898)

Introduction:
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is one of those personalities who shape the future of nations.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17th October 1817 and he died on 27th March 1898. He
belonged to an educated family and his father had served in the Mughal court. After
completing education he looked for his future in judiciary during the rule of East India
Company.
He was a realistic person and a man of reason. He saved the life of an English
collector Shakespeare and his family from an angry mob. He was the first person who took
a middle path and tried to solve the problems Muslims were facing at the time especially
after the war. At the time of the war he was 40 years old and he dedicated rest of his life
towards the restoration of the status of Muslim society in sub-continent.

Contributions and services of Sir Syed:

After the war Sir planned to raise the status of Muslim society by education and
bringing them close to British. To accomplish this task he wrote books on various topics
and opened schools and other institutions.

Literary works.

i. Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind; (The causes of Indian Revolt). 1858 (Political effort):

It was originally written in Urdu and later it was translated into English by
Sir Auckland Colvin and G.F.I. Graham in 1873 and published same year7.
In this pamphlet he blamed the war on British. He said that it is due to the
tyrannical rule of British East India Company that Indians started to hate them and finally
this hatred led to the war. He pointed out that British did not include Indians in the
government. He argued that British should include Indians in the government. This will help
British to understand and solve the problems faced by Indians. This particular piece to
writing had a great impact on politics of India, British for the first time included Indians in
the government after the Indian Councils act 1861. These Indian members

7
G.F.I. Graham, The Life and Word of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, (London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1885), 32
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were chosen by the Viceroy this means they were not elected or they had the approval of
Indian people.

ii. Loyal Mohammedans of India. 1858 (Political effort):

In this book Sir Syed mentioned all those Muslims who served under the
British. The main purpose of this book was to tell British that Muslims are not their enemies
and they have served them with loyalty.

iii. Tabyin-ul-Kalam (Explanation of Bible) (Social effort):

In this book Sir Syed explained Bible to bring out its relation with Quran and
Islam. It was a very important book to cultivate friendly relations between Muslims and
British.

iv. Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq. (Magazine) (Social efort)

It was a magazine started by Sir Syed to bring Muslims closer to their culture and
moral values. It worked as a social reformer.

v. Ahleam-e-Taam-e-Ahle-e-Kitab (Social efort) (Table manners of the people of book)

Both Muslims and Christians are the people of book. Muslims follow
Quran and Christians follow Bible. In this writing Sir Syed tried to bring out the similarities
between Muslims and Christian.

vi. Khutabt-e-Ahmadiah (A book on the life of Holy Prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H) In

this book Sir Syed discussed different events and summons of Holy Prophet.

vii. Tafseer-ul-Quran. (Commentary of Holy

Quran) It was a detailed commentary on Holy
Quran.

Educational institutes:

i. Laid the foundations of a school at Moradabad in 1859.

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ii. Established a school in Ghazipur in 1864.
iii. Established a scientific society at Ghazipur in 1863. The main function of this
society was to translate books written in European languages into local
languages so the people of India could understand them.
iv. In 1869 he went to England to admit his son Mohammad in Cambridge
University. There he observed the education system and particularly universities.
He observed that Universities like Oxford and Cambridge are working for more
than three centuries due to which the society of England was modern and
advanced.
After coming back from England he started to work towards establishing a
university in India. In 1875 he was able to establish a school at Aligarh, which was
upgraded to MAO College in 1877. This same college was finally made a
university in 1920 as Aligarh Muslim University.
v. He also established Mohammedans Educational conference in 1886 to promote
education amongst Muslims of Sub-continent.

Aligarh Movement:
It was not a separate movement launched by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. All of his
educational efforts which had their base in Aligarh came to be known as Aligarh
Movement which included the Tehzeb-ul- Akhlaq, MAO. College etc.

Political efforts:
Sir Syed tried to transform Muslim society of sub-continent to be a modern society.
For this purpose he made many different efforts. Along with his social, educational and
religious efforts his political mentoring of Muslims is very important.

i. Different books:

ii. Two nation theory:

Sir Syed was the first person who distinguished the two major communities of sub-
continent on the political and religious basis. He had a very fine observation on the political
events of his times. In 1867 Hindi Urdu controversy occurred. The course of this

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event got Sir Syed’s attention and he started to think about the two nation theory at that
time.
British introduced Indian Councils Act 1892 in which they introduced for the first
time in India the system of elections. It means that now the Indian people can chose their
representatives on their own.

iii. Political Advice to Muslims:

When Indian National Congress was established in 1885 Sir Syed advised
Muslims of sub-continent to stay away from the politics. The reason behind it was that he
believed that Muslims are not properly aware of politics at that time and not properly
educated to become got politicians.
On the other hand Hindus were in better position than Muslims. That is why he asked
Muslims to work towards education and when they are prepared then enter into politics.

Akbar Allahabadi
“Hum raish dikhatay hain kay Islam ko dekho
Miss zulf dikhati hain kay iss Laam ko dekho”

“Iss ada say kaha miss nay come on

Teer ki si abb mujh main rawani si hai”

“hum aisi kul kitabain kabil e Zabti samajhtay hain

Jinhain parh kar kay larkay baap ko khapti samajhtay hain

Char din ki zindagi hai kouft say kia faida

Kar Clerky kha double roti khuishi say phul ja

Huay is qadr muhazib kabhi ghar ka munh na dekha

Kati umar hotlon main maray aspatal jakar

Sheikh ji kay donon betay ba hunar paida huay

Aik hain khufiya police main aik phansi pagaiy

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Indian Councils Act 1861:
In 1861 British introduced first major reforms. These reforms were the result of
continuous criticism from Indians on the administration and legislative structure of
British in India. There was no representation of Indians in the legislative council of
Viceroy and central administration. According to Indian critics the absence of Indians is
a major cause of rejection of British and one of the major elements for the war of 1857.
Leading from the front in criticism was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He wrote Asbab-e-
Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt, later translated in English) in 1858. Since
this book came out, British started to discuss inclusion of Indians in governmental setup.
These reforms for the first time brought Indians into legislature. It said that Indians
would be allowed to sit in the council of Viceroy on the basis of selection by British.
Although this inclusion was not on democratic basis but it opened a window of opportunity
for Indians to take part in law making. The function of Indian member was just to tell
British about the feelings of Indians when asked. He did not have any power to make any
change or to stop any law.
The first Indians to become members of Imperial Legislative Council were, Raja Sir
Deo Narayan Singh of Benaras (Jan 1862-1866) Narendra Singh, Maharaja of Patiala (Jan
1862-1864) Dinkar Rao (Jan 1862-1864).

Hindi-Urdu controversy 1867:

This event occurred when British decided to replace Urdu which is written in
Persian script with Hindi written in Deo-Nagri script, in lower courts. Muslims all over
India started to agitate against the step taken by the Government. On the other hand Hindus
were celebrating on the replacement of the Language.
This event also sparked disturbance in many localities across India. Muslims were
surprised by the reaction shown by the Hindus, because till then both Hindus and Muslims
stood with each other against British. Hindus had started to lean towards British, while
Muslims were facing hardships at the hands of British.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan took notice of the event and observed it. He then started to

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think about the two nation theory, that Muslims and Hindus are two different nations which
have totally different history, culture, religion and language etc. Although they have lived
together with each other for more than eight centuries but still they have not learnt to
tolerate each other. After some interval of time in history both communities found
themselves face to face against each other over some issue.

Formation of “All Indina Natioanl Congress” 1885:

It was formed by a retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. The
main purpose of this party was to provide Indians a platform to voice their grievances and
demands to the British Government. It welcomed people of all castes and color. British
wanted to avoid any other confrontation like the War of Independence 1857 in future. The
first meeting of the Congress was held in Bombay when Lord Dufferin was viceroy. It was
attended by 72 delegates. Womesh Chandra Banerjee was elected as the first president of
Congress. By 1907 the Congress party got split into two sections first under Bal Gangadhar
Tilak (the extremist) and the second under Gopal Krishna Ghokle (the moderates).
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan at this moment advised Muslims not to join Congress. He
was not against politics but he believed that Muslims were not fully prepared to indulge
themselves into politics. He believed that Muslims at that time had other important than
politics challenges which need immediate attention. He said that Hindus are more advanced
and educated than Muslims. They will easily overpower Muslims in politics. He also
predicted that Congress will become a Hindu party neglecting Muslims.
To provide Muslims a platform to work on education and divert their attention
from politics he established Mohammedan Education Conference in 1886. Time proved
the fears and predictions of Sir Syed when Hindus objected on the partition of Bengal in
1905 which was in the favor of Muslims.

Indian Councils Act 1892:

Since its establishment Congress was asking for more representation in the
legislature and on the basis of elections by Indians rather than selection by British. In 1892
British introduced new reforms in which for the first time they brought limited democratic
representation system in India. This time the number of Indians in provincial

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council was increased and they were going to be nominated from Indian.
This was not a direct election amongst the people like in practice today across the
world but these members would be nominated by different groups or bodies working in
India for example, City Corporation, Municipal Corporation, district boards,
associations of merchants or manufacturers and University senate (source given below).
The power to make regulations regarding the nominations of Indians was given to
provincial governors under the article 1(4) of the Indian Councils Act 1892. 8
At the time there were four administrative units of British India, Madras,
Bombay, Calcutta and North Western Provinces and Oudh. The number of nominated
members in these provinces was as follows;

Province No.
1 Madras 7
2 Bombay 8
3 Calcutta 7
4 N.W. Provinces and Oudh 6

He said that the European democratic system cannot work in India as it is working
in England because there are many different communities living in India. This way only
the community in majority would be able to make laws and they would suppress the
communities in minorities. On the other hand in England all the people are English and
they do not have communal differences amongst them. They vote on the basis of policies
of political parties or politicians. In India all people would vote on the basis of religion
or community.

8
See, The Indian Councils Act, and the Acts Amending it, (Madras: The National Press, 1893), 1-2
www.cssexampoint.com 27
Original Source 9
Regulations under Section 1 (4) of the Indian Councils Act 1892 for Madras.

I- Of the persons, other than the Advocate-General of officer acting in the that capacity, to be nominated
Additional Members of Council by the Governor of Madras for his assistance in making Laws and Regulations
not more than nine shall be officials.

II- The nominations to seven seats shall be made by the Governor on the recommendation of the following
bodies and associations respectively, namely:-

A- The Corporation of Madras.

B- Such Municipal Corporations or group or groups of Municipal Corporations other than the
Corporation of Madras as the Governor in Council may from time to time prescribe by
Notification in the Fort St, George Gazette.

C- Such District Boards, or group or groups of District Boards, as the Governor in Council may from
time to time prescribe aforesaid;

D- Such Association or Associations of merchants, manufacturers as the Governor in Council may

from time to time prescribe aforesaid;

E- The Senate of the University of Madras:

Provided that the bodies described above under A, B, C and E, shall each (except as hereinafter
provided rule VII) have at least one person nominated upon its recommendation, and A, D and E, not
more than one each.

9
The Indian Councils Act, and the Acts Amending it, (Madras: The National Press, 1893), 58-59
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Second Phase 1905 till 1911
(British + Muslims Vs Hindus)

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 Partition of Bengal 1905: continued till 1911
Bengal at the start of the twentieth century had Bengal proper, Biharm Orrisa and
Cholta Nagpur. It was the most populous Province in British India, having an area of
189,900 square miles, with a population of 78.5 million (7 carore 85 lacs) 10. This was nt the
first time that British had discussed or planned to bifurcate this particular area of India. The
size of Bengal according to British was too much for a single governor to handle and
administer. They divided Bengal into two provinces, East Bengal and West Bengal. Before
the partition the most of the Muslims lived in the Eastern Bengal and Hindus dominated the
Western Bengal. Partition took effect on 16th October, 1905. After the partition Muslims got
almost full majority in the new province East Bengal.
This partition sparked a reaction from Hindus, who were not in the favor of
sharing power with Muslims and agreeing to any favors for Muslims. Prior to the
partition in all provinces Hindus had majority and Muslims were in minority, so when the
Muslims got majority in one province it was not acceptable to Hindus.
On the other hand Muslims felt relieve. This was the first time during the British
Raj11 that Muslims as a community received some benefit out of the government. They
welcome the decision. The main advantage to Muslims was that now they did not have to
compete with the Hindus of Calcutta who were head and shoulder above the Muslim
merchants economically and had a control over markets.

1 Why the partition was done?

2 Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it?
3 How Hindus and Congress opposed it? or Why the partition was reversed?

1 Why the partition was done?

Bengal was the largest province of India which had the largest population and area.
Due to its size and population it was becoming difficult to administer it. So administer it
properly the Viceroy decided to divide into two smaller provinces under two Governors. The
population was about 70 million.
Another political reason can be drawn out of the activities of Congress and behavior

10
R. C. Majumdar, History of the Freedom Movement in India, Vol.II, ( Calcutta: Firma K L M Pvt. Ltd, 1963), 3
11
British Raj means the rule from 1858 till 1947. It does not include rule by East India Company.
www.cssexampoint.com 30
 of British Government. Since the establishment of Congress in 1885 the demands of Indians
were increasing day by day. Congress was dominated by Hindus and Muslims had a very
small number in it. British wanted support for them amongst Indians and they thought that
by giving political, administrative and economic favor to Muslims they might be able to
receive support from Muslims, which might be helpful against Congress. This is exactly
what happened after the partition. Muslims were in favor of it and Hindus rejected it
completely.

2 Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it?
Before the partition the Hindus were in majority. Hindus had more than half of the
population in Bengal, most which was located in the Western part of the province. The
Muslims had the second largest population and most of them were located in the Eastern
part.
After the partition East part of Bengal became under the majority of the Muslims and
the Western part was still dominated by the Hindus. Congress and Hindus were unable to
tolerate Muslim majority in any of the provinces of India. Secondly Hindus were claiming
that by drawing lines on the holy land of Hindus British have committed a sin and dividing
any piece of land on India is like cutting holy deity12 in two halves.
For Muslims, it was a sigh of relief. Finally the mission of Sir Syed was
accomplished to some extent. He always wanted to bring Muslims and British closer for
the benefit of Muslims. It was the first time after the War of Independence 1857 that
Muslim community got any benefit out of the British Government. Muslims were
enjoying majority in one newly created province in India.

3 How Hindus and Congress opposed it? Or Why the partition was

reversed?
Congress and Hindus were against this decision since the beginning. They wanted to
reverse it at any cost. The following events and action show how they were able to
pressurize British to reverse the partition.

i Sawadeshi movement:

12
Hindus consider India a holy land and they compared partition of Bengal with slaughtering of Holy cow.
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 “Sawadeshi” is a Hindi word which literally means “of our own”. In this movement
Congress asked their fellow countrymen to boycott British goods and buy only Indians
goods. They thought this way British would suffer financial losses and they would be forced
to reverse the partition.

ii. Violence across country:

Initially British were able to sustain pressure of agitation and Sawadeshi Movement.
But after some time Hindus got more frustrated and violent in their demand. Some extremist
Hindus started to conduct attacks on government officials. They even attempted to
assassinate the Viceroy of India Lord Minto twice, but he survived both times.

iii. Delhi Durbar:

King George V became king of England on 6th May 1910 after the death of his father.
He chose India for his coronation ceremony because it was the most prized possession of the
British monarchy. When Indians came to know about this Idea of the king they threaten to
kill the king if he tries to come to India. Before this could happen the British Government
took firm action to avoid this situation by reversing the partition and shifting the capital from
Calcutta to Delhi.
Sir John Jenkins a member of Viceroy’s Council advised to reverse the partition of
Bengal and to shift the capital of India to Delhi. Both of these suggestions were accepted by
Viceroy and implemented. When King came to India the capital was Delhi and there he
announced the reversal of the Partition of Bengal on 22nd June 1911.

Simla deputation, 1906

After the partition of Bengal the Muslims of Sub-continent felt alone. The
reaction of Hindus against the partition was very strong and anti-Muslim. At that time
some prominent members of Muslim community thought that the time has arrived for
Muslims to take some action towards safeguarding their rights. Therefore Sir Agha

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Khan III led a delegation of some prominent members of Muslim society of India to meet
Viceroy Lord Minto in Simla in October 1906.
There they demanded separate electorates for Muslims and weightage for
Muslims in different councils. The meeting was a success and brought future hopes for
Muslim politics in India. The Viceroy assured that he would convey the demands to
House of Commons. Separate electorates were finally granted to Muslims in Minto

The Formation of Muslim League 1906:

The political system and culture was introduced in India by British in the last
quarter of nineteenth century. In 1885 the formation of Congress started the process of
politics in India. At that time Sir Syed Ahmad Khan advised Muslims not to take part in
Congress. The reason was that Muslims were not aware of politics at that time.
Muslims were ignored time and again by the British and Hindus in the India. The
Indian Councils Act of India 1891 also proved that Hindus would dominate the politics
and will leave Muslims behind. Since the start of 20th century Muslims had started to feel
the need of a separate political party or a group. In 1901, in a meeting at Lucknow,
Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk stressed on the formation of a political party for Muslims of India.
The Hindu attitude towards Muslims after the Partition of Bengal proved that
Hindus cannot work for the rights of Muslims and Muslims need to make a political party of
their own. The annual session of the, “Mohammedan Educational Conference”, was held at
Dhaka in 1906. Many prominent members of Muslim society of India were present there.
After the meeting the Nawab of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk arranged another meeting to
discuss the prospects of a political party of Muslims. He chaired the meeting and in this
meeting the every agreed on the need to form a separate political party. The early objectives
of the League were,

i. To protect the rights of Muslims

ii. To cultivate friendly relations with British.
iii. To prevent the rise a hostile feelings in the hearts of Muslims for other
communities and in the hearts of other communities for Muslims.

The formation of Muslim League was inevitable due to the behavior of Hindus

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and Congress. After its formation Congress blamed the League as the representative of
British and said that British have made Muslim League to divide Indians and to counter
Congress.

Morley Minto Reforms 1909:

British introduced legislative reforms after 1892 in 1909. These reforms are known
as Indian Councils act 1909 or Morley Minto reforms. Lord Minto was Viceroy and Lord
Morley was the Secretary of State for India. Salient features of these reforms are as under;

i. The separate electorates were given to Muslims in the provinces where they were
in minority.
ii. The number of seats in the provincial councils was increased as 30 in small
provinces and 50 in large province.
iii. The number of central council was increased to be 60 members.

These reforms were very important for Muslims in two aspects. i. Firstly in it the
Separate Electorates were officially granted to Muslims which meant a great Victory for
early Muslim politics. ii. Secondly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these reforms
which meant that British kept their promise. These reforms were not meant to give Indians a
chance to rule themselves but on the contrary to give them the opportunity to convey their
issues or problems to British. The Indian members of the councils were not there to make
any significant changes in the laws or frame them. They were there to advice British and it
depended on them to accommodate those advices or to reject them. British could easily
ignore their advice.
On the other hand Congress was very unhappy with these reforms. They also
refused to accept these reforms for the following three reasons:
i. It did not grant self- rule to Indians which was the demand of Congress before
these reforms.
ii. Secondly separate electorates were given to Muslims in minority provinces and
Congress was against this demand of Muslims.
iii. Thirdly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these reforms. Congress was
agitating against the partition of Bengal since it was done in 1905 and they were
Indians are not capable of "Responsible Government"

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 expecting that British government would officially reverse this partition in these
reforms.

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Third Phase 1911 till 1928
(Hindus+Muslims Vs British)

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Change of Objectives by Muslim League:
After the reversal of partition of Bengal in 1911 during Delhi Darbar, the leadership
of Muslim League was shocked and felt betrayed by British. During the movement against
the partition Muslims were curious about the future of East Bengal (a Muslim majority area)
and they were satisfied by British that it will remain separated no matter how many tactics
would be utilized against it. On this assurance Muslim League during its earlier years into
politics decided to side with British if they continue to favor the community across India.
The decision to re-unite East and West Bengal was an eye opener for Muslims. They
realized that British are not there to provide relieve to anyone their only motif is trade, profits
earned from it and the revenues from India. During 1911 and 1912 the leaders of Muslim
League wanted to deviate from earlier objective of the League which said to cultivate friendly
relations with British.
Finally in the annual session of 1912-13 Muslim League announced the change in its
objectives. The friendly relations with British were replaced with the demand for self-rule
from British. This was a significant demand because it brought Muslim League and Congress
closer and it also compelled Muhammad Ali Jinnah to join Muslim League in 1913.
“At a meeting of the Council of the League in 1913 the adoption of the Congress
formula of colonial self-government as the constitutional objective was moved but found no
seconder, and the Council adopted in its place the formula, ' the attainment under the aegis of
the British Crown of a system of self-government suitable to India ' a decision which the
League confirmed. The President of the Council, Mr. (afterwards Sir) Muhammad Shafi,
denounced the Congress formula as inadmissible and unsound.”13

Lucknow Pact 1916:

In 1913 Jinnah joined Muslim League. He was already a member of Congress since
he came back to India. After joining Muslim League he believed that these two political
parties could come closer and work together. He believed that they both are Indians and
they should not become each-others weakness. The change of objectives by Muslim League
in 1913 brought these two political parties closer due to the common

13
Coupland, The Indian Problem, Vol I, 46

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demand of Self Rule.
Jinnah was successful to convince both parties to conduct their annual session at
the same time in same city. Lucknow was chosen for this purpose. After conducting their
own sessions both conducted a common session.

i. For the first time the Congress agreed to the right of separate electorates for
Muslims. They also introduced the separate electorates in Punjab and Bengal
where they did not exist.
ii. They agreed that no bill will be passed in any provincial assembly if ¾ of the
community concerned with that law agrees to it.
iii. Muslims were given the 1/3 seats in the councils where their ratio was ¼.
iv. In another demand it was asked that any act or law passed by a large majority in
any provincial council should become a binding on the government.
v. Provincial autonomy was asked in all provinces.
vi. Both parties agreed that they will protect the rights of minorities living in
their areas.

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Lucknow Pact provincial.
Scheme of Reforms passed at the 31st session of the (b) There should be no divided heads of
Indian National Congress held at Lucknow on 29 revenue. The Government of India should be
December, 1916, and adopted by the All-India provided with fixed contributions from the
Moslem League at its Meeting on 31 December, Provincial Governments, such fixed contributions
1916 being liable to revision when extraordinary and
unforeseen contingencies render such revision
I Provincial Legislative Councils: necessary.
1. Provincial Legislative Councils shall consist of (c) The Provincial Council should have full
four-fifths elected and of one-fifth nominated authority to deal with all matters affecting the
members. internal administration of the province, including
the power to raise loans, to impose and alter taxation
2. Their strength shall be not less than one hundred and to vote on the Budget. All items of expenditure
and twenty-five members in the Major Provinces, and all proposals concerning ways and means for
and from fifty to seventy-five in the Minor raising the necessary revenue should be embodied in
Provinces. Bills and submitted to the Provincial Council for
adoption.
3. The members of Councils should be elected (d) Resolutions on all matters within the
directly by the people on as broad a franchise as purview of the Provincial Government should be
possible. allowed for discussion in accordance with rules
made in that behalf by the Council itself.
4. Adequate provision should be made for the (e) A resolution passed by the Legislative
representation of important minorities by election, Council shall be binding on the Executive
and that the Mahomedans should be represented Government, unless vetoed by the Governor in
through special electorates on the Provincial Council, provided however that if the resolution is
Legislative Council. again passed by the Council after an interval of not
Punjab—One half of the elected Indian members. less than one year, it must be given effect to.
United Provinces—30 per cent. (f) A motion for adjournment may be brought
Bengal—40 per cent. forward for the discussion of a definite matter of
Behar—25 per cent. urgent public importance if supported by not less
Central Provinces—15 per cent. than one-eighth of the members present.
Madras—15 per cent.
Bombay—One-third 8. Any special meeting of the Council may be
Provided that Mahomedans shall not participate in summoned on a requisition by not less than one
any of the other elections to the Legislative eighth of the members.
Councils. Provided further that no Bill, nor any
clause thereof, nor a resolution introduced by a 9. A Bill, other than a Money Bill, may be
non-official member affecting one or the other introduced in Council in accordance with the rules
community, which question is to be determined by made in that behalf by the Council itself and the
the members of that community in the Legislative consent of the Government should not be required
Council concerned, shall be proceeded with, if therefor.
three-fourths of the members of that community in
the particular Council, Imperial or Provincial, 10. All Bills passed by Provincial Legislatures shall
oppose the bill or any clause thereof or the have to receive the assent of the Governor before
resolution. they become law, but may be vetoed by the
Governor-General.
5. The head of the Provincial Government should
not be the President of the Legislative Council, but 11. The terms of office of the members shall be five
the Council should have the right of electing its years.
President.
II Provincial Governments
6. The right of asking supplementary questions 1. The head of every Provincial Government shall
should not be restricted to the member putting the be a Governor who shall not ordinarily belong to the
original question but should be allowed to be Indian Civil Service or any of the permanent
exercised by any other member. services.

7. (a) Except customs, post, telegraph, mint, salt, 2. There shall be in every Province an Executive
opium, railways, army and navy, and tributes from Council which, with the Governor, shall constitute
Indian States, all other sources of revenue should be the Executive Government of the Province.
www.cssexampoint.com 39
3. Members of the Indian Civil Service shall not legislation for the whole of India is desirable.
ordinarily be appointed to the Executive Councils. (b) Provincial legislation in so far as it may
affect inter-provincial fiscal relations.
4. Not less than one-half of the members of (c) Questions affecting purely Imperial
Executive Council shall consist of Indians to be revenue, excepting tributes from Indian States.
elected by the elected members of the Provincial (d) Questions affecting purely Imperial
Legislative Council. expenditure, except that no resolution of the
Imperial Legislative Council shall be binding on the
5. The term of office of the members shall be five Governor-General in Council in respect of military
years. charges for the defence of the country.
(e) The right of revising Indian tariffs and
III. Imperial Legislative Council customs-duties, of imposing, altering, or removing
1. The strength of the Imperial Legislative Council any tax or cess, modifying the existing system
shall be one hundred and fifty. currency and banking, and granting any aids or
bounties to any or all deserving and nascent
2. Four-fifths of the members shall be elected. industries of the country.
(f) Resolutions on all matters relating to the
3. The franchise for the Imperial Legislative Council administration of the country as a whole.
should be widened as far as possible on the lines of
the Mahomedan electorates, and the elected 12. A resolution passed by the Legislative Council
members of the Provincial Legislative Councils should be binding on the Executive Government,
should also form an electorate for the return of unless vetoed by the Governor- General in Council :
members to the Imperial Legislative Council. provided, however, that, if the resolution is again
passed by the Council after an interval of not less
4. The President of the Council shall be elected by than one year, it must be given effect to.
the Council itself.
13. A motion for adjournment may be brought
5. The right of asking supplementary questions shall forward for the discussion of a definite matter of
not be restricted to the member putting the original urgent public importance, if supported by not less
question but" should be allowed to be exercised by than one-eighth of the members present.
any other member.
14. The Crown may exercise its power of veto in
6. Any special meeting of the Council may be regard to a Bill passed by a Provincial Legislative
summoned on a requisition by not less than one Council or by the Imperial Legislative Council
eighth of the members. within twelve months from the date on which it is
passed, and the Bill shall cease to have effect as
7. A Bill, other than a Money Bill, may be from the date on which the fact of such veto is made
introduced in Council in accordance with rules known to the Legislative Council concerned.
made in that behalf by the Council itself, and the
consent of the Executive Government should not be 15. The Imperial Legislative Council shall have no
required therefor. power to interfere with the Government of India's
direction of the military affairs and the foreign and
8. All Bills passed by the Council shall have to political relations of India, including the declaration
receive the assent of the Governor-General before of war, the making of peace and the entering into
they become law. treaties.

9. All financial proposals relating to sources of IV. The Government of India

income and items of expenditure shall be embodied 1. The Governor-General of India will be the head
in Bills. Every such Bill and the Budget as a whole of the Government of India.
shall be submitted for the vote of the Imperial
Legislative Council. 2. He will have an Executive Council, half of whom
shall be Indians.
10. The term of office of members shall be five
years. 3. The Indian members should be elected by the
elected members of the Imperial Legislative
11. The matters mentioned here in below shall be Council.
exclusively under the control of the Imperial
Legislative Council: 4. Members of the Indian Civil Service shall not
(a) Matters in regard to which uniform ordinarily be appointed to the Executive Council of
www.cssexampoint.com 40
the Governor-General. Court of that province.

5. The power of making all appointments in the

Imperial Civil Services shall vest in the Government
of India as constituted under this scheme, and
subject to any laws that may be made by the
Imperial Legislative Council.

6. The Government of India shall not ordinarily

interfere in the local affairs of a province, and
powers not specifically given to a Provincial
Government shall be deemed to be vested in the
former. The authority of the Government of India
will ordinarily be limited to general supervision and
superintendence over the Provincial Governments.

7. In legislative and administrative matters, the

Government of India, as constituted under this
scheme, shall, as far as possible, be independent of
the Secretary of State.

8. A system of independent audit of the accounts of

the Government of India should be instituted.

V The Secretary of State in Council

1. The Council of the Secretary of State for India
should be abolished.

2. The salary of the Secretary of State should be

placed on the British Estimates.

3. The Secretary of State should, as far as possible,

occupy the same position in relation to the
Government of India as the Secretary of State for the
Colonies in relation to the Governments of the self-
governing Dominions.

4. The Secretary of State for India should be assisted

by two permanent under-secretaries, one of whom
should always be an Indian.

VI. Military and Other Matters of Policy

1. The military and naval services of His Majesty,

both in their commissioned and non-commissioned
ranks, should be thrown open to Indians and
adequate provision should be made for their
selection, training and instruction in India.

2. Indians should be allowed to enlist as volunteers.

3. Indians should be placed on a footing of equality

in respect of status and rights of citizenship with
other subjects of His Majesty the King throughout
the Empire.

4. The Executive Officers in India shall have no

judicial powers entrusted to them, and the judiciary
in every province shall be placed under the highest
www.cssexampoint.com 41
“This agreement between the two major political organisations may be regarded as
the most striking expression of Indian nationalism so far achieved within the bounds
of British India. And it was only achieved by major concessions on both sides. The
Congress at last conceded separate Moslem electorates. It even acquiesced in their
introduction in the Punjab and the Central Provinces, where they had not hitherto
existed. Seats, moreover, on the Councils were allotted to those electorates on a
generous scale. In Bengal the Moslems were to obtain only three-quarters of the
seats to which they would have been entitled on a purely numerical basis, and in the
Punjab only nine-tenths ; but in both these Provinces this was a great increase on the
extent of Moslem representation under the Morley-Minto Reforms : in Bengal it was
raised from 10-4 to 40 per cent, in the Punjab from 25 to 50 per cent.2 And in the
other Provinces the Moslems were to obtain many more seats than they had at
present or would have on a population basis : in the United Provinces and Madras,
for example, a 14 and 6-15 per cent Moslem population would have a 30 and 15 per
cent representation. Moslem strength at the Centre was similarly increased by the
allotment of one-third of the elections to the Council to separate Moslem
constituencies. The Moslems, it is true, were to surrender the additional advantage
they had obtained in 1909 of also voting in general electorates; but by the more
conservative or communal-minded among them this may well have been regarded as
no loss, since it emphasised and secured the distinction between the two
communities. A final safeguard and, however it might work in practice, a notable
departure from the pure doctrine of ‘majority rule ' was provided by the application
of the device adopted in the Congress constitution. No bill or resolution affecting a
community should be proceeded with if three-fourths of the representatives of that
community were opposed to it.” 14

14
Coupland Vol I, 47-48
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Khilafat movement (1919-1924)
Different aspects to be covered in this topic;
1. Why did the Khilafat movement start?
2. The movement was week from the start
3. Events of Khilafat Movement.
4. The reasons for its failure.

1 Why did the Khilafat movement start?

It was a political movement launched by the Muslims of sub-continent. There were
two main reasons behind Khilafat Movement i. Protection of Ottoman Empire and Caliph
and ii. To join all the Muslims of the world under single caliph like the early days of Islam
by re-establishing the system of Caliphate.
The First World War started in 1914. Indian Sub-continent was under the rule of
British. The Great War was amongst two groups of countries. First group was led by
England and the second group was led by Germany. In the German group a very important
ally was Turkey. Turkey was the seat of Caliphate of Muslims. “Caliph” means “successor”
or “representative”. British asked Indians to fight along with them in the war against
Germany. The Muslims of India refused to fight against Turkey which was supporting
Germany. After the reversal of Partition of Bengal in 1911 Muslim League lost confidence
in British and started to build friendly relations with Congress. On behalf of this friendship
Hindus also refused to fight for British. To further convince Indians British said that their
main enemy is not Turkey. They further assured that after the war Turkey would not be
treated harshly. On behalf of this assurance Indians decided to support British.
The First World War ended in 1918. After the war the victorious countries
started to treat all of the loosing countries harshly through different treaties. The first
treaty which affected Turkey was the “Armistice of Mudros” signed on 30 th
October
1918. According to this treaty Turkey accepted defeat in the war and surrendered Hejaz,
Yemen, Syria, Mesopotamia, Tripolitania, and Cyrenaica. The allies also got control over

Dardanelles and the Bosporus the two traits of Black sea, which lie with in the boundaries
of Turkey. Then Treaty of Sevres in 1920 August 10th further humiliated Turkey. It broke

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the Ottoman Empire and reduced the control Turkey to the city of Istanbul and surrounding
territory and to part of Asia Minor.
The Muslims of India felt that they have been cheated by British. In 1919 they
started to raise their voice against this harsh treatment of Turkey. They also reminded
British about their promise in which they said that Turkey would be left alone after the war.
When these early attempts did not work then people like Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar,
Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar, Abul Kalam Azad etc. started a full fledge movement to
pressurize British.
Another long term or wider goal of the movement was to unite all Muslims of the
world against anti-Muslim forces such as west.

2 The movement was weak from the start

The movement was weak from the start. The basic reason behind the movement
was the restoration of Caliphate in Turkey, but on the contrary the people of Turkey wanted
to get rid of Caliphate and make Turkey a republic under the leadership of Kamal Ataturk.
So the claim of restoration from outside by design became week.
Secondly the aim to unite all Muslims of the world under the leadership of one
Caliph was also an idealistic one. The institution of Caliphate was able to run properly only
under the four pious Caliphs. After the takeover of Umayyad’s the institution was lost and it
became kingship where the successors were nominated and families ruled. The Muslim
world had many diverse cultures and people during the days of Khilafat Movement.

3 Events of Khilafat Movement

The movement started with few people but shortly it gained momentum and
mass in India. The first session of Khilafat conference was held 1919 December. Dr.
Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hasrat Mohani, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Hakim
Ajmal Khan along with Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jauhar established Khilafat
Committee.
30 March Gandhi had given a call of general strike all across Indian, which was later
delay to April 6. However in Delhi strike was conducted on 30 March and violence erupted. As
a result some Hindus and Muslims died. The next day in Namaz e Janaza of Muslims in Jama

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Musjid Delhi Hindus emerged to show solidarity with Muslims against British. There Sawami
Shardhanand an Arya Samajh leader arrived and he was asked to take the pulpit to address the
crowd15. It was an unprecedented event when a non-Muslim was given space on pulpit in such
an important mosque.

First Khilafat conference 23 and 24 Nov. 1919 in Delhi

19 Jan. 1920 Khilafat deputation of 35 went to meet viceroy led by Ansari
Khilafat delegation led by Muhammad Ali went to England and met Lloyd George PM
England on 17 March 1920.

Source: Young India (20 October 1921); writer Gandhi;

“I claim that with us both the Khilafat is the central fact, with Maulana Muhammad Ali
because it is his religion, with me because in laying down my life fir the Khilafat I ensure the
safety of the cow, that is my religion, from the Mussalman knife. Both hold swaraj equally dear
because only swaraj is the safety of our respective faith possible.’

4 The reasons for its failure:

The movement was fragile from the beginning. It did not last long and started to erode
with time. Some main reasons behind the failure of the Khilafat movement are discussed as
under:

a) Hijrat Movement 1920

In 1920 some religious leaders and the leaders of Khilafat movement declared
Indian Sub-continent a “Dar-ul-Harb”. It means a place where Muslims cannot live their
lives according to the teachings and practices of Islam. Around 20000 Muslims from
Sind, Punjab and N.W.F.P migrated to Afghanistan, the nearest “Dar-ul-Islam”. They
sold all of their belongings and other house hold to go to Afghanistan. When they

15
Gail 70.
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reached there the government of Afghanistan refused to take them in. They were turned
back forcibly.
Most of them died on the way. The ones who were able to reach back found it very
difficult to start a new life. In other words it was a complete failure and brought humiliation
for the leaders of Khilafat movement. People lost their confidence in the leadership.

b) Chaura Chauri incident 1922

In 1920, the leaders of Khilafat Movement decided to start Non-Cooperation
movement under the guidance of Gandhi. British arrested these leaders on behalf of this
movement. Through time, the movement grew more violent due to the frustration they were
facing. In 1922, an angry mob torched a police station. 22 police officers also were killed in
this incident.
When Gandhi got this news in the jail, he decided to withdraw his support from the
movement. He said that now the movement has become very violent and he cannot be a part
to any violent movement. He was a strong follower of the theory of “Ahinsa”, meaning non-
violence. With the departure of Gandhi all the Hindus supporting the movement also left
and the movement became weak because now only Muslims were supporting the cause.

c) Proclamation of Republic in Turkey 1924

Since the end of World War I a movement for democracy in Turkey started.
It aimed the monarchy or Caliphate in Turkey. The last Caliph signed a very humiliating
treaty with the victorious powers and it caused unpopularity for the Caliph. Finally, in 1924
the movement got successful under the leadership of Kamal Ataturk. The people of Turkey
abolished Caliphate and declared Turkey a Republic.
When the people of Turkey themselves abolished Caliphate then the demand to
restore Caliphate from other countries made no sense.

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Montague Chelmsford Reforms or Act of India 1919:
Immediately after the Second World War, British brought a new constitution in
India. According to them it gave more opportunity and power to the local people. This can
be said right in theory but in practice it was nothing like what they claimed it was. In reality
all the powers were in the hands of British. Some salient features of these reforms are as
under.

1. The Central Legislature was divided into two houses. Counsel of state and
Legislative assembly.
New composition of various legislative houses
House Elected Nominated Term Total
Council of 33 27 5 years 60
State
Legislative 103 41 3 years 144
Assembly
Provincial 70% 30%
Assemblies
Table16

2. The voter qualification was relaxed due to which more Indians got the chance to vote.
3. The Viceroy of India (a British officer) was given Veto power to stop any law which
he did not agree to.
4. The recommendations made in 1916 regarding passing of any law concerning a
particular community was accepted. In it, it was recommended that any law which
affects or concerns any particular community would not be passed if ¾ elected
members of that community agree to it in that province.
5. A new system of diarchy 17 was introduced in the provincial governments. “di”
means two and “archy” means rule it means dual rule. The administration of
provinces was divided in between Chief Minter and Governor. The thing to
understand here is that Chief Ministers were to be elected so they represented the
people of that province. On the other hand the Governors were selected and
appointed by the Viceroy which means they were not the representatives of the
people.

16
See, L.P. Sharma, History of British India and P. Spear
17
It can be spelled as diarchy and dyarchy, both are correct.
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 The administration was divided into two section i. Reserved Subjects and ii.
Transferred Subjects. First section was given to Governors and the second was given to
Chief Ministers. In reserved subjects all important ministries related to the collection of
taxes were retained by British. This way they had the upper hand and they did not lose
any money.

Reserved Subjects (Governor) Transferred Subjects (C.M)

1. Finance. 1. Health.
2. Police. 2. Sanitation.
3. Maintenance of peace and order. 3. Local government.
4, Revenue. 4. Public works.
5. Publication of books and newspaper. 5. Agriculture.
6. Famine. 6. Cooperative societies.

On paper British transferred some subjects to Indian but in reality real powers were
still in the hands of British because whenever any Indian minister wanted to construct a
school or college he needed money and money was still in the hands of British. Diarchy
was actually introduced in 1921.

6. Central Government under VR would look after the following subjects for whole
of India, defence, foreign affairs, railway, telegraph, foreign trade,, currency etc.

7. New provinces were made which increased the number of provinces to eight.
i. Assam, ii. Bengal, iii. Bihar, iv. Bombay, v. Madhya Pradesh, vi. Orissa, vii. Punjab,
and viii. Uttar Pradesh.

8. Separate electorates were retained for Muslims and extended to new communities.
Such as, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Christians and the Europeans.

Reaction of Muslim League and Congress on these reforms.

Both parties refused to accept these reforms because majority of the demands were
not accepted. The system of diarchy was also heavily criticized by all Indians. Both parties
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knew that British government has played a trick through introduction of diarchy. This way
the real financial powers were still in the hands of British. Self-rule was also not accepted in
these reforms.

Rowlett Act:
On February 6, 1919 a bill was introduced in Imperial Legislative Council for
approval18. Immediately a sharp reaction was sparked from Muslims and Hindus alike and a
heated debate arose over the rights of Indians. On March 18, same year the bill was passed
and stirred political agitation.
It was an act which was specifically introduced to control the different political
movements in India during that time. The most important movement was Khilafat Movement
which was gaining momentum. British after dealing with First World War started to
concentrate in Indian Affairs.
Through this act the police became powerful to arrest anyone without warrant and
any reason. The arrested people also did not have any right to go on trial. This meant that
police can do anything at any time and the people of India did not have any security from
police. The most political slogan against this law was “na daleel na wakeel” (not reason
and no lawyer). Jinnah resigned from the legislative council in protest of this act because he
was strongly against it.

Jhalianwala Bagh Incident:

On April 13, 191919 people living around Jhalianwala Bagh gathered into the
garden to celebrate a local festival. The military in charge of Amritsar General Dyer
appeared on the scene with his forces. He ordered people to leave the area or he would
shoot indiscriminately. The local people ignored him and continued with their festivities.
Finally General Dyer ordered his forces to shoot at people at their will. Around 400 people
died at the spot and 1600 injured.

18
See, Gail Minault, The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 69
19
Ibid 70
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Initiation of Constitutional reforms:
According to Montague Chelmsford Reforms constitutional reforms would be
revisited after 10 years. It became a pretext of the constitutional activity since the start of
1927. On December 25, 1926 Congress conducted its annual session Ghauhati20. They
passed a resolution calling upon, “the Working Committee to take immediate steps in
consultation with Hindus and Mussalman leaders to devise measures for the removal of
the present deplorable differences between Hindus and Mussalman and submit their
report to the All India Congress Committee not later than the 32st March, 1927” 21.

Simon Commission (1927):

In 1927 the secretary of state for India Lord Birkenhead announced a commission to
work for the recommendations for the new constitution of India, which would replace
Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. It was good news for Indians but there was a
surprise of bad news in it. He did not include any Indian in it and was strongly against the
idea of including Indians in any type of legislation process for India. He stated that Indians
are not capable of legislation. They cannot agree on anything among themselves and can only
criticize on legislation done by British.
This commission was not accepted by almost all Indian political parties. There was
only one section of Muslim League which welcomed it. The league got divided on this issue.
One section was under Jinnah called Jinnah League and the other was under the leadership of
Shafi called Shafi league or Punjab league. The Punjab or Shafi League welcomed it and
Jinnah was against it.
The report of this commission came out in 1929, which was rejected by all political
parties of India.

Delhi Muslim Proposals:

In accordance to the Congress Party’s initiation, Muslims on their behalf called a
meeting in Delhi to offer constitutional proposals of their own which could be acceptable
to all parties and protected Muslim rights. As a result on March 20, 1927 following

20
This session became important because of the assassination of Swami Shraddhanand by a Muslim, Abdul
Rashid on December 23, 1926 just 2 days earlier than the session.
21
The Nehru Report An Anti-Separatist Manifesto, 18-19
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proposals were drafted and forwarded to Congress;
i. Sindh should be separated from Bombay and made a province.
ii. Reforms should be in traduced in N.W.F.P and Baluchistan on the same footings as
in any other province of India.
iii. Reservation of seats according to population for different communities in Punjab
and Bengal.
iv. Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in central legislature.
On the very next day Congress Working Committee passed a resolution and
welcomed the decision of Muslims to surrender separate electorates. A sub-committee of
CWC was constituted to consider various proposals presented to them22. Later in May
from 15th to 18th CWC conducted its meetings and presented their own proposal regarding
minorities23. They considered proposal presented to them from all minorities and smaller
political parties, such as Muslims, Hindu Mahasabah etc.
Congress approved and adopted three of the four demands forwarded by Muslims,
except 1/3 representation of Muslims in central legislature.

All Parties Conference and Nehru Report:

In response to this commission Congress being the largest political party of India
invited all other political parties to talk. They called All Parties Conference in 1928. Dr.
M.A. Ansari was the president of the conference. The main idea was that British have put up
a challenge in front of Indians and now the time has come to unite and work together. All
political parties of India welcomed it. Even Muslims League under Jinnah was a part of this
unified effort.
A committee was shaped under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru (father of
Jawaharlal Nehru) on May 19, 1928 and following were the various members;
i. Motilal Nehru. (Congress) (Chairman of the committee)
ii. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru. (Liberals)
iii. Sir Ali Imam. (Muslims)
iv. Shoaib Qureshi. (Muslims)
v. Pradhan. (Non-Brahman)
vi. Subhas Chandra Bose. (Congress)

22
The sub-committee consisted of, Sarojni Naidu, Moti Lal Nehru, Srinivasa and Maulana Muhammad Ali.
23
Anti-Separatist manifesto, 21
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 vii. Madhorao Aney. (Hindu Mahasabha)
viii. M.R. Jayakar. (Hindu Mahasabha)
xi. N. M. Joshi. (Labor)
x. Sardar Mangal Singh. (Sikhs)
xi. Jawaharlal Nehru (Congress) (Served as the secretary of the
committee)24

There were two Muslim members in this committee as well. When the report came
out it was not acceptable to Muslims. Only two members Shoaib Qureshi and Pradhan did not
sign the minutes. It was against the benefit of minorities. Sir Ali Imam attended only one
meeting thus signed it later when the minutes were presented to him 25.
Jinnah made a very famous statement on this occasion that, “it is the parting of the ways”, of
Hindus and Muslims. Since then Muslims and Hindus never came on terms again and started
working for their own separate agendas.

1. Immediate dominion status.

2. “Declaration of Rights”, should be adopted, insuring fullest liberty of conscience and
religion.
3. N.W.F.P should be given full provincial status.
4. Sind should be separated from Bombay.
5. *Separate Electorates should be immediately abolished.
6. *No weightage should be allowed.
7. Reservation of seats was recommended in center and provinces where they are in
minority only, and reservation was strictly to the proportion of population.
8. Bi-cameral legislature was proposed, Senate as upper house and House of
representatives as lower house.
a. *Senate would have 200 seats. Its members would be elected from provincial
councils and representation of provinces would be proportional to its population.26
b. “House of Representatives” of 500 should be constituted on the basis of direct
elections from all over India according to the population.

24
“The Nehru Report: An Anti-Separatist Manifesto”, (New Delhi: Michiko & Panjathan, 1975), 23.
25
Coupland 95
26
This is a wrong method of representation of provinces in upper house. In upper house representation should be
regardless of population proportion, such as USA senate has 100 members, 2 from each 50 states.
www.cssexampoint.com 52
9. *Residuary powers would be given to the center.27
NOTE: (* means these points were contradictory to the federal form of government and not
acceptable to minorities.)
These constitutional recommendations were hinting towards the domination of
majority population in a country which was deeply divided on ethnic and religious lines. It
hinted towards federalism however it was as unitary as the 1919 Montague-Chelmsford
reforms were28. These constitutional recommendations were seen as legal yoke to strangle
minorities. Anticipating it two members of the committee from minorities refused to sign
it, Shoaib Qureshi (representing Muslims) and Pradhan (representing low caste Hindus).
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was disappointed on the proceedings of APC. He proposed
three amendments to the Nehru Report on December 22, 1928 and offered to agree to all
other recommendations. However Congress refused to accommodate these recommendations.
i. One third (1/3) seats reserved in the center for Muslims.
ii. Reserved seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal.
iii. Federal form of government with residuary powers vested in the provinces 29.

All Parties Muslim Conference at Delhi:

Dissatisfied by the outcome of deliberations after Nehru Report Muslims decided to
do away with their differences and join in to show solidarity and seriousness towards Muslim
aspirations. All shades of Muslim polity in India sat under one roof in Delhi on January 1,
1929. Prominent Muslims, who had expressed their disapproval of each other, shelved their
differences and attended the meeting. The following demands were unanimously voiced as a
result of this important event;
i. Federal form of government, with full provincial autonomy and residuary powers30
vested with provinces.
ii. Separate electorates should continue.
iii. Weightage should be given to Muslims.

27
Residuary powers means all those subjects not mentioned in the concurrent list. It was negation of federalism.
Smaller provinces would be neglected and over powered by central government.
28
See, Coupland, 94
29
S.M. Burke, 267
30
Any powers which are not listed in Concurrent list fall in residuary powers. In this way the legislature get the

authority to make laws and regulations on all such matters.

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 iv. Muslims should have due share in central and provincial cabinets31.

Fourteen points of Jinnah

Nehru report was not acceptable to Muslims and they had already rejected the Simon
Commission. Now Muslims had to come up with a set of their own demands which they
could put in front of British. Jinnah took up this task and presented fourteen points. In these
points he summed up all the demands of Muslims of India.
This was the first time that Muslims of India came up with constitutional
recommendations. For a long time it was believed that Muslims are not capable enough to
take part in constitutional developments. Fourteen points proved to British and Hindus that
they were wrong and made them, realize the fact that now Muslims will not accept such
legislation which is against their rights. It also declared that Muslims of Sub-continent are not
just spectators.

First ever demand of full independence:

In 1929 the annual session of Congress was held in Lahore. Jawaharlal Nehru was the
president of the session. In his presidential address he demanded full independence of India
and complete withdrawal of British from India on 26th January. Later on they took this
demand back during the second round table conference for the time being. Today Indians
celebrate republic day on 26th January every year and it’s their national holiday.

Allahabad Address 1930:

The All India Muslim League decided to conduct its annual session of 1930 at
Allahabad. Allama Iqbal was the president of this session. This session became memorable
due to the presidential address of Allama Iqbal. In his address Allama presented an outline of
the future independent country for Muslims. In his long address he emphasized on the need
for an autonomous Muslim section. He

Round Table Conferences:

The constitutional process which was started by the announcement of Simon

31
See, Burke 268
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Commission in 1927 was unresolved till 1930. To resolve this issue the Prime Minister of
England Ramsay McDonald through Viceroy of India Lord Irwin invited all political parties
to London.

First Round Table Conference;

The conference started on 12th November 1930. All parties sent their representatives
to attend the session. Congress was not present in it. Congress demanded independence on
26th January 1929. Since then they started Civil Disobedience for grant of their demands.
They also decided to boycott the round table conference.
The first Round Table conference started in the absence of Congress. It was
impossible to achieve any constitutional solutions for India without including Congress
because it represented more than 70% of Indians. It was attended by other political parties
including Muslim League and the Princes of Independent states. Those who were present
there agreed on two basic principles.
i. Dominion status was demanded on, immediate basis. British said they
principally agree to the view point however it will be given once, the
“process of realizing responsible government in India as part of British
Empire was complete.”32
ii. More responsible government was demanded in the center by Indians.
British reused to share power in the center however they were willing to
give powers to Indians in provinces.
iii. The idea of making federation in India was floated by Sir Tej Bahadur
Sapru and he invited all princely states to join the proposed federation. This
idea was supported by Maharaja of Bikaner, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Sir
Shafi.
To proceed with the idea “Federal Structure sub-committee” was formed
with 21 total members, 6 British, 5, from states and 10 from British India. it
submitted its report on January, 15, 1931.
 Federation with bi-cameral legislation, Upper house should be
elected from provincial assembly and seats to provinces according
to population.
 Executive authority should be exercised by Dominion President,
32
Coupland part I, 144
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 Governor General would invite on minister to form government which
would be collectively responsible to the parliament.
 Finance would be in the hands of G.G.33
iv. sddgdfs

Second Round Table Conference:

After the failure of the first round table conference the Prime Minister of England
Ramsay McDonald told Lord Irwin that he should make sure that the Congress would
attend the next conference going to be held in 1931. Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail to
discuss the issue. Both of them agreed to resolve this matter. They made concessions to
each other and this agreement is known as Gandhi Irwin Pact.

Gandhi Irwin Pact 1931

Congress British
1. Congress agreed to withdraw demand of 1. British agreed to release all the prisoners
independence. of Congress.
2. Congress would attend the Second 2. British agreed to lift ban from the
Round Table conference. political activities of Congress.
3. Congress would discontinue its civil
disobedience movement.

After it the Second Round Table started with maximum hope of success but no one
knew the true designs of Congress. Gandhi was alone to represent Congress in the
conference. The problem started when Gandhi started to treat other political parties with
disregard. He said that all the representatives present here are hangers on and do not
represent true India. He further said that British should only talk to Congress in regards to
the future of India.
Due to this arrogant attitude of Gandhi the Conference was bound to fail. The
second round table conference was also unable to achieve its objectives. The Prime Minister
Ramsay McDonald had made it clear that if Indians are unable to come up with

33
See. For details, Coupland part I, 119
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a solution then British government had the right to come up their own solutions. This gave
way to Communal Awards which were announced by the government before the third
round table conference.

Third Round Table Conference:

The third round table conference was also hope less like the first one. Gandhi went
back to India after the second conference and started his civil disobedience movement and
was duly arrested. Mohammad Ali Jinnah had also left the politics of India and went on a
self-exile to England. This conference also ended without achieving any success.

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali:

He was a very enthusiastic Muslim young man who was keen towards changing the
political and social conditions of Muslims of India. He was a student of Cambridge
University, Emanuel College in England during 1930’s. During the round table conferences
he was in England and wanted the Muslim delegates in the conferences to demand a separate
homeland for Muslims within the geographical boundaries of India where Muslims would
live with complete independence.
For this purpose he wrote a pamphlet known as “Now or Never” published in January
1933. In it he demanded Muslim leaders to demand a new separate land for which he also
proposed a name “Pakistan”. He also mentioned the areas which he wanted to become a part
of Pakistan and he also took letters from these areas to make the word PAKISTAN.

P = Punjab
A = Afghania
K = Kashmir
I = Used as a vowel
S = Sind
TAN = Baluchistan
Other than consisting of alphabets from the demanded areas the name has another
significance, it means “Land of Pure”.

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Controversies attached to Ch. Rehmat Ali:
Ch. Rehmat Ali is one of those political figures who are not recognized as much as
others. There are many reasons behind less importance given by historians and other political
leaders to Rehmat Ali. First of all when he came up with the demand of Pakistan no one
(Muslim Leader) was in the mood of taking the struggle for the rights of Muslims to another
level of complete independence. He was not taken seriously at the time.
Later on when he progressed in politics he demanded two other independent states out
of India for Muslims along with Pakistan. The new states were, Bangistan (consisting of
today’s Bangladesh) and Usmanistan (consisting of Hyderabad Deccan in South India)
including the previous demand of Pakistan. Later he furthered his demands and finally in
third step he demanded seven (7) more independent Muslim states including the earlier three,
which made the total number of independent Muslim states to be 10 out of India. Another
significance of these particular demands was that if all these areas are given to Muslims as
independent states then the remaining India would become land locked. After these demands
no one took him seriously and every one ignored him to be as an idealist who’s political
vision is vague.
Another reason for ignoring him is that he was against the ideas of Jinnah and
openly used to say that Jinnah is not working in the favor of Muslims of India. He argued
that by making the current Pakistan a large number of Muslims would still remain in India
and they would be subjected to the same or may be more persecution or behalf of the
majority. He wrote a book “Pakistan” in which he has discussed his ideas about the
solution of Muslims of Pakistan. He did not come to Pakistan after independence and
continued his struggle for the remaining Muslims of India. He also wished not to be buried
in Pakistan so after his death he was buried in England where he still rests today. There is
a debate about bringing the remains of Ch. Rehmat Ali to Pakistan and construct his
mausoleum.

Self-Exile of Muhammad Ali Jinnah:

In 1931 Muhammad Ali Jinnah left the politics of India and went to England. He was
disheartened from the politics and differences of Indian Muslims. He said that we have so
many differences amongst us that we cannot present a united front to our
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opponents.
He stayed in England with his daughter and sister for three years.
Although he wanted to work for Indian Muslims but he knew that it was hopeless.
In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan paid him a visit to England along his wife Begum Rana Liaquat.
There he was able to convince Jinnah to go back to India and work for the betterment of
Muslims. Liaquat Ali Khan offered Jinnah life time president ship and also assured that all
other Muslim Leaders would follow his advice. Muhammad Ali Jinnah came back from
his self-exile in 1934 and immediately started to work for the upheaval of Muslim League.
Under his leadership Muslim League became the most popular political party of Muslims
of India. In the elections of 1945-46 Muslim League proved its popularity.

Communal Awards (1932):

In 1932 when nothing was achieved through the first and second round table
conference then British decided to pressurize Indians to come up with a solution. For that
they presented Communal Awards in 1932 August just before the third round table
conference. They said if this time Indians do not decide something then they would have the
right to go ahead with Communal Awards. The main features of these awards are as under.

1. The separate electorate would be continued for Muslims and would be extended to
other communities.
2. The population in Bengal was not correctly calculated and they decreased the
Muslim population on paper reducing their percentage to less than 50%.
3. In Punjab as well the Muslim population was reduced on paper.

These awards were rejected by Muslims because according to it they lost their
clear majority in Bengal and Punjab. Congress also rejected it because it retained the
separate electorates for Muslims.

Self-exile of Jinnah and his return to politics:

The leadership of Muslims had shown weaknesses during 1920’s. The main
problem was the trust on each other’s and strategy. The leadership argued among them on
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how to resolve the problems faced by Muslims of sub-continent. The major example of
these differences was the division of Muslim League in 1927 on the issue of Simon
Commission.
One section went with Sir Shafi who was of the idea that Muslim League should
welcome Simon Commission and support it. On the other hand Jinnah was of the idea that
because there are no Indians included in it so it should not be accepted. Sir Shafi made a
section of the League known as Punjab League and the people who went with Jinnah
became part of Jinnah League.
Although the two section of League came together again but differences did not
stop there. Finally after the First Round Table Conference Jinnah decide to leave the politics
of sub-continent and go to England. He left India in 1931 and settled in England where he
started to work as barrister. He lived there with his daughter and sister.
In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan and other leaders of Muslim League decided that they
needed the leadership and guidance of Jinnah. Liaquat Ali Khan along with his wife Rana
Liaquat Ali went to England and convinced Jinnah that he should come back to India
because the Muslims of India needed his to guide them. He also offered him the lifetime
president-ship of Muslim League and assured that now there would be no differences
and every one listen to him. Jinnah came to India in 1934 and took the command of
Muslim League.

Act of India 1935:

The constitutional process which started with the announcement of Simon
Commission in 1927 finally ended in 1935 with the announcement of Act of India 1935.
British finally made a constitution themselves with keeping the demands of Indians in their
minds. The demands of Indians could not have been fulfilled because this way British will
lost their control over India. So this act was a mixture of many things. Some salient features
of this act are as under:

1. The country would become a federal form of Government in future and the
independent states would join the federation.
2. The system of diarchy was abolished in the provinces and was introduced at the
center.

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 3. There would be governor appointed by the viceroy in each province. These
governors would have special powers to dissolve the provincial. This was the
most controversial point in the act.
4. Sind would be separated from Bombay and would be made a new province.
5. Provinces would be given maximum autonomy, so the Chief Ministers can work
freely in the provinces.
6. India was going to be divided into 11 provinces.
7. Fresh elections would be conducted to form provincial and central legislative
assemblies.
8. The recommendations of Communal Awards of 1932 were incorporated in this
Act.

Conclusion:
Quid-e-Azam being the president of the Muslim League called it a defected piece of
document for many reasons. The League showed concerns about the decrease of Muslim
population in Punjab and Bengal on paper my British. Secondly the powers which were
given to governors of the provinces to dissolve the provincial assemblies were against the
principles of democracy. This means that the provincial government would be in continuous
pressure and fear that if they do something against the wishes of British then they will
dissolve the provincial assembly through the Governor. Lastly the much debated system of
diarchy was still in use in the central administration.

Federal form of government:

It is needed where there are more than two provinces.
It has two house parliaments, which is also known as bicameral legislation.
Its first house is elected on the basis population. So the provinces which has large
population will have more people. The second house has equal number of representation
from all provinces regardless of their population or size.
Pakistan is an example of this type.

Unitary form of government:

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It is suitable in countries where there are no provinces at all, like England, Germany etc. It
has only one house parliament known as unicameral legislation.
There is no need to have the second house it only house is elected on the basis of
population.
Sweden, Greece, Sri Lanka, Turkey, China, Bangladesh, Denmark, Egypt etc. are
some examples of this system.

Election of 1937:
These elections were very important for the politics of India in general and politics
of Muslim League in particular. The results of these elections were in favor of Congress and
Muslim League got its wakeup call. Congress was able to secure victory in
8 out of 11 provinces. On the other hand Muslim League was unable to form
Government in any of the provinces.
To make the things worse there were other Muslim local political parties which got
victory in provinces but not the League. In 5 out of 8 Congress provinces they had full
majority to form government and in the other three they formed coalition governments.
In Punjab Sir Sikandar Hayat won the elections under his political party
Unionist. In N.W.F.P. Dr. Khan Sahab secured victory under his political party Red
Shirts but he formed government with the help of Congress. In Bengal, Fazul-ul-Haq
formed Government with the help of Independent Muslim candidates. The only
significant victory for Muslim League was in those provinces where Muslims were in
minority. In Muslim majority areas the League failed comprehensively.

Election Results of 1937 elections of Sindh. Table34

Party Seats
1 Sindh United Party (28 candidates) 22
2 Congress 7
3 Muslim Political Party (10 candidates) 3

34
Tanvir Ahmed Tahir, “Political Dynamics of Sindh 1947-1977”, (Karachi: Pakistan Study Center, UoK, 2010)
103

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4 Sindh Azad Party (12 candidates) 3
5 Independents (Muslims and Hindus) 25
Total 60

Congress became more rude towards all other political parties particularly Muslims
League. They started to say that Muslim League does not enjoy the support of Muslims and
Congress has more support of Muslims than the League.

Bengal 1937 elections

The election results (seats) were as follow:
Party Seats
1. Congress 52
2. Muslim League 39
3. Krishak Proja Party 36
4. European Group 25
5. Tripura Krishak Samity 05
6. Hindu Nationalist 03
7. Hindu Mahasabha 02
8. Anglo Indian 04
9. Independents (Muslim) 43
10. Independents (Hindu) 39
11. Christian 02
Total 250
Table35

NWFP 1937 Elections

Party Seats
1. Congress 19
2. Independent Muslim 21

35
Syed Umar Hayat, Muslim Political Ascendancy in Bengal: A Case Study of the Roles Played by the
Bengal Provincial Muslim League and the Krishak Proja Party (1906-41), Pakistan Journal of History and
Culture, Vol.XXVIII, No.2 (2007)
http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/latest_english_journal/muslim_political_ascendancy.pdf , 119
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3. Hindu-Sikh National Party 07
4. Independent Hindu 01
5. Independent Party 02
Total 50
Table36 ,

Punjab in 1937 elections:

Party Seats
1. Ahrar 02
2. Muslim League 02
3. Shiromani Akali Dal 11
4. Khalsa National Party 13
5. Hindu Mahasabha 12
6. Punjab Unionist Party 98
7. Ittehad-i-Millat 02
8. Indian National Congress 18
9. Congress Nationalist Party 01
Total 175

Reasons for the failure of Muslim League:

Muslim League was formed in 1906 Dec. but in its first major elections after 31
years of its formation it was unable to achieve what it claimed. The League claimed that
they were the true representatives of Muslims of India but in the elections of 1937 Muslims
of India preferred other local parties over the League. There are many reasons behind this
failure, which are as under:

36
Muhammad Shakeel Ahmad, Electoral Politics in NWFP: A
Study of 1937 Elections, Pakistan Journal of History and Culture, Vol.XXXII, No.2 (2011), 129
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 1. The League’s leadership had aristocratic outlook. Most of them were Nawabs
and landlords. They did not have a proper link with common people. The meetings
of the league were also not attended by many people. This gulf between the
leadership and the common people played an important role in the defeat of
Muslim League in the elections of 1937.

2. The main demand of Muslim League was Separate Electorates. This demand
only addressed the issues of Muslims living in Hindu majority areas. The League
failed to address the issues of the Muslims of Muslim majority areas. This is why
the people of Muslim majority areas did not vote for the League.

3. Before the elections there was a very weak network of the offices of Muslim
League across India due to which the message of the League was not spreading
properly. People also were unable to become a part of Muslim League due to lack
of offices.

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Efforts of Jinnah to reconstruct Muslim
Jinnah after coming back to India from his self-exile stated to concentrate
towards the weaknesses of Muslim League. Following are the measures he took to make
Muslim League popular among the Muslim masses;

1. He visited many colleges and universities and met many students. He asked them to
participate in Muslim Politics to help their community to achieve its goals. He made them
believe that they are the future and they have to play their role.

2. Muslim League opened new offices in many different cities across the country to
accommodate more Muslims. This helped in spreading the message of Muslim League.

3. He travelled across India to get support from Muslims living in all parts of the country.

1 I.H.Qureshi, “The Struggle for Pakistan”, University of Karachi, 2006, p. 73

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Congress Rule and difficulties faced by Muslims
(1937-39):
After a comprehensive victory Congress was able to form their government in 8
out of 11 provinces. In 5 of them they formed single party government and in other three
they formed coalition governments. Before taking oath Congress party made it sure that
there is no check on their ministries that is why they said that they will not take oath until
British assure that the governors of the provinces will not use their emergency powers.
After forming government Congress brought all the changes they wanted to
without considering the feeling of other communities’ particularly Muslim community.
Immediately after taking control Congress started to pass draconian laws which were
offensive to Muslims. Many Muslims living in the Congress provinces started to complain
to Muslim League. In March 1938 a committee of 8 members was formed to find out about
the grievances of Muslims. The chairman of this committee was Raja Syed Muhammad
Mehdi of Pirpur. The report came out in November 1938 which identified and discussed
the atrocities of Congress. Then another report came out in March 1939 known as Shareef
Report which served the same purpose. Lastly Fazul Haq Report was prepared to find out
the atrocities faced my Muslims in provinces under Congress Ministries. Following are
the findings of these reports which describe the true picture of Muslims of Hindu majority
areas;

1. Ban on Azan:
The congress ministries banned “Azan” on loud speakers in their provinces. This was
a step which infuriated Muslims living in these provinces. Muslims are bound to observe
“Namaz” and “Azan” is the call for it. By taking this step they showed that they do no care
about other religions.

2. Ban on slaughtering of cows:

Cow is one of those animals which are not forbidden by Allah for Muslims. It also is a
main meat source for Muslims across the world. On “Eid-ul-Azha” Muslims sacrifice animals
in the path of Allah and cow is the main choice of most.

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3. Disturbances during worships in mosques:
The congress supporters and Hindus used to conduct noisy processions during the
‘namaz’ time which was disturbing Muslims. Then in some places it was reported that
some fanatic Congress supporters threw dead pigs in Mosques.

4. Education Policy:
A new education policy was introduced under the title of Wardha Scheme. There were
many new proposals which were not acceptable to Muslims living in Congress Provinces.
The religious education was not allowed at any level. This way the Muslim families thought
that their children will slowly get far from their religion. Then the Hindu principle of
‘Ahinsa’ was propagated on a large scale according to which one should not resort to
violence at any cost. On the other hand Islam also teaches about the peace but it also tells
Muslims to fight in the name of Allah, Jihad if someone tries to wage war against you.

5. Schools and colleges:

Students of schools and colleges were supposed to pay respect to the portrait of
Gandhi on their way into the building. This was again an act which Muslims cannot accept.
Then in schools and colleges the practice of making thread by throwing wheel was adopted.
This was a political symbol of Congress which was started by Gandhi.

6. Wande Mataram:
A Hindu nationalist song was written by a Bengali writer. This song gave the message
that India is a sacred land only for Hindus and all the other people including Muslims are
outsiders.

Day of Deliverance 22 nd December 1939:

In September 1939 World War II started and again England was involved in it. The
government of England asked for support in the war from Indians. The people of India
replied that they will only support British in this war if they get complete independence from
British rule.

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When British government did not accept this demand Congress party resigned from all of
their provincial ministries.
Jinnah considered this resignation as good news for all the Muslims who were
living under Congress government. He declared that on 22 nd December 1939 all Muslims
will celebrate Day of Deliverance. The main reason for this celebration was that now
Muslims would not have to face all the atrocities and hardships of Congress rule any
more.

Pakistan Resolution 23rd March 1940:

The Muslim League decided to conduct its annual session of 1940 in Lahore in
Manto Park also known as Iqbal Park. During this session the final decision of most of the
Muslims of sub-continent was spelled out. A resolution was passed which changed the
future of all the people of India Muslims and non-Muslims.
A.K.Fazlul Haq forwarded the resolution asking a separate homeland for Muslims of Western
and Eastern India.

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 “While approving and endorsing the action taken by the Council and the Working Committee of the
All-India Muslim League, as indicated in their resolutions dated the 27th of August, 17th and 18th of September
and 22nd of October, 1939, and 3rd of February 1940, on the constitutional issue, this session of the All-India
Muslim League emphatically reiterates that the scheme of Federation embodied in the Government of India Act,
1935 is totally unsuited to, and unworkable in the peculiar conditions of this country and is altogether
unacceptable to Muslim India.
It further records its emphatic view that while the declaration dated the 18th of October, 1939, made by
the Viceroy on behalf of His Majesty’s Government is reassuring in so far as it declares that the policy and plan
on which the Government of India Act, 1935 is based will be reconsidered in consultation with the various
parties, interests and communities in India, Muslim India will not be satisfied unless the whole constitutional
plan is reconsidered de novo and that no revised plan would be acceptable to the Muslims unless it is framed
with their approval and consent.
Resolved that it is the considered view of this session of the All-India Muslim League that no
constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is designed on the
following basic principle, namely, that geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which
should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary, that the areas in which the
Muslims are numerically in a majority, as in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India, should be grouped
to constitute ‘Independent States’ in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.
That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution
for minorities in these units and in these regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic,
political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them; and in other parts of India
where Mussalmans are in a minority, adequate, effective and mandatory safeguard shall be specially provided in
the constitution for them and other minorities for the protection of their religio us, cultural, economic, political,
administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them.
This session further authorizes the Working Committee to frame a scheme of constitution in
accordance with these basic principles, providing for the assumption finally by the respective regions of all
powers such as defence, external affairs, communications, customs and such other matters as may be
necessary”.
Besides many others, the Resolution was seconded by Chaudhary Khaliquzzam from UP, Maulana
Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W. F. P, Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh, and Qazi
Muhammad Esa from Baluchistan. Those who seconded the resolution, in their speeches declared the occasion
as a historic one. The Resolution was eventually passed on the last day of the moot, i.e. March 24”.

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Cripps Mission Plan 1942:
Since the start of the Second World War in 1939 British wanted the complete support
of Indians in the war. First offer was made in 1939 but it was refused by Indians and
Congress also resigned from their ministries. The events which occurred in the early 1940’s
changed the situation and British thought that now Indians would reconsider their position
and may support the war.
In 1941 Japan attacked USA at Pearl Harbour and entered the Great War. It joined
the German Camp and declared war against England and her allies. England looked at it as
an opportunity to pursue India to support the war. Japan started to invade countries
towards east. India was in approach of Japan. If Japan wanted to attack England directly it
was very difficult because geographically England was very far from Japan. So the best
way to harm England was to attack India because it was the economic engine of England.
In 1942 British sent Stafford Cripps to India with a set of proposals for India. In
return they wanted Indian support in the war. The draft declaration which Cripps brought
with him to India was published on 30th March 1942. These proposals are as under:

1. India would be made a dominion of United Kingdom.

2. Immediately after the war a new body for making a constitution would be framed
through provincial legislatures. Any constitution made by this body would be acceptable to
British.
3. India would be made a union and any province would be free to join this union or not.

“Draft Declaration for Discussion with Indian Leaders,

Wished March 30, 1942
The conclusions of the British War Cabinet as set out below are those which Sir
Stafford Cripps has taken with him for discussion with the Indian Leaders and the
question as to whether they will be implemented will depend upon the outcome of these
discussions which are now taking place.
His Majesty's Government, having considered the anxieties expressed in this country
and in India as to the fulfilment of the promises made in regard to the future of India, have
decided to lay down in precise and clear terms the steps which they propose shall be taken for
the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India. The object

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is the creation of a new Indian Union which shall constitute a Dominion, associated with the
United Kingdom and the other Dominions by a common allegiance to the Crown, but equal
to them in every respect, in no way subordinate in any aspect of its domestic or external
affairs.

His Majesty's Government therefore make the following declaration:

(a) Immediately upon the cessation of hostilities, steps shall be taken to set up in India, in
the manner described hereafter, an elected body charged with the task of framing a new
Constitution for India.

(b) Provision shall be made, as set out below, for the participation of the Indian States in
the constitution-making body.

(c) His Majesty's Government undertakes to accept and implement forthwith the
Constitution so framed subject only to:
(i) the right of any Province of British India that is* not prepared to accept the new
Constitution to retain its present constitutional position, provision being made for
its subsequent accession if it so decides.
With such non-acceding Provinces, should they so desire, His Majesty's Government will be
prepared to agree upon a new Constitution, giving them the same full status as Indian Union,
and arrived at by a procedure analogous to that here laid down.
(ii) the signing of a Treaty which shall be negotiated between His Majesty's
Government and the constitution-making body. This Treaty will cover all
necessary matters arising out of the complete transfer of responsibility from
British to Indian hands; it will make provision, in accordance with the
undertakings given by His Majesty's Government, for the protection of racial and
religious minorities , but will not impose any restriction on the power of the Indian
Union to decide in the future its relation to the other Member States of the British
Commonwealth.
Whether or not an Indian State elects to adhere to the Constitution, it will be necessary to
negotiate a revision of its Treaty arrangements, so far as this may be required in the new
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situation.

(d) the constitution-making body shall be composed as follows, unless the leaders of
Indian opinion in the principal communities agree upon some other form before the end of
hostilities:
Immediately upon the result being known of the provincial elections which will be
necessary at the end of hostilities, the entire membership of the Lower Houses of the
Provincial Legislatures shall, as a single electoral college, proceed to the election of
the constitution-making body by the system of proportional representation. This new
body shall be in number about one-tenth of the number of the Electoral College.
Indian States shall be invited to appoint representatives in the same proportion to their
total population as in the case of the representatives of British India as a whole, and
with the same powers as the British Indian members.

(e) During the critical period which now faces India and until the new Constitution can be
framed His Majesty's Government must inevitably bear the responsibility for and retain
control and direction of the defence of India as part of their world war effort, but the task
of organising to the full the military, moral and material resources of India must be the
responsibility of the Government of India with the co-operation of the peoples of India.
His Majesty's Government desire and invite the immediate and effective participation of
the leaders of the principal sections of the Indian people in the counsels of their country,
of the Commonwealth and of the United Nations. Thus they will be enabled to give their
active and constructive help in the discharge of a tank which is vital and essential for the
future freedom of India.”37

37
Coupland, The Indian Problem, 336-337
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Quit India Movement:
In reaction the Congress party said they do not accept the proposals offered by Sir
Stafford Cripps. They said Japan does not have any enmity with India. If British leave India
there is no threat of Japanese invasion. So British should give complete independence and
leave India as soon as possible. To further pressurize British the Congress started a political
movement “Quit India” movement. In this movement they demanded British to immediately
leave India and give it independence. Although this movement was unable to achieve its
objectives at that time but in the longer run it became helpful to make British realize that now
Indians are unwilling to allow them to manipulate India.

Divide and Quit India:

On the other hand Muslim League was also not satisfied with the proposals of Sir
Stafford Cripps. They said his proposals do no talk about the creation of Pakistan. So
Muslim League cannot accept anything without Pakistan being offered in it. Muslims
were also suspicious of the Quit India Movement because it did not consider the demand of
Muslims of separate homeland. So Muslims League started “Divide and Quit India”
movement. Through this movement Muslims of sub-continent gave a clear message to
British and Congress that they wanted independence and separation from Hindus.

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Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1944:
In 1944 Lord Wavell became Viceroy of India. He was man of moderate approach
towards the problems. To create the feeling to reconciliation and brotherhood he released
many political prisoners. Gandhi was also released during this time, who was in jail due to
his Quit India movement. After coming out of jail he immediately contacted Jinnah to talk
about the future of Muslims in India.
Jinnah agreed and the meetings were held at Jinnah’s home in Bombay. The first
thing Gandhi said was that Congress and Muslim League should come over their
differences and join hands to get rid of British. He said we need to work together to send
British back to England and then we will talk about the rights and problems of India after
we get Independence. He said this is our internal matter. Jinnah was staunch enough to
understand that it was a trap in which Congress wanted Muslims to fell. He knew it well
that once British leave India without deciding the issue of Muslim separate home land
Congress will do anything to suppress the voices of Muslims and will not give them their
rights. Jinnah refused this offer.
Secondly Gandhi tried to argue that Muslims of India do not have proper ground
to ask for a separate home land with in India. He said there are two types of Muslims in
India and both of them cannot ask for a separate home land. The first type he said are
those who have come from other parts of the world and stayed in India for example,
Arabs, Turks, Persian and Afghans. In this case if they want their homeland then they
should return back to their countries. Secondly there are those Muslims who are the
inhabitants of India and they converted their faith after Muslims came to India. In this
case India is their home land and they do not have any right to ask a separate homeland.
Jinnah dismissed his arguments on the basis of modern democratic principles.

Simla Conference 1945:

In 1945 the Viceroy of India Lord Wavell decided to conduct new elections. For this
purpose an administrative setup was required to conduct elections. To form this setup he
invited major political parties to Simla. He said that in the interim setup there would be equal
number of Muslims and Hindus.
To discuss the working and formulation of this interim setup Lord Wavell invited
major political parties to Simla in June 1945. Everyone agreed to the principle of having a
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council. However the discussion came on a standstill on the point of nominations. The main
issue was the nomination of Muslim members. Muslim League was claiming that all the
Muslim members would be nominated by us. On the other hand Congress was claiming that
they have a large number of Muslim members and they represent Muslims as well, so
Congress also has the right to nominate Muslim members.
Muslim League was in an awkward position because it cannot claim that they
represent Hindus as well. However Jinnah gave one name of a Hindu member to represent
Muslim League. The dispute between the parties was not resolved and the conference ended
without achieving its goals.

Winter Elections 1945-46:

In 1945 British conducted general elections for new governments across India. The
results of these elections were like a new life for Muslim League. The league got
convincing victory across India. In central legislative assembly the League was successful
in winning all Muslim seats which means it was a 100% victory for Muslim league. In the
provinces they were able to get 87% of total Muslims seats.
Before the elections Congress was confident that they would get a large number of
Muslim votes and that is why they used to portray themselves as the true representatives of
Muslims of India. These elections officially brought Muslim League on the equal footings
with Congress. Now Muslim League has earned the right to talk on behalf of all Muslims of
India. This convincing victory also strengthened the demand of Pakistan, because people
voted for Muslim League which had a single demand of Pakistan.
The results of winter elections also bring into prominence the leadership qualities
of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Since the loss of the election in 1937 Jinnah had taken full
charge of Muslim League and had taken the League to new heights. The results of
Winter Elections were the confirmation of the fact that Jinnah’s leadership was very
important for the Muslims of sub-continent.

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Comparison between the elections of 1937 and 1945:
It is very important here to understand the reaso ns for the outcomes of the two
mentioned elections and especially the reasons for the outcome for Muslim League. In 1937
elections Muslim League lost elections heavily by the hands of local Muslim political parties
in the Muslim majority areas (as discusse d earlier) and the little success they were able to
achieve was in the Muslim minority areas or where Congress formed government.

i. Agenda:
The main agenda for which Muslim League contested elections for in 1937 was
separate electorates and weightage. This agenda only attracted Muslims living in the Hindu
majority areas and did not appeal Muslims of Punjab, Sindh, Bengal and NWFP that much.
On the other hand in 1945 elections ML had framed a new universal agenda
of a separate homeland for Muslims in sub-continent. This agenda was adopted
officially after the famous Pakistan resolution on 23 rd March 1940 in Lahore.
This time the Muslims of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Bengal saw their interest in
the sense that if ML succeeds then they will become independent from Congress
or Hindu domination.

ii. Alliances:
In 1937 Muslim League contested elections individually. Other than
Congress which was a Hindu dominated political party ML also contested
elections against other Muslim dominated political p arties for example, Sindh
United fron, Unionist party in Punjab etc.
In 1945 elections ML asked many Muslim dominated political parties not
to contest election against them to show Congress and British that Muslims of
India are one force. Jinnah was able to make them agree to this point.

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946:

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 The winter elections proved that the division of India was now inevitable. The
success of Muslim League in the elections proved that Muslims all across India have
supported the demand of Pakistan. However the British gave it a last try to keep India
united. For this purpose three members of British Cabinet Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander
and Pathick Lawrence. Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India assisted them.
The Cabinet Mission Plan gave different proposals to Congress and Muslim
League and asked them to consider them to live together. They said that any solution
achieved now would be a temporary solution which would work for 10 years. During
these ten years the either parties or communities would give another a chance to prove
them. At the expiration of the time either parties or communities would be free to stay
together or to make their own country. Until then the country would work as a union.
Congress and Muslims League agreed to this basic principle.
The next step was the demarcation of the boundaries of Muslim areas and Hindu
areas for making different provinces. Wavell said Muslim League should take
Baluchistan, Sind, N.W.F.P and West Punjab and make western part of Muslims India.
Jinnah replied that Punjab cannot be accepted without its Eastern part. He said this way
the province would be very weak because most of the resources of Punjab are located in
Eastern part. That is why Jinnah refused this proposal.
Then in the second proposal British said that the province of Bengal would be
divided between Hindu and Muslim population. According to this plan most of the
important areas of Bengal were going to be given to Hindus including the most important
city of Calcutta. It is located on the bank of river Hugly and has served as the center of
trade of Bengal since British established it in 1690. This plan was also refused by Jinnah.
He said that this way the part which British are offering to Muslims will be handicapped.
Lastly British said that the Indian Territory should be divided in three parts. Part
‘A’ would include all the Muslim majority areas of West. Part ‘B’ would consist of al l
the Hindu Majority areas in the central India and Part ‘C’ would have the Eastern Muslim
majority areas. Further it was decided that this setup will last for ten years and the parties
at the end of this period would decide about the future that they want to stay together or
they want to divide India. Jinnah agreed to this last proposal. Congress also agreed on it.
Unfortunately Jawaharlal Nehru made a statement regarding this agreement. He said
that Congress would not feel bound by this agreement once British leave India. This act of
Nehru decided the fate of sub-continent. This meant that Muslims of India would
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have to face Congress rigidity and atrocities which they faced during Congress rule of 1937-
39. Consequently Muslim League backed out of the agreement and protested on the attitude
of Nehru. This way the final attempt to keep India united also failed. Abul Kalam Azad
rightly said in his book, ‘India Wins Freedom’ that “Jinnah did not make Pakistan Nehru
did”.

Direct Action Day (16th August 1946):

After the failure of Cabinet Mission plan and rude attitude of Congress Jinnah and
Muslim League decided that there was need to take the struggle for Pakistan to the next
level. Jinnah stated that now it’s our turn to hold the pistol and dictate our terms. So it was
declared that on 16th August 1946 a Direct Action Day would be conducted by Muslim
League across sub-continent in which Muslims where ever they live would come out on
streets to protest.
This turned to be a very dangerous decision. Riots erupted across India and only in
Calcutta around 4000 people lost their lives. These were the largest riots before 1947.
Although many lives were lost but it became evident that Muslims cannot be ignored and
their demands are serious.

3rd June plan 1947 and Independence Act 1947:

In the first quarter of 1 947Lord Atlee the new prime minister of England declared
that British will leave sub-continent by June 1948. Till then the British government will
make the necessary arrangements to accommodate the transfer of power to the local people.
He called back Lord Wavell and sent Lord Mountbatten as new viceroy of India. The
main task of him was to arrange the transfer and divide the assets, resources and land
between the two future parts of Indian sub-continent. He arrived in India in March 1947. On
3rd June Lord Mountbatten came up with a plan of division of sub-continent.
In it he sealed the fate of the future state of Pakistan. This plan became famous as 3 rd June
Plan. Some salient features of this plan are as under:

1. The British will give independence to India on 15th August 1947.

2. The assets between Pakistan and India would be divided on the ratio of

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 5/17.
3. Sind, Baluchistan and N.W.F.P would be given to Pakistan completely if their
people confirm it and give a vote for Pakistan.
4. The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided because they
have mix population. According to a formula the Muslim majority
districts would become part of Pakistan and non-Muslim majority districts
would become part of India.
5. To decide the boundaries between Pakistan and India a commission was
setup and Cyril Radcliff became its chairman. He had hardly spent any time
in India so it was clear that such a man would not be able to deliver. He
used to take direct dictation from the viceroy over the issue of division of
land. There were two sub-committee of this commission one for Punjab and
th
one for Bengal. (The final report of this commission came out on 16
August 1947, which means two days after the independence of Pakistan.
This contributed a lot in the violence during the migration after
independence, because the people living in areas close to present Pakistan
thought their area would be part of Pakistan).
6. All the independent states in sub-continent were given the choice to decide on
their own that which country would they accede to or they want to remain
independent.

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SIR GYRIL RADCLIFFE AAWARD marshalling of the arguments for different yiew3,
To His Excellency the Governor - General but it became evident in the course of our
1. I have the honour to present the decision and discussions that divergence of opinion between my
award of the Punjab Boundary Commission which, colleagues was so wide that an agreed solution of
by virtue of section 4 of the Indian Independence the boundary problem was not to be obtained. I do
Act, 1947in represented by my decision as not intend to convey by this that there were not large
Chairman of that Commission. areas of the Punjab on the West and on the East
respectively which provoked no controversy as to
2. The Punjab Boundary Commission was which State they should be assigned to; but when it
constituted by the announcement of the Governor- came to the extensive but disputed areas in which
General, dated the 30th of June 1 947. Reference the boundary must be drawn, differences of opinion
No. D50/7/47R.Theinembers of the Commission as to the significance of the term "other factors" ,
there by appointed were- which we were directed by our terms of reference to
Mr. Justice Din Mohammad, take into account, and as to the weight and value to
Mr. Justice Muhammad Munir, be attached to those factors, made it impossible to
Mr. Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan, and, arrive at any agreed line. In these circumstances my
Mr. Justice Teja Singh. colleagues, at the close of our discussions, assented
I was subsequently appointed Chairman of this to the conclusion that I must proceed to give my
commission. own decision.

3. The terms of reference of the Commission, as set 7. This I now proceed to do. The demarcation of the
out in the announcement were as follows:- boundary line is described in detail in the schedule
" The Boundary Commission is instructed which forms Annexure A to this award, and in the
to demarcate the boundaries of the two map attached there to, Annexure B. The map is
parts of the Punjab on the basis and non- annexed for purposes of illustration, and if there
Muslims. In doing so, it will also take into should he my divergence between the boundary as
account other factors." described Annexure A and as delineated on the map
We were desired to arrive at a decision as soon as in Annexure B, the description Annexure A is to
possible before the 1 5th of August. prevail.

4. After preliminary meeting, the Commission 8. Certain representations were addressed to the
invited the submission of memorandum and Commission on behalf of the States of Bikaner and
representation by interested parties. Numerous Bahawalpur both of which States interested in
memoranda and representations were received. canals whose headwork’s were situated in the
Punjab Province, I have taken the view that an
5. The public sittings of the Commission took Place interest of this sort cannot weigh directly in the
at Lahore, and extended from Monday the 21st of question before us as to the division of the Punjab
July 1947, to Thursday the 31st of July 1947, between the Indian Union and Pakistan since the
inclusive, with the exception of Sunday, the 27th of territorial division of the province does not affect
July. The main arguments were conducted by rights of private property, and I think, that I am
counsel on behalf of the Indian National Congress, entitled to assume with confidence that any
the Muslim League; and the Sikh members of the agreement that either of these states has made with
Punjab Legislative Assembly; but a number of other the Provincial Government as to the sharing of
interested parties appeared and argued before the water from these canals or otherwise will be
Commission. In view of the fact that I was acting respected by whatever Government hereafter
also as Chairman of the Bengal Boundary assumes jurisdiction over the headwork’s
Commission, whose proceedings were taking place concerned. I wish also to make it plain that no
simultaneously with the proceedings of the Punjab decision that is made by this Commission is
Boundary arrangements to study daily the record of intended to affect whatever territorial claim the
the proceedings of all material submitted for our State of Bahawalpur may have in respect of a
consideration. number of villages lying between Sulemanke Weir
and Gurka Ferry.
6. After the close of the public sittings, the
Commission adjourned to Simla where I joined by 9. The task of delimiting a boundary in the Punjab is
colleagues, and we entered upon discussion in the difficult one. The claims of the respective parties
hope of being able to present an agreed decision as ranged over a wide field of territory, but m my
to the demarcation of the boundaries. I am greatly judgment the truly debatable ground in the end
indebted to my colleagues for indispensable proved to lie in and around the area between the
assistances in the clarification of the issues and the Beas and Sutlej rivers on the one hand and the river
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Ravi on the other. The fixing of a boundary in this the IMiA^piS^, 1947. ^ (TiMMf^OmMm
area was further complicated by the existence of
canal systems, so vital to the life of the Punjab but
developed only under the conception of a single The Schedule.
administration, and of systems of road and rail 1, The boundary between the East and West Punjab
communication, which have been planned in the shall isdiidieiifi^^G^^ bftheUjb river enters the
same way. There was also the stubborn geographical Punjab Provinces from the State of Kashmir.The
fact of the respective situations of Lahore and Boundary shall follow the line of that river down the
Amritsar, and the claims to each or both of the best Western boundary of tfie ftriSiankot Tehsfl to thte?
of my ability such other factors as appeared to me pbiftt vrffiere the Pathankot, Shakargarh and
relevant as affecting the fundamental basis of Gurdaspur tehsils meet. The tehsil boundary and not
contiguous majority areas, I have come to the the actual course of the Ujh river shall constitute the
decision set out in the Schedule which thus becomes boundary between ^e and West Punjab.
the award of the Commission. I am conscious that 2. From the point of meetingoftlje three tehsils
there are legitimate criticism to be made of it; as above mentined, the boundary (Une) between the
there are, I think, or any other line that might be Ea^Blid West Punjab shall follow the iiiie ''of the
chosen. Ujh river to its junction with the river Ravi and
10. I have hesitated long over those not thereafter the line of the river Ravi along the
inconsiderable areas East of the Sutlej river and in boundary between the tehsils of Gurdaspur and
the angle of the Beas and the Sutlej Rivers iii Sbakaigaih^ the boundsuy l^twera tfa^ of Batala J30
Muslim majorities are foimd. But on the whole I He SilAs^«iidTiaiisfi» Qf and Narowal, the
have come to ftm conclusion that it would be in the boundary between the tehsils of Ajnala and
true interests of neither State to extend the West Narowal, and the boundary between the tehsils of
Punjab to a strip on the fir $ide of the Sutlej and that Ajnala and Shadara, to the point on the river Ravi
there are factors such as the disruption of railway where the district of Amritsar is divided from the
conmiunications and water systems that ought m district of Lahore. The tehsil boundries referred to,
this instance to displace the primary claims of and actual course of the river Ujh or the river Ravi,
contiguous majorities. But I must call attention to shsJl constitute the bouiidary between the East and
the fact that the Depalpur Canal; which serves areas West Punjab.
in the West Punjab, takes off from the Ferozepore 3 . From the point on the river Ravi where the
headworks and I fmd it difficult to envisage a district is divided from the district of Lahore, the
satisfactory demarcation of boundary at this point boundary between the East and West Punjab shall
that is not accompanied by some arrangement for turn southwards following the boundary between
joint control of the intake of the different canals the te^ls Aj^ate^ t^ali^re^ a^^^ thai tfie tehsils of
dependent on the$e liSsiiew^r T^l^mm Lahore, to the point where the tehsils of
11. I faave nat &upd i^lm of iieUpper Bail IJ^b Kasur, Lahore and Tarn Taran meet. The line will
Oitnil, i^ib extends fixnn in the Pathankot Tehsil to then turn south-westward along the boundary
the Western border of the district of Lahore, between the fehsUs of Lahore and Kisw # tike p#lini
although I have made small adjustments of the wiime boundary meets the north-east comer of
Lahore - Amritsar severance; nor can I see any village Theh Jharolian. It will then run along the
means of preserving under one territorial eastern boundary of that village to its junction wifli
jurisdiction the Mandi Hydro- electric Scheme village CSiathiahi;^; fil^ Ittid then run down its
which supplies power ^ te^lte^^stricts of Kangra, eastern boundary to its junction with village Waigal.
Jtorilsar, Ijttcm ^tillsiiir^ Ludhiana, Ferozepore, It will then run along the eastern boundary of village
Sheikhupura and Lyallpun I think it only right to Waigal to its junction with village Kalia, and then
express the hope that, where the drawing of a along the sotrttoi fe^wfifidairy of village Waigal to
boundary line cannot amM ^Sstvtp^g mth tnriit^y its junction with village Panjuwan, The line will
m^is^ as M^ffS^km^ rtMrnsys^ and electric power th^en iiin down the eastern boundary of village
transmission, a solution may be found by agreement Panjuwan to its junction within village Gaddoke,
between the two States for some joint control of Tlie linewiB then run down the eastern border of
what has hitherto be^ a valuaMe cc^i^ service. village Gaddoke to its junction with village
12. I am conscious too that the award cannot go far Nurwala. It will then turn along the southern
towards satisfying sentiments and aspirations boundary of village Gaddoke to jfe junctiPli with
deeply held on either side but directly in conflict as Village Katluni Kalan. The line will then run down
to Itefrfeearing on the placing of the boundary. If tie ea^wn boundary of village Katluni Kalan to its
means to be found to gratify to the full these junction with village Kals and Mastgarh. It will then
sentiments and aspirations, I think Html they must run along the southern boundary of village Katluni
be found in political arrangements I m and notinthe Kalan to the north-west comer of village Kals. It
decision of a boundary New Delhi, will then run along the Western boundary of village
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Kals to its junction with village Khem Karan. The District, which was supplied to the Commission by
line will then run along the Western and the southem the PrdVtiicid Government.
boundaries of village Khem Karan to its juncion 4. The line will then run in a south-westerly
with village Maewala. It will thiH im iicr^ tKe direction down the Sutlej River on the boundary
boundaries of vitls^e Maewala, proceeding between the districts of Lahore and Firozpur to the
eastward along the boundaries between village point where the districts of Firozpur, Lahore and
Mahaidepur on the north and village Sheikhupura Montgomery meet. It continues along the boundary
Kuhna,Kamalpuran, western boundary of village between the districts pf Ferozepur and Montgomery
Sahjra to its junction with villages Mahidepur and to the point where this bdmiifHf^ ^ Border of Mm.
Machhike, It will then turn north-eastward along the "Tb& 4Mxim boundaries, and not the actual course
along the boundary between villages Rattoke and of the Sutlej River, shall in each case constitute the
Sahjra to the junction between villages Rattoke, boundary between the East and West Punjab,
Sahjra and Mabbuke. The line will then run north- 5. It is my intention that this bouiidafy filMl iihmiM
east between the villages Rattoke and Mabbuke to (^i^iir^ 4)at the canal headworks at Sulemanke will
the junction of villages Rattoke, Mabbuke and fall within the territorial jurisdiction of the West
Gajjal. From that point the line will along the Punjab. If the existing delimitation of the boundaries
boundaiy between villages Mabbuke and Gajjal, of Montgomery Bi^rifet dijes not enstre ^s^ 1
and then turn south along the eastern boundary of iti^sp^ to the West Punjab so much of the territory
village Mabbuke to its junction witji village Nagar concerned as coV^ ^e headworks and the boundary
Aimanpur. It will then turn along the north-eastern shall be adjusted accordingly.
botiiidaiy of village Nagar Aimanpur, and run 6. So much of the Punjab as Iffes to the west of the
along its eastern boundary to its junction with line demarcated in the preceding paragraphs shall
village Masteke. From there it will run along the be the territory of the West Punjab. So much of the
eastern boundary of village Masteke to where it territory of the Punjab Province as lies to the east of
meets the boundary between the tehsils of Kasur and that line shall be the territory of the East Punjab.
Ferozepore. For the purpose of identifying the
villages referred to in this paragraph, I attach a map K.V.K.S UNDARAM,
authorised by the then Settlement Officer, Lahore Officer on Special Duty

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Different movements:

1. Swadeshi Movement:
In this movement Congress asked their fellow Indians Boycott all the British goods and buy
only Indian products. This movement was launched during the protests for reversal of Partition
of Bengal by Congress. Its aim was to frustrate British financially and to make them except
Congress demand regarding the partition.

2. Civil Disobedience Movement:

This movement is about not following the laws of the country and not paying taxes and bills to
government. This movement has been used many times by Congress and Gandhi against
British.

3. Non-Cooperation Movement:
In this movement the participants do not cooperate with the government regarding their duties
and create problems for them. Congress used this movement at different occasions however it
became famous during Khilafat Movement.

4. Sawraj:
It means self-rule. It was demanded by Congress and later by Muslim League.

5. Satyagraha:
It is Hindi word which means “truth-force”. There were many angles to this idea and
movement. Through this Gandhi wanted to cultivate the ideas of non-violence and simple
living into the hearts of common Indians. It was also considered as a new method of fighting
against British colonialism

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Allama Iqbal. born (November 9, 1877 Sialkot – death Lahore April 21, 1938)

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali. Born in Balachaur in Hoshiarp District of Punjab

(November 16, 1897-February3, 1951

Jawaharlal Nehru. Born Nov. 14, 1889, Allahabad, India died May 27, 1964, New
Delhi. First prime minister of independent India from 1947 till 1964.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Born Oct. 2, 1869, Porbandar, India died

Jan. 30, 1948, Delhi. Came to India in 1914.

Muhammad Ali Jauhar

Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Born Dec. 25, 1876, Karachi, India [now in Pakistan] died
Sept. 11, 1948, Karachi

Shuakat Ali Jauhar

Sir Agha Khan III Also known as Sultan Sir Mohammed Shah was born
November 2, 1877, Karachi, India and died in July 11, 1957, Versoix,
Switzerland. He became the Imam in 1885 after the death of his father.

Motilal Nehru

Justice Ameer Ali

Sir Agha Khan III

Liaqaut Ali Khan

Abul Kalam Azad, Maulana

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Sir Shafi

Khan Sahab, Dr.

Sikandar Hayat Khan

Gangadhar Tilak

Sarojni Naido

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 From 1947 till
now.

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Chapter 1: Frist eleven Year, 1947-1958

1.1 Early Problems faced by Pakistan, caused by India

1.1.1 Financial Assets
1.1.2 Refugee Problem
1.1.3 Military Assets
1.1.4 Accession of Independent states
1.1.4.1 Kashmir
1.1.4.2 Junagarh
1.1.4.2 Hyderabad Deccan
1.1.5 Canal Water Dispute

1.2 Early problems due to internal issues, which still exists

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Source: G. Allana, Pakistan Movement Historical Documents (Karachi: Department of
International Relations, University of Karachi, nd [1969]), pp. 407 -411. Paragraph numbers in
double brackets have been added by FWP for classroom use; punctuation has been slightly adjusted
for clarity. Editorial comments in square brackets have been added by FWP.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah's first Presidential Address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (August
11, 1947)

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen!

[[1]] I cordially thank you, with the utmost sincerity, for the honour you have conferred upon me --
the greatest honour that is possible for this Sovereign Assembly to confer -- by electing me as your
first President. I also thank those leaders who have spoken in appreciation of my services and [thank
them for] their personal references to me. I sincerely hope that with your support and your co-
operation we shall make this Constituent Assembly an example to the world. The Constituent
Assembly has got two main functions to perform. The first is the very onerous and responsible task
of framing the future constitution of Pakistan and the second of functioning as a full and complete
sovereign body as the Federal Legislature of Pakistan. We have to do the best we can in adopting a
provisional constitution for the Federal Legislature of Pakistan. You know really that not only we
ourselves are wondering but, I think, the whole world is wondering at this unprecedented cyclonic
revolution which has brought about the plan of creating and establishing two independent
Sovereign Dominions in this sub-continent. As it is, it has been unprecedented; there is no parallel
in the history of the world. This mighty sub-continent with all kinds of inhabitants has been brought
under a plan which is titanic, unknown, unparalleled. And what is very important with regard to it is
that we have achieved it peacefully and by means of an evolution of the greatest possible character.

[[2]] Dealing with our first function in this Assembly, I cannot make any well-considered
pronouncement at this moment, but I shall say a few things as they occur to me. The first and the
foremost thing that I would like to emphasize is this: remember that you are now a Sovereign
Legislative body and you have got all the powers. It therefore places on you the gravest
responsibility as to how you should take your decisions. The first observation that I would like to
make is this: You will no doubt agree with me that the first duty of a government is to maintain law
and order, so that the life, property and religious beliefs of its subjects are fully protected by the
State.

[[3]] The second thing that occurs to me is this: One of the biggest curses from which India is
suffering -- I do not say that other countries are free from it, but I think our condition is much worse
-- is bribery and corruption. That really is a poison. We must put that down with an iron hand, and
I hope that you will take adequate measures as soon as it is possible for this Assembly to do so.

[[4]] Black-marketing is another curse. Well, I know that black-marketeers are frequently caught
and punished. Judicial sentences are passed, or sometimes fines only are imposed. Now you have to
tackle this monster, which today is a colossal crime against society, in our distressed conditions,
when we constantly face shortage of food and other essential commodities of life. A citizen who
does black-marketing commits, I think, a greater crime than the biggest and most grievous of
crimes. These black-marketeers are really knowing, intelligent, and ordinarily responsible people,
and when they indulge in black-marketing, I think they ought to be very severely punished, because
they undermine the entire system of control and regulation of foodstuffs and essential commodities,

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 and cause wholesale starvation and want and even death.

[[5]] The next thing that strikes me is this: Here again it is a legacy which has been passed on to us.
Along with many other things, good and bad, has arrived this great evil -- the evil of nepotism and
jobbery. I want to make it quite clear that I shall never tolerate any kind of jobbery [=corrupt
employment practices], nepotism, or any any influence directly or indirectly brought to bear upon me.
Whenever I will find that such a practice is in vogue or is continuing anywhere, low or high, I shall
certainly not countenance it.

[[6]] I know there are people who do not quite agree with the division of India and the partition of
the Punjab and Bengal. Much has been said against it, but now that it has been accepted, it is the
duty of every one of us to loyally abide by it and honourably act according to the agreement which
is now final and binding on all. But you must remember, as I have said, that this mighty revolution
that has taken place is unprecedented. One can quite understand the feeling that exists between the
two communities wherever one community is in majority and the other is in minority. But the
question is, whether it was possible or practicable to act otherwise than what has been done. A
division had to take place. On both sides, in Hindustan and Pakistan, there are sections of people
who may not agree with it, who may not like it; but in my judgement there was no other solution,
and I am sure future history will record its verdict in favour of it. And what is more, it will be proved
by actual experience as we go on that that was the only solution of India's constitutional problem.
Any idea of a united India could never have worked, and in my judgement it would have led us to
terrific disaster. Maybe that view is correct; maybe it is not; that remains to be seen. All the same, in
this division it was impossible to avoid the question of minorities being in one Dominion or the
other. Now that was unavoidable. There is no other solution. Now what shall we do? Now, if we
want to make this great State of Pakistan happy and prosperous, we should wholly and solely
concentrate on the well-being of the people, and especially of the masses and the poor. If you will
work in co-operation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet, you are bound to succeed. If you
change your past and work together in a spirit that every one of you, no matter to what community
he belongs, no matter what relations he had with you in the past, no matter what is his colour, caste,
or creed, is first, second, and last a citizen of this State with equal rights, privileges, and obligations,
there will be no end to the progress you will make.

[[7]] I cannot emphasize it too much. We should begin to work in that spirit, and in course of time
all these angularities of the majority and minority communities, the Hindu community and the
Muslim community -- because even as regards Muslims you have Pathans, Punjabis, Shias, Sunnis
and so on, and among the Hindus you have Brahmins, Vashnavas, Khatris, also Bengalees,
Madrasis and so on -- will vanish. Indeed if you ask me, this has been the biggest hindrance in the
way of India to attain the freedom and independence, and but for this we would have been free
people long ago. No power can hold another nation, and specially a nation of 400 million souls, in
subjection; nobody could have conquered you, and even if it had happened, nobody could have
continued its hold on you for any length of time, but for this. Therefore, we must learn a lesson from
this. You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any
other place or worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed --
that has nothing to do with the business of the State. As you know, history shows that in England
conditions, some time ago, were much worse than those prevailing in India today. The Roman
Catholics and the Protestants persecuted each other. Even now there are some States in existence

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where there are discriminations made and bars imposed against a particular class. Thank God, we
are not starting in those days. We are starting in the days where there is no discrimination, no
distinction between one community and another, no discrimination between one caste or creed and
another. We are starting with this fundamental principle: that we are all citizens, and equal citizens,
of one State. The people of England in [the] course of time had to face the realities of the situation,
and had to discharge the responsibilities and burdens placed upon them by the government of their
country; and they went through that fire step by step. Today, you might say with justice that Roman
Catholics and Protestants do not exist; what exists now is that every man is a citi zen, an equal
citizen of Great Britain, and they are all members of the Nation.

[[8]] Now I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal, and you will find that in course of
time Hindus would cease to be Hindus, and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious
sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of
the State.

[[9]] Well, gentlemen, I do not wish to take up any more of your time; and thank you again for the
honour you have done to me. I shall always be guided by the principles of justice and fair play
without any, as is put in the political language, prejudice or ill -will; in other words, partiality or
favouritism. My guiding principle will be justice and complete impartiality, and I am sure that with
your support and co-operation, I can look forward to Pakistan becoming one of the greatest Nations of
the world.

[[10]] I have received a message from the United States of America addressed to me. It reads:

I have the honour to communicate to you, in Your Excellency's capacity as President of the
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, the following message which I have just received from the
Secretary of State of the United States:

On the occasion of the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly for Pakistan, I extend to you and
to the members of the Assembly, the best wishes of the Government and the people of the United
States for the successful conclusion of the great work you are about to undertake.

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Early Problems Faced by Pakistan
Pakistan when came into being faced many problems. First of all it was a country
which was based over an Ideology. Secondly the country from which Pakistan was made did
not want Pakistan to remain independent. Then finally no other country wanted Pakistan to
be made although other than Afghanistan every other country accepted Pakistan in United
Nations.
The government of Pakistan had a mammoth task of making Pakistan acceptable in
the world and to survive against all odds. Some early problem which Pakistan faced in its
early years of Independence is as under:-
Dr. M. Moiz Khan
Assistant Professor
Dept. of History, University of Karachi
0322-2391591, moiz200@yahoo.com
1. Financial Assets:
Pakistan was allotted 750 million Rs. according to partition plan. India as a first
installment paid 200 million Rs. Then India refused to pay the further 550 million Rs. to
Pakistan. The case then was taken up by Gandhi who pressed on the fact that although
Congress has always worked against the creation of Pakistan but now Pakistan has become a
reality so we should accept it and pay the due share to Pakistan. He went on a hunger strike
for the right of Pakistan to get money. As a result the Government of India paid another 500
million Rs. to Pakistan. India has not paid the remaining 50 million Rs. to Pakistan.

2. Refugee problem:
The roots of refugee problem can be found in the 3rd June plan. In this plan the last
Viceroy to India Lord Mount Batten lessened the time allowed by Lord Attlee (the prime
Minster of England) by almost a year. Lord Attlee said in his speech in House of Commons
the British will leave India by June 1948 and in 3rd June plan the Viceroy declared that
partition would take place on 15 August, 1947.This proves that the Viceroy totally ignored
the Communal tension and the dispute over land distribution between Muslim League and
Congress.
The main cause of the refugee problem was Radcliff Awards. It was decided that
Pakistan would get Sind, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P, East Bengal and West Punjab. Muslims had
full majority in all provinces other than Punjab and Bengal where they had more than

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50% population but there were other communities as well. According to the original plan it
was decided that the provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided according to the
population distribution. Means the area which have Muslim majority would be given to
Pakistan and the areas which have non-Muslim majority would be given to India.
The people living in Punjab were sure that their area would be included in Pakistan,
so they did not try to migrate before 14th August. The problem started when on 16th August
Radcliff Awards were announced. According to it many districts of Punjab which had
Muslim majority, like, Gurdaspur, Firozpur, Amritsar etc, were included in Indian territories.
When Muslims of these areas came to know about this foul play by the Viceroy they left
everything in India and tried to reach Pakistan. Many of them were killed on the way and
those who reached Pakistan had no belongings.
To counter the problem Jinnah set up a “Quaid-e-Azam Refugee relief fund” and
asked people to donate money in the fund to help the refugees. Then he moved his
headquarters from Karachi to Lahore for some time to counter the problem and have a close
eye on the relief work.

3. Military assets:
All army officers were given the choice to join any country after the Independence.
Other physical assets were to be divided according to 5/17 ratio between Pakistan and India.
The only problem which Pakistan faced was that there were 16 ordnance factories in
undivided India unfortunately for Pakistan all of them were located in divided India. So
India agreed to set up an ordinance factory in Pakistan. Wah ordinance factory was
established with the help of India.

4. Accession of Independent states

There were 562 independent states in Sub-continent at the time of partition. British
gave two choices to them, i) either to remain independent or ii) to join any country they
would like to. Out of these 562 independent states only 14 were within the boundaries of
Pakistan. The problem of accession was with only 3 of them namely Kashmir, Junagarh and
Hyderabad Deccan.
Kashmir, Dir, Sawat, Lasbelah, Bhawalpur, Khairpur, Kalat,

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i. Kashmir:
th
Kashmir was sold to the Dogra family by British in middle of the 19 century. Since
then they were ruling over it. The majority of its population, which was Muslim, was not
satisfied with their rulers. At the time of Independence Kashmir had the status of
Independent state, which had the right to accede to any country. The ruler of Kashmir at the
time Hari Singh Dogra wanted to accede to India, but the 75% Muslim population wanted to
accede to Pakistan.
The clash between the ruler and the ruled resulted in violence. Hari Singh ordered the
killing of anyone who was against him. In this situation Muslims living in Pakistan on the
bordering areas of Kashmir attacked Kashmir to save their fellow Muslims. Hari Singh in
reply asked for the help from India. Lord Mount Batten was the Governor General of India at
the time; he immediately sent Indian troops into Kashmir. Indian army stopped the advances
of liberation army. Since that day Indian army has occupied Kashmir and refuse to leave and
claim that Kashmir is part of India.

ii. Junagarh:
It is a maritime state which does not have a land link with Pakistan. It can be reached
from Pakistan through sea. The majority of the population in the state was Hindu but the
ruler was Muslim who wanted to accede to Pakistan. Indian government wanted it to accede
to India. Due to this tussle the ruler and the population was in dilemma of either joining any
country or to remain independent. Finally a large force of liberation army entered into the
borders of Junagarh and forcefully took it from the ruler.

iii. Hyderabad Deccan:

The case of Hyderabad was like Junagarh. The population was Hindu majority but
the ruler was Muslim. However there was a difference in the location of this area.
Hyderabad is situated in the South of India and it is surrounded by Indian Territory from
all sides. The ruler although wanted to join Pakistan initially but realizing the
geographical handicap he decided to remain independent. The Government of India
cannot allow the most powerful and the richest independent state to remain independent.
Indian forces also entered into Hyderabad and took the area by force.

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5 Canal Water dispute:
Pakistan is an agricultural economy. Still today Pakistan earns most of it foreign
exchange through agro based industry and exports. For agriculture and second most
important element after land is water. Fortunately Pakistan is blessed with every efficient
river system. Without rivers Pakistan could not progress in any field.
India took advantage of this weakness of Pakistan immediately after
independence. The five major rivers which bring water into Pakistan have their headwork
in Kashmir and India. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab have their sources in Kashmir and Ravi,
Sutlej and Beas have their source in Northern India. India stopped the water of these rivers.
Pakistan objected on it. India said these rivers start from Indian Territory that’s why we
have the right to use their water.
Pakistan argued that these rivers should be allowed to flow on their natural course
which means allowing them to flow through Pakistan. However the dispute took more than
12 years to be solved. It was finally resolved in 1960 that the three Eastern Rivers Indus,
Jhelum and Chenab would be given to Pakistan and Ravi, Sutlej and Beas would go to India.
World Bank played the role of arbitrator in this treaty and it is known as Indus Basin Treaty.

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The politics of Pakistan from 1947 till 1958:
Pakistan after coming into being went through a very ruthless phase of political
chaos. After the death of Jinnah there was a vacuum of leadership, although Rana Liaquat Ali
Khan was the best person to lead the party and the country however there were many
opportunists who were waiting for any loop hole to take advantage of it in their own favor. It
was clear that there was a lack to capable politicians to take control of all important portfolios
of Government. Due to this paucity the Prime Minister had to rely on bureaucrats to fill the
slots. In the early governments the administration relied heavily on bureaucrats and that
became a weakness of politicians and strength of civil servants.
Liaquat Ali Khan governed the government to best of his abilities from 1947 till his
death in assassination on 16th October 1951. During these four years we do not find any
evidences that he worked for his own selfish goals and did not give his 100% to his beloved
country. After his sad demise again there was a split between the leadership of Muslim League
that who should govern the country. Finally the finance minister Mlik Ghulam Muhammad
convinced Governor General Khawaja Nazim ud Din to step down from his post and to take up
the post of Prime Minister because the work started by Rana Liaquat can be best continued by
the Khawaja Nazim because of his close working relations with the former Prime Minister.
Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a bureaucrat and did not have his roots in people and
therefore did care about the will of people. He later fully utilized powers vested in the office of
Governor General. He dismissed Khawaja Nazim Uddin in 1953 and later dismissed a
Constituent Assembly in 1954. He brought Muhammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister in place
of Khawaja Nazim, who was another bureaucrat. So after 1953 both major governing offices
were occupied by bureaucrats without the process of elections.

Rise of Bureaucracy and destruction of democracy in Pakistan ;

At the time of independacne Pakistan lacked people of talent and skills who could
take care of the affairs of the state. The ability of Politicians to take control of all state affairs
during initial years was compromised by the frictions between them and their ambitions.
There was a difference between bureacrates and politicians of that time. When Pakistan
became independent both bureacrats and politicians were trained and worked in united India
of preindependance. Bureaucrats …………..

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This is a historic speech and a document that posterity will re -examine because of its ever increasing
influence on the amalgamation of religion and politics in Pakistan. Seldom has one piece of
legislation caused so much trepidation. Here is the text of the address of Sri Chandra Chattopadhyay
in Pakistan’s first Constitutent Assembly on 12 March 1949.

Mr. Sris Chandra Chattopadhya ( East Bengal : General) : Mr. President, I thought, after
my colleague, Mr. Bhupendra Kumar Datta, had spoken on the two amendments on
behalf of the Congress Party, I would not take any part in this discussion. He appealed,
he reasoned and made the Congress position fully clear, but after I heard some of the
speakers from the majority party, viz, Muslim League Party, the manner in which they
had interpreted the Resolution, it became incumbent on me to take part in this
discussion.

I have heard Dr. Malik and appreciate his standpoint. He says that “we got Pakistan for
establishing a Muslim State, and the Muslims suffered for it and therefore it was not
desireable that anybody should speak against it”. I quite agree with him. He said; “ If we
establish a Muslim State and even if we become reactionarie s, who are you to say
anything against it?” That is a standpoint which I understand, but here there is some
difficulty. We also, on this side, fought for the independence of the country. We worked
for the independence of the entire country. When our erstwh ile masters, Britishers,
were practically in the mood of going away, the country was divided – one part became
Pakistan and the other remained India. If in the Pakistan State there would have been
only Muslims, the question would have been different. But t here are some non-muslims
also in Pakistan. When they wanted a division there was no talk of an exchange of
population. If there was an exchange of population, there would have been an end of the
matter, and Dr. Malik could establish his Pakistan in his ow n way and frame
constitution accordingly. It is also true that the part of Pakistan in which Dr. Malik
lives is denuded of non-Muslims. That is clear.

Dr. Omar Hayat Malik: On a point of order, Sir, I never said that. He has understood me quite
wrongly.

Mr. Omar Hayat Malik: I never said that Pakistan was denuded of non -Muslims. My friend on the
opposite has misunderstood me.

Mr. Sris Chandra Chattopadhya: I say the part in which Dr. Malik lives is denuded of non-Muslims. I
did not say that Dr. Malik had sa id that Pakistan was denuded of non-Muslims. That is clear.

But we belong to East Bengal. One-fourth of the population is still non-Muslim.

Therefore, what constitution is to be framed, it is our duty, it is in our interest to look
to. We are not going to leave East Bengal. It is our homeland. It is not a land by our
adoption. My forefather, founder of my family, came to East Bengal thousand years
back on the invitation of the then King of Bengal. I am 27th in decent from him.
Therefore, East Bengal is my l and. I claim that East Bengal and Eastern Pakistan
belongs to me as well as to any Mussalman and it will be my duty to make Pakistan a
great, prosperous and powerful State so that it may get a proper place in the comity of

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 nations because I call myself a Pakistani. I wish that Pakistan must be a great State.
That will be covetable to Muslims as well as to non -Muslims who are living in East
Bengal. A few people from East Bengal have left – may be five per cent and my
calculation is not even that. Of course, there are other calculations too – somebody says
ten lakhs. We are living in East Bengal peacefully, in peace and amity with out Muslim
neighbours as we had been living from generations to generations. Therefore, I am
anxious to see that its constitution is framed in such a way which may suit the Muslims
as well as the non-Muslims. I have gone carefully through this Resolution and I have
carefully, read made-to-order, nicely-worded statement of my esteemed friend, Mr.
Liaquat Ali Khan. But after reading the Resolution carefully and reading the statement,
even after hearing the speeches of my friends, both the Doctors and others, I cannot
change my opinion. I cannot persuade myself to accept this Resolution and my
instruction to my party would be to oppose t his Resolution.

Now as for the first paragraph:

“Whereas sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority
which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the
limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust”.

This part of the Resolution, I think, ought to be deleted. All powers, in my opinion, rest
with the people and they exercise their power through the agency of the State. State is
merely their spokesman. The Resolution makes the State the sole authority received
from God Almighty through the instrumentality of people – Nemittamatrona, “Merely
instruments of the State”. People have no power or authority, they are merely post
boxes according to this Resolution. The State will exerc ise authority within the limits
prescribed by Him ( God). What are those limits, who will interpret them? Dr. Qureshi
or my respected Maulana Shabbir Ahmed Osmani? In case of difference, who will
interpret? Surely they are not the people. One day a Louis XIV may come and say “ I am
the State, anointed by the Almighty” thus paving the way for advent Divine Right of
Kings of afresh. Instead of State being the voice of the people, it has been made an
adjunct of religion. To me voice of people is the voice of God , “Jatra j iba tatra shiva.”
The people are the manifestation of God.

In my conception of State where people of different religion live there is no place for
religion in the State. Its position must be neutral: no bias for any religion. If necessary,
it should help all the religions equally. No question of concession or tolerance to any
religion. It smacks of inferiority complex. The State must respect all religions: no
smiling face for one and askance look to the other. The state religion is a dangerous
principle. Previous instances are sufficient to warn us not to repeat the blunder. We
know people were burnt alive in the name of religion. Therefore, my conception is that
the sovereignty must rest with the people and not with any body else.

Then about the Constituent Assembly representing the people of Pakistan. This
Constituent Assembly was created by a Statute – Indian Independence Act – allotting
one member for ten lakhs of people to be elected by the members of the Provincial
Assemblies. The members were not elected by the people themselves. They are for the

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purpose of framing a constitution. They have the legal right to do so but they cannot say that they are
the representatives of the people. They are merely a Statutory Body.

Then I come to the fourth paragraph:

“Wherein the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice,
as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed.”

Of course, they are beautiful words: Democracy, freedom, equality, everything. Now
about this portion I had some discussion with some Maulanas from the Punjab. What
they told me must be from their religious books. I shall repeat here. If I commit blunder,
I wish to be corrected.

In this connection you say “equal rights”, but at the same time with limitations as
enunciated by Islam. Is there any equal right in an Islamic country? Was there any ….
An Honourable Member: “There was in Islamic countries.” ……. It was not between
Muslims and non-Muslims. We are now divided into Congress Party and Muslim
League Party here for farming constitution and suppose after framing of this
constitution we face election, and parties are formed on different alignment, there may
not be Congress, there may not be Muslim League, because the Congress has fulfilled
its mission of attaining independence and Muslim League has also got Pakistan. There
may be parties of haves and have-nots – and they are bound to be – and have-nots party
may have a leader coming form non-Muslims. Will he be allowed to be the head of the
administration of a Muslim State? It is not a fact that a non -Muslim cannot be head of
the administration in a Muslim State. I discussed this question and I was told that he
could not be allowed to be the head of the administration of a Muslim State. Then what
is the use of all this. The question is whether there can be Juma Namaz in a country with
a non-Muslim as its head, I am told that a country where a non -Muslim is the Head of
the administration – as was in India, the Britishers were the head of the administration
– according to the interpretations of Muslim rules, and I do not know much of them
Muslims cannot say their Juma Namaz. As an instance, I cite a case and I think, the
Honourable President also knows about it – in the District of Faridpur, Dudu Mea’s
party. They do not say Juma Namaz. His grandson, Pir Badshah Mia, told me that “in a
country where the head is a non-Muslim, there cannot be Juma Namaz.” Therefore, the
words “equal rights as enunciated by Islam” are – I do not use any other word – a
camouflage. It is only a hoax to us, the non-Muslims. There cannot be equal rights as
enunciated by Islam. If the State is formed without any mandate of the religion,
anybody whether Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Buddhist who can get votes can become its
head, as such there would be difficulty if a portion of a book – it is not MY BOOK, it
is not a Congress book, it is a Jamat-I-Islam publication from Lahore and it was handed
over to me. I read a few lines from this book – Page 20.

“The preceding statement makes it quite clear that Islam is not democracy; for
democracy is the name given to that particular form of Government in which
sovereignty ultimately rests with the people in which legislation depends both in its
form and content on the force and direction of public opinion and laws are modified and

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altered, to correspond to changes in that opinion. If a particular legislation is desired by
the mass of people steps have to be taken to place it on the Statute Book if the people
dislike any law and demand its removal, it is forthwith expunged and ceases to have any
validity. There is no such thing in Islam which, therefore, cannot be called democracy
in this sense of the term”.

My friend, the Honourable Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar, the other day said ‘What is in the name’? I also
say, what is in the name? Name may be given to mislead people but it will smell theocracy.

The Honourable Sardar Abdur Rab Khan Nishtar (West Punjab: Muslim): Do you know what
treatment was meted out to this man by the Government? He is in jail.

Mr Sris Chandra Chattopadhya: That is a different matter. Further he goes on:

“ A more apt name for it would be the Kingdom of God which is described in English as “theocracy”.

I do not know much of your theocracy or Sunna. But he told me many things about
Islam.

And then you will also find this:

“ No law can be changed unless the injunction is to be found in God’s shariat. Laws are
changed by the concensus of opinion amongst the Muslims.”

So, if any law is to be changed, it is to be changed by the vote of the Muslims onl y.
Where are we then? We are not Muslims. There are, I find, many safeguards in the
Resolution. I do not attach much importance to them. Words are there but there is no
law which will allow them to be put into practice. That is the limitation. If the non-
Muslims cannot vote, then what is the good of our coming here for farming the
constitution? Even if we have the right to vote for a legislation but if some non -Muslim
wants to be the President of the State, he will not be able to do so. If we want to elect
somebody who is a non-Muslim, he cannot be elected by us to be a member of the
legislature. We may vote, but we can vote for Mr Nishtar only and not for Mr Chandra
Chattopadhya, who is a non-Muslim. I know you can pass this Resolution because you
are in the majority and I know the tyranny of the majority. But we cannot be a
consenting party to it; we must oppose it in order to safeguard our interests and not to
commit suicide by accepting this Resolution. If that is so, what is the position of non-
Muslims in a Muslim State? They will play the part of the second fiddle – the drawers of
water and hewers of wood. Can you expect any self -respecting man will accept that
position and remain contented? If the present Resolution is adopted, the non-Muslims
will be reduced to that condition excepting what they may get out of concession or pity
from their superior neighbours. Is it equality of rights? Is it wrong if we say that the
non-Muslims will be in the position of Plebeians? There may not be patricians and
plebeians in the Muslim community, but the question is between the Muslims and non-
Muslims.

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That much about this Resolution. Now, Dr Qureshi has attributed fear complex to the
non-Muslims and has found a new dictum of behaviour for the minority. He has given
a warning to the non-Muslims and has asked them to discard fear and behave well. What
does our conduct show? We are not afraid of anybody. We, the Congress people, were
not afraid of any or any power. We are still living in Eastern Pakistan and we are not
running away. We are telling our brothers not to leave Eastern Pakistan and not to give
up one inch of land. The position in the Western Pakistan is different. There the non-
Muslims have left. But we are determined to stay on. As for behaviour it depends upon
the majority community by their behaviour to get the confidence of the minority people.
The minority people cannot create by their conduct confidence in the majority. They
majority people should behave in such a way that the minority people may not be afraid
of them and may not suspect them.

Dr Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi : On a point of personal explanation, Sir, I never said or

implied in my speech that my friends on the opposite side were suffering from the fear
of the seen. Unfortunately, they have been su ffering from the fear of the unknown and
my point was that the Objectives Resolution does not embody any principle which
might make them afraid. I know that my friends are very brave and they would certainly
not run away and I also know .. …

Mr President : This much will do for your explanation.

Mr Sris Chandra Chattopadhya : It goes without saying that by introducing the religious
question, the differences between the majority and the minority are being perpetuated,
for how long, nobody knows. And, as apprehended by us, the difficulty of interpretation
has already arisen. The accepted principle is that the majority, by their fair treatment,
must create confidence in the minority. Whereas the Honourable Mover of the
Resolution promises respect, in place of charity or sufferance for the minority
community the Deputy Minister, Dr Qureshi, advises the minority to win the good -will
of the majority by their behaviour. In the House of the Legislature also we find that,
while the Prime Minister keeps perfectly to hi s dictum, others cannot brook that the
Opposition should function in the spirit of opposition. The demand is that the
Opposition should remain submissive. That is Dr Qureshi’s way of thinking. The
minorities must be grateful for all the benevolence they ge t and must never complain
for the malevolence that may also be dealt out to them. That is his solution of the
minority problem.

Dr Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi : Sir, I again rise on a point of personal explanation. I never said that. My
words are being twisted. What I said was this that the best guarantee of a minority’s rights is the
good-will of the majority and those words cannot be twisted into the way my friend has been twisting
them.

Mr Sris Chandra Chattopadhya : My esteemed friend, Mr Nishtar, speaks tha t there is

difference of outlook between the two parties. It is true that before the division of India
into two States, India and Pakistan, we opposed the division on the ground that the
people of India consisted of one nation, and the Muslim League suppor ted the division

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on two-nation theory, the Muslims and the non -Muslims. There was this fundamental
difference in our outlook and in our angle of vision. India was divided without the
division of the population. So, in both the States there are Muslims and non -Muslims –
no exchange of population and even no exchange of population under contemplation.
We, the non-Muslims of Pakistan, have decided to remain in Pakistan, as the loyal
citizens of Pakistan. Of course, some non -Muslims from East Bengal and practically the
majority of non-Muslim from West Pakistan left the place. We all ourselves the
nationals of Pakistan and style ourselves as Pakistanis. But this Resolution cuts at the
root of it and Mr Nishtar’s speech makes it clear. We, the Congress people, still stick
to our one nation theory and we believe that the people of Pakistan, Muslims and non-
Muslims, consist of one nation and they are all Pakistanis. Now, if it is said that the
population of Pakistan consists of two nations, the Muslims who form the majority
party and the non-Muslims who form the minority party, how are they to be described?
Nowhere in the world nationality is divided on the score of religion.

Even in Muslim countries there are people of different religions. They do not call
themselves a majority or minority party. They call themselves as members of one
nation, though professing different religions. If the Muslims call themselves
Pakistanis, will the non-Muslims call themselves non-Pakistanis. What will they call
themselves?

Some Honourable Members : Pakistanis.

Mr Sris Chandra Chattopadhya : Will they both call themselves Pakistanis? Then how
will the people know who is Muslim and who is non -Muslim? I say, give up this division
of the people into Muslims and non-Muslims and let us call ourselves one nation. Let us
call ourselves one people, people of Pakistan. Otherwise, if you call me non -Muslim
and call yourselves Muslim the difficulty will be if I call myself Pakistani they will say
you are a Muslim. That happened when I had been to Europe. I went there as a delegate
of Pakistan. When I said “ I am a delegate of Pakistan” they thought I was a Muslim.
They said “But you are a Muslim”. I said, “No, I am a Hindu”. A Hindu cannot remain
in Pakistan, that was their attitude. They said: “You cannot call yoursel f a Pakistani”.
Then I explained everything and told them that there are Hindus and as well as Muslims
and that we are all Pakistanis. That is the position. Therefore, what am I to call myself?
I want an answer to that. I want a decision on this point from my esteemed friend, Mr
Liaquat Ali Khan.

I request my Honourable friend, Mr Nishtar, to forget this outlook, this angle of vision.
Let us form ourselves as members of one nation. Let us eliminate the complexes of
majority and minority. Let us treat citizens of Pakistan as members of one family and
frame such a constitution as may not break this tie so that all communities may stand
shoulder to shoulder on equal footing in time of need and danger. I do not consider
myself as a member of the minority community. I consider myself as one of seven crores
of Pakistanis. Let me have to retain that privilege.

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I have stated about this Resolution. Now what will be the result of this Resolution? I
sadly remind myself of the great words of the Quaid -I-Azam that in state affairs the
Hindus will cease to be a Hindu; the Muslim shall cease to be a Muslim. But alas, so
soon after his demise what you do is that you virtually declare a State religion! You are
determined to create a Herrenvolk. It was perhaps bound to be so, when unlike the
Quaid-I-Azam – with whom I was privileged to be associated for a great many years in
the Indian National Congress – you felt your incapacity to separate politics from
religion, which the modern world so universally does. You could not get over the old
world way of thinking. What I hear in this Resolution not the voice of the great creator
of Pakistan – the Quaid-I-Azam ( may his soul rest in peace), nor even that of the Prime
Minister of Pakistan, the Honourable Mr Liaquat Ali Khan but of th e Ulemas of the
land.

When I came back to my part of the country after several months absence in Europe, the
thing that I saw there depressed me. A great change for the worse has come over the
land. I noticed that change this side also. I told His Excellency Khawaja Nazimuddin of
it. I told the Honourable Mr Liaquat Ali Khan about it and n ow that spirit of reaction has
overwhelmed this House also. This Resolution in its present form epitomizes that spirit
of reaction. That spirit will not remain confined to the precincts of this House. It will
send its waves to the countryside as well. I am quite upset. I have been passing sleepless
nights pondering what shall I now tell my people whom I have so long been advising to
stick to the land of their birth? They are passing a state of uncertainty which is better
seen and left than imagined from this House. The officers have opted out, the influential
people have left, the economic conditions are appalling, starvation is widespread,
women are going naked, people are sinking without trade, without occupation. The
administration is ruthlessly reactionary, a steam-roller has been set in motion against
the culture, language and script of the people. And on the top of this all, by this
Resolution you condemn them to a perpetual state of inferiority. A thick curtain is
drawn against all rays of hope, all prospects of an honourable life.

After this what advice shall I tender? What heart can I have to persuade the people to
maintain a stout heart? But I feel it is useless bewailing before you, it is useless
reasoning with you. You show yourselves incapable of humility that either victory or
religion ought to generate. You then go your way, I have best wishes for you. I am an
old man not very far from my eternal rest. I am capable of forgetting all injuries. I bear
you no ill will. I wish you saw reason. Even as it is, may no evil come your way. May
you prosper, may the newly-born State of Pakistan be great and get its proper place in
the comity of nations. ( Applause.)

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Era of Ayub Khan 1958-1969:
Ayub Khan became first chief of army staff from Pakistan. He replaced General
Douglas in 1951 when he was appointed as the Chief of Army Staff by Liaquat Ali Khan.
Then he was appointed as the defense minister of Pakistan in 1953 by the Prime Minister
Muhammad Ali Bogra when there was a political crisis in the country. Since then army
became a very integral part of government. The difference amongst the political leader ship
further gave way to the military intervention in political matters. After the proclamation of
martial law by Iskandar Mirza on 7th October 1958 Ayub Khan saw a greater role for himself
and the army in politics of the country. He seized power for himself two weeks later and
threw Iskander Mirza out of Government.
After assuming full power for himself he needed to legitimize his rule and stay in
power. So he started the system of Basic Democracies. In first stage he divided the country
into 80000 administrative units or Basic Democracies. Then he raised the number to
120000. After the elections of these basic democracies Ayub Khan took the vote of
confidence from the newly elected Basic Democrats. He became second President of
Pakistan in 1960. His rule over Pakistan was a long rule of 11 years. During this time he
introduced many new policies which are discussed as under:

1. Early career and rise to power

Ayub Khan was born in a small village Rihana, an unknown place near Hasan Abdal
in modern day KPK, Pakistan on May 14, 1907. He was born in a low income house hold and
his father was a Subedar Major (a non-commissioned rank) in the British Indian army. His
father from the very beginning had the desire of sending his son to a military and unlike
himself, his son would become a commissioned officer. Ayub Khan received his military
education from one of the best milit ary schools Sandhurst.
He joined British Indian Army and after the independence of Pakistan
became the first Muslim Pakistani Chief of Army Staff in 1951, by the hands of
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. He was later given the portfolio of Defence
minister by Governor General Malik Ghulam Mohammad in 1954.
Iskander Mirza proclaimed martial law on October 7, 1958 and appointed
General Ayub Khan as the Chief Martial Law Administrator and Prime Minister. On

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27th same month he ousted Iskander Mirza and took charge of the country as President and
appointed General Musa as the new Chief of Army Staff.

2. Silencing the opposition (EBDO & PODO)

The foremost thing for Ayub Khan after taking over power was to silence any
potential opposition that could challenge his newl y formed administration. There were only
two major sections of the society who could post any kind of resistance to him, politicians
and bureaucrats. Bureaucrats were tamed by introducing a law known as PODO (Public
Office Disqualification Order). It described that any public servant would be discharged from
service if found guilty of corruption, nepotism or abuse of power.
For politicians he made a law EBDO (Elective Body Disqualification Order)
August 1959. According to which any elected office holder if found guilty would be
debarred from politics till 31 December 1966. The use of this law was ruthless.
Ayub EBDOed all possible political leader. Even the person who presented Lahore
Resolution in 1940, A. K. Fazlul Haq.
These two laws sound appropriate, however the implementation of these laws was
based upon silencing the opposition rather than achieving their actual targets.

3. Legalizing his rule (Basic Democracies)

After acquiring the rule and silencing the opposition Ayub Khan took the
next logical step in terms of military takeover, legitimizing his rule. Although since
independence democracy has not been able to prevail however the power struggle
was in between politicians and bureaucrats, both civilians. This was the first time
army has intervened directly.
Military rule is always considered as illegitimate. To have acceptability in home
and in international arena Ayub Khan had to depict himself as publically accepted
and elected leader. Ayub did not belong not any polit ical party thus could not
conduct democratic elections. For this purpose he chose to use indirect way of
public approval.
He introduced Basic Democracies in 1960. The mandate of to be elected member
was to deal with the municipal services, such as taking care of the roads, water
supply, sewerage, basic health facilities, local education etc. The Basic

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Democracies order was passed in 1959 and the elections were conducted in January 1960.
From all over Pakistan 80000 Basic Democrats were elected. Soon after their election the
purpose of the exercise was revealed by the president when they were asked in an ambiguous
referendum question about the continuity of Ayub Khan’s presidency. The results were,
80,000 Basic Democrats, 75,283 affirmed their support. Ayub Khan proclaimed himself as
the elected president of the country.

4. Prolonging his rule (Constitution of 1962)

5. Agricultural Policy (Green Revolution)
6. Industrial Policy (Privatization)
7. Foreign Policy
8. Decline

Consolidating his rule and controlling opposition:

Ayub Khan after taking powers in his hands from Iskander Mirza needed to
device mechanism to control opposition from two sections of the society,
bureaucracy and politicians. For both of the he crafted laws which seemed need of
the time for Pakistan however they were used as a political device in his hands. He
put a ban on political parties arrested G. M Syed and Abdul Ghaffar Khan. In Marc h
1959 Ayub introduced Public Office Disqualification Order (PODO)

Constitutional reforms:
After becoming president the highest priority was given to the constitutional
problem. With the proclamation of Martial Law in 1958 the constitution of 1956 was
abrogated so there was a need for a new constitution. For this purpose he ordered the
formation of a commission. The composition of this commission was retired chief justice
of Supreme Court who would work as the chairman of this commission, two retired judges,
a lawyer, a mill owner, a business man, a land lord and a member from minorities. This
composition gives the hint about the final product and the intentions of Ayub Khan that
what sort of government and constitution he wanted to create. There was no
representation of majority of the people for example common man, laborers, farmers etc.

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 This commission prepared a detailed questionnaire for understanding the views of
people. This questionnaire was produce in the quantity of 28000 copies. Other than this
exercise the commission conducted 565 interviews of people belonging to different walks
of life. Many people were apprehensive about the wishes of Ayub Khan. Finally the report
of the commission came out and it met the decided fate. It was not the commission which
was running the show it was Ayub Khan. The report said the government should be
formed on the model of USA with directly elected President and check and balance of
Legislative, Executive and Judiciary. Ayub was willing to adopt it but with his own
interpretation which says that the executive should not have any checks but other two
pillars needs its authentication. “Whatever the shortcomings of the commission’s
proposals, their chief merit was the concern for the rehabilitation of democratic process,
and whatever merit the president saw in his own proposal, their main was to provide a
constitutional façade for a dictatorial design”.1
Finally the constitution came out in 1962. Some salient features of this constitution
are as under;

i. The name of the country would be the Republic of Pakistan. (In the last
constitution it was Islamic Republic of Pakistan)
ii. The country would be presidential form of government and president would be
directly elected.
iii. All the executive authority would be exercised by President.
iv. President will select Prime Minister from the national assembly.
v. All the laws passed by the parliament will be subject to the presidential consent. If
the president disagrees with any particular legislation he would send it back to the
parliament. (If the parliament still does not make any changes then finally the
president has the power to send parliamentarians to home by dissolving the
assembly).
vi. President will appoint governors in all the provinces. These Governors were giver
extra powers of dissolving the provincial assemblies on the order of the President.

Agricultural reforms:
Ayub Khan paid a lot of attention towards agricultural potential of Pakistan. He

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knew that it is the back bone of Pakistan and it is the only quick way to boost the economy
of Pakistan. In longer run reforms in other sectors like industry and export were needed
for stability.

1. He ordered the import of Highly Yielding variety of seed. Through these seeds
farmers can get extra yield from the same land during the same amount of time. This way
the annual produce of any particular crop can increase. The main areas in which HYVs
helped were exports. The HYVs of particular crops like cotton, wheat, rice and sugarcane
contributed a lot in the economy. Even today rice and cotton are the main exports of
Pakistan.
2. The mechanization process also started during his rule. Through it the efficiency
of work increased and finally it translated into increase in annual growth. This
advancement helped in increasing the cultivatable land. Earlier agricultural activity
needed lots of labor now machines can do work of many people at one time.
3. Another important aspect of agriculture is fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers are
crucial for the agricultural activity of any country especially in today’s world when the
demand is increasing day by day and the land is continuously used. Land starts losing its
fertility after some time for which some months of gap is required. However countries
like Pakistan which only depend on agriculture cannot afford any break. In this situation
chemical fertilizers provide strength to the land and soil. Ayub Khan imported and
introduced many chemical fertilizers in Pakistan and he also supported the growth of
chemical fertilizer industry.
4. He also introduced land reforms. He limited the land holding of irrigated and
non-irrigated land. Through this way his target was to distribute land amongst the people
of Pakistan. Theoretically this was supposed to increase the annual production of crops
because large land holding means unutilized land. The big land lords may not need to
cultivate all the land they have because their life style can be supported easily by much
less cultivation. This unutilized land may not affect the land lord but it is bound to affect
the country because the annual production cannot be maximum according to the potential
of the country. By distributing it in many owners the government wanted to make sure
that the land is properly used.

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Industrial Reforms:
The process of industrialization started by Ayub Khan was very beneficial to the
economy of Pakistan. He invited investments from across the world and convinced the local
investors to invest in the country. He assured them that their investments would be safe and
profitable. The industrial growth indicators during his time were favorable.
He established an oil refinery in Karachi in 1962. Oil refinery is a very important
feature of industrialization. More industries means rise in the demand of electricity and the
major source of electricity in Pakistan is fossil fuel. Earlier Pakistan was importing refined
oil which costs much more than crude oil. In addition, by refining the crude oil many by
products are also getable which are used for other purposes.
He started a very important program Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD)
with Iran and Turkey. This was a very important program which had the potential of pulling
Pakistan out of the list of Third World Countries. This was a very well thought out plan that
could benefit all the three partners. Pakistan shares 450, miles border with Iran in South
West and Iran shares approximately 200 mile long border with Turkey in North West. The
program suggested road and railways links from Pakistan till Turkey passing through Iran.
To promote exports he gave many incentives to exporters. He introduced a scheme
called Bonus Export Scheme. Any exporter who met the targets set by the government was
given extra incentives.
Although all of these reforms resulted in record high growth rate of Pakistan but
created another problem. The main criticism of his industrialization policy was that it
favored few big business families rather than the whole population. 22 business families
controlled around 80% of all the industries of Pakistan and 60% of all the banking and
insurance business. Although the growth rate of Pakistan was very high the beneficiaries of
this growth and development were few and the distribution of wealth or money was vertical
rather than horizontal. Secondly all of these families were located in West Pakistan.

Downfall of Ayub Khan:

The downfall of Ayub Khan was not sudden it took some years. We can say that his
decline started after 1965. Pakistan entered into war with India in September the same

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year. This war was an adventure that the people and government of Pakistan could not afford
at that time. The war lasted less than a month and went into the favor of India. Both
countries signed a peace treaty with the help of Russia in Tashkent. Although Ayub Khan
told the people that it was great victory of Pakistan but the reality was something else.
Ayub Khan blamed the war and the treaty on his foreign minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
and asked him to leave his cabinet in July 1966. Bhutto in retaliation started his own political
party Pakistan People’s Party and became the center of the opposition against Ayub Khan.
The presidential elections also earned him a bad name. The presidential candidate
against him was Fatima Jinnah and the people who were against him saw a savior in the
form of Ms. Fatima. She also had lots of popularity and there was a chance that she could
surprise every one and sweep the polls. The results showed that Ayub Khan was very
popular with the people and they support him to become the president again. This result was
not accepted by people. The opposition parties protested and said that Ayub Khan has used
his official powers to turn the elections in his favor.
The political agitation against Ayub got strong during 1968. He was not a man who
would leave the power easily or unless he tries out all the options he had. He arrested
thousands of people. He also ordered the arrest of political leader ship including Bhutto. The
agitation against him rather than slowing down paced up. In February 1969 he released many
political prisoners and offered the opposition to reconcile the difference but it was too little
too late. Finally in March 1969 he decided to leave power and step down as president. He
did not go silently; he proclaimed Martial Law once again in the country and gave all the
powers to the Chief of Army Staff General Yahiya Khan.

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The partition of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh
1971:
Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947 and as a new country it was a different
example in front of the world. First of all it was divided into two part and these two parts
were separated from each other by enemy territory. Furthermore there were many other
differences between the two parts of Pakistan.
Pakistan was created on the basis of an ideology. However many scholars believe
that we lost this ideology when we lost more than half of our population in 1971. There are
many reasons behind the separation of East Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh. Even at
the time of independence many political leaders had argued that should Bengal become a
part of Pakistan or should it be made a separate Muslim country like Pakistan?
Following are some reasons behind the division of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh;

Population distribution:
At the time of independence Pakistan had around 70 million people in both parts of
the country. Out of them more than 55% were living in East Bengal. Pakistan had 5
provinces in total at that time. The remaining 45% population was living in the other four
provinces. Then all the people living in Bengal were Bengalis. On the other hand the
remaining population was divided into four major types of people and multiple sub groups.
The first problem which arose between the people of East Bengal and other Pakistanis was
on the issue of national language. Urdu was chosen as the national language and on the
contrary Bengalis were asking the government to make Bengali the national language of
Pakistan. This issue was resolved in the first constitution when both languages were made
the national languages under the constitution of 1956.
Then their majority was falsely decreased and was brought to the level of West
Pakistan. This was done in 1955 when parity formula or one unit plan was introduced. In
it all the provinces in Western Pakistan were united together to form one province called
West Pakistan. The main purpose of this plan was to bring East Bengal on the equal level
and to deny the majority it had. Although this plan was implemented but the people of
East Pakistan or Bengal never forgot the mistreatment of the ruling elite.

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Representation in army:
Pakistan army had a very few people from East Bengal. More than 85% of Pakistan
army consisted on the people from two provinces Punjab and N.W.F.P. People of Bengal
hardly had any respectable share in national army. This led to the rise of sense of deprivation
in the hearts and minds of the people of East Bengal. After eleven years of the establishment
of Pakistan martial law regime took over the country. Again like first 11 years Bengalis had
no role to play in the new politics of Pakistan because of their representation in the army.

The Military Elite in Pakistan, 1955

East Bengal West Pakistan
Lt-General 0 3
Major-General 0 20
Brigadier 1 34
Colonel 1 49
Lt-Colonel 2 198
Major 10 590
Navy Officers 7 593
Air Force officers 40 640
Table 38

38
Dawn, 9 January 1956.

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Representation in Government:
Like army the people of East Bengal were poorly represented in important offices of
government. The cabinet and other advisors of the government were from the West side of
the country. Also the power to make any decision was not in the hands of the East Bengalis.

Central Secretariat Elite Posts, 1955

East Bengal West Pakistan
Secretary 0 19
Joint Secretary 3 38
Deputy Secretary 10 123
Under Secretary 38 510
Table 39

Flight of money from East to West Pakistan:

East Pakistan was the largest supplier of Jute in the world. Other than that many
crops of East Pakistan had high demand across the world. Bengal was the first province
that East India Company captured. The main reason for their presence was the economic
potential of Bengal. They stayed there and spread to other areas of India from here. Since
the British rule Bengal was the center of all the major economic activity of sub-continent.
After the independence of Pakistan in 1947 East Bengal still had the economic
value. The main grievance of the people of East Pakistan was not that the Federal
Government is earning money from there but the Government was not giving anything
back. All the development was taking place in West Pakistan while the East side was
growing frustration.
The new capital Islamabad was built with the money of East Pakistan or with the
major contribution from East.

39
Pakistan Constitution Assembly Debates vol. 1, 7 January 1956, 1844. Cited in Mizanar Rahman, The
Emergence of Bangladesh as a Sovereign State, 68

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Six Points of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman:
The political direction of East Pakistan started to deviate from pro Pakistan
towards Bengali nationalism as early as 1948. The address of Jinnah in Dhaka in which
he declared that Urdu would be the national language of Pakistan was not taken lightly.
Agitations started immediately after the speech. Since then Muslim League started to lose
popularity. In these circumstances a nationalist party Awami League attracted the
inhabitants of East Pakistan by promising them the rights which the government of
Pakistan was not giving them.
Sheikh Mujib gained popularity in short time and established himself as the savior of
his people. He was able to reach the apex of his political career after he presented his famous
six points, which are as under;
1. Both sides of Pakistan should have their own currency. (The reason behind this
point was that they believed that due to the West Pakistan the currency does not
have value in international market. By separating currency they wished to safe
themselves from the impact of slow and weak economy of West Pakistan).
2. The provinces should have full power to collect and set taxes within their
jurisdiction. The provinces will pay the due share to the federal government. (This
point suggests that they wanted to keep the money with themselves which seems
right as well. This way they can develop their part of the country which they think
is behind the pace of development of West.)
3. Both sides should have their own paramilitary forces. (There was a strong believe
that East Pakistan is very venerable compared to West Pakistan. Another reason
was that majority of the army personals were from West Pakistan so there should
be parity in this regard.)
4. A directly elected government should be installed at the center and allowed to
work properly.
5. Each part should be allowed to make their own trade agreements. (The Federal
Government was getting all the profits made through the trade East Pakistan. This
point says that now the money would stay in the province.)
6. Federal Government should only control defense and foreign relations. All the
other subjects should be given to the province
The nature of these six points suggest that the people who have asked these points

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 do not wish to stay with Pakistan any more.

Elections of 1970:
The first general elections were finally conducted in 1970 December under the LFO
issued by Yahiya Khan. According to this ordinance the One Unit Plan was abolished and
total number of seats was 300. West Pakistan was allocated 138 seats and East Pakistan was
allocated 162 seats. The results of elections were very unique. Awami League won 161 seats
in total but all of them were in East Bengal (Pakistan). They were unable to secure a single
seat in the Western part. On the other hand the second largest party was Pakistan People’s
Party and they were able to secure 81 seats in total and all of these seats were located in four
provinces of West Pakistan. PPP was completely rejected in Bengal.
According to the rules of democracy it was the right of Awami League to form the
government because of their clear majority in the parliament. However the demography of
the election results can easily confuse any one. The people of both sides have rejected each
other. The verdict of the people is very clear that they reject the other part. The political
parties of the East were unable to attract the people of west and vice versa.
Yahiya Khan thought that he has done his job and now it’s the politicians turn to form
the government and serve the country and its people. He was wrong. He did not see the
divide and its impact. Bhutto the leader of PPP said that he has the right to form the
government because he was won seats in four out of five provinces of Pakistan. On the other
hand Awami League said that they have clear majority so they should be asked to form the
government.
Yahiya Khan announced that the first session of the national assembly would be
conducted in Dhaka in March 1971. Unfortunately some days earlier this session he
postponed it till further notice.
This proved to be the last nail in the coffin. The people of East Bengal started to
agitate against this decision and full riots started in Bengal. Army was called and
suppression on great scale was launched. Now it was too late the Bengalis were not willing
to surrender. Finally on 16th December the East Pakistan became Bangladesh and the
Pakistan lost most of its population.

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National Assembly Election Results, 1970
S.no Party Punjab Sindh NWFP Bal. West East Pakistan
Total Total Total
1 AL -- -- -- -- -- 160 160
2 PPP 62 18 1 -- 81 -- 81
3 PML (Q) 1 1 7 -- 9 -- 9
4 CML 7 --- -- -- 7 -- 7
5 JU (H) -- -- 6 1 7 -- 7
6 JUP 4 3 -- -- 7 -- 7
7 NAP (W) -- -- 3 3 6 -- 6
8 JI 1 2 1 -- 4 -- 4
9 PML (C) 2 -- -- -- 2 -- 2
10 PDP -- -- -- -- -- 1 1
11 Independent 5 3 7 -- 15 1 16
Total 82 27 25 4 138 162 300
Table 40

40
Ian Talbot, 200
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Bhutto and his era 1971-77:

Important aspects to be covered:

1. Constitution of 1973
2. Nationalization policy
3. Education and health policy
4. Control over army
5. Steps towards Islamization
6. His downfall
7. Death of Bhutto

Introduction:
Bhutto entered into politics of Pakistan during the rule of Ayub Khan. Ayub Khan
made young Bhutto his cabinet member as a foreign minister. During his minister ship he
impressed everyone within and outside Pakistan. All historians agree that Bhutto was the
best foreign minister Pakistan ever had. In 1965 Pakistan entered in war with India which
ended Bhutto’s association with Ayub Khan. He was dismissed by Ayub Khan who blamed
the war and its handling on Bhutto. After leaving government Bhutto started his own
political party called Pakistan People’s Party.
He took the support of Marxist ideas and made a very popular slogan ‘roti, kapra aur
makan, means ‘bread, clothing and shelter’ for everyone. The major problem of Ayub
Khan’s era was accumulation of money in the hands of 22 business families; Bhutto
carefully targeted this problem and used it in his own favor. He party became popular in very
short time. However this popularity was restricted only in the West Pakistan. He and his
Party was the spear head the movement against Ayub Khan.
In the elections of 1970 his party was able to grab 81 seats out of 132 in West
Pakistan however it failed to win any seat out of 162 seats in East Pakistan. After the
separation of Pakistan on 16th December General Yahiya Khan then President and Chief
th
Martial Law Administrator invited Bhutto to take charge of the country. On 20 December
Yahiya made Bhutto the President and Chief Martial Law Administrator of the country and
backed away.

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 After becoming President Bhutto started to work towards framing the new
constitution of Pakistan. He formed the national assembly on the basis of the results of
1970 elections. Within a year the new constitution was completed and it was implemented
in 1973. According to the new constitution the form of government was parliamentary
and all the executive powers were in the hand of Prime Minister. Bhutto became Prime
Minister of Pakistan.

1. Constitution of 1973:

i. All the executive power will be in the hands of Prime Minister and he will be the
head of the government.
ii. The legislation would be bi-camera (consisting of two houses). National assembly
would be elected on the basis of population and in senate all the provinces would
have equal number of seats regardless of population.
iii. President and the Prime Minister of Pakistan must be Muslims.
iv. The name of the country would be Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
v. All the people of the country including religious minorities would enjoy full civil
liberties.
vi. President of Pakistan would be elected in directly through all the assemblies’
national assembly, senate and provincial assemblies.

2. Nationalization Policy:
The link of Bhutto’s nationalization policy can be found in Ayub era. This policy was
a reaction of the economic policy of Ayub Khan. Ayub introduced such economic policies
which benefited only a fraction of the population of Pakistan which has been discussed in
detail earlier. Since Bhutto started his political party promised common people of Pakistan to
make their economic conditions better. During his political campaign he used the slogan,
“roti, kapra aur makan”, (bread, clothing and shelter).
After coming to power he followed a socialist plan to fulfill his promise. The plan
seemed simple. All the private industries and businesses would be taken up by the
government. He thought this way the government would open the employment to all and
when people will get employment their living conditions would automatically improve.

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In other words taking money away from rich and giving it to poor.
Problem according to Bhutto was that private owners of industries limited the number
of employees due to which less people got the chance. Bhutto after taking all the industries
opened employment. This plan was initially successful but it had long term harmful effects;
a) Industries started to more salaries than they were earning. Therefore government started
to face heavy losses. b) By nationalization Bhutto closed the window for private investors.
Local and foreign investors kept away from Pakistani market because of the fear of losing
industries and investments. Due to this Pakistan did not see industrialization for more than a
decade. This affected the economic growth of Pakistan.

3. Education Policy:
Bhutto also ordered to take over many schools. He opened many new government
schools and colleges across Pakistan. He tried to homogenize education system of Pakistan.
He made Primary education compulsory for every student.
Although Bhutto introduced educational reforms but they were not enough to cope up
with the needs of the country. Even today after 30 years of Bhutto, education is the foremost
issue the government has to face. Unfortunately political parties hardly pay any attention
towards these issues.

4. Health Policy:
a. Bhutto started Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilities to the
population living in villages. According to the plan there would be one RHC for
every 60000 people.
b. He introduced Basic Health Units (BHU) in urban areas. One unit for every 20000
people.
c. Training colleges were setup for the training of medical staff and assistants.
Nursing schools were also started to train nurses to work across the country.

5. Control over army:

Before Bhutto’s rule the politics of Pakistan was dominated by army under the
influence of Ayub Khan. Bhutto took some steps to minimize the role of army and to have a
check over them;

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 a. He ordered the removal 29 important army commanders.
b. He appointed army commanders who were more loyal to him.
c. He established Federal Security Force to assist police in civilian matters. Earlier
army used to be called by government for out of control civilian matters. This way
army used to get a chance in power politics. FSF was also used for political
victimization.

6. Downfall of Bhutto:
When Bhutto introduced the constitution of 1973 he formed the government on the
basis the results of 1970 elections. Opposition parties criticized this step of Bhutto. The main
argument was that when those elections were conducted Pakistan included East Pakistan as
well and now its new Pakistan with new boundaries. All opposition political parties started
protesting against Bhutto’s government and demanded him to conduct new elections. Bhutto
was confident that he enjoys popularity in majority of the people so he announced to conduct
elections.
On the other hand 9 different political parties joined and formed Pakistan National
Alliance (PNA). These political parties in their political agitation and campaign were able to
gather thousands of people of streets. In the elections PPP won 154 seats out of 200. PNA
accused the government of rigging. They said that we do not accept the results of these
elections and the government has wrongfully turned the results in its favor with the help of
state machinery.
The friction between the two parties grew and both were not willing to step aside.
Government ordered to arrest anyone who goes against it. However the protest against the
government became stronger. Thousands of people were arrested but the movement did
not die. Army played its role and tried to end the situation with their way. On 5th July 1977
Zia-ul-Haq the Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan stepped in and proclaimed martial law in
the country. He took all the powers in his hands and arrested Bhutto. He also suspended
the constitution of 1973.

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National Assembly Results, March 1977
S.no Party Candidates Seats won % vote
1 PPP 191 155 58.1
2 PNA 168 36 35.4
3 PML-Qayyum 37 1
4 Independent 324 8
5 Minor Parties 21 0
Total 741 200
Table 41

8. Death of Bhutto:
After Bhutto’s arrest after the martial law he was released within few days. Zia
knew that if he want to establish his rule over Pakistan then he need to get rid of Bhutto by
any means. Zia found out that there was a pending case of assassination against Bhutto.
He was accused of ordering the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan father of
Ahmed Raza Qasuri. Zia reopened the case and Lahore high court awarded death sentence
to Bhutto.
This sparked and international reaction regarding the politics of Pakistan. Many
leaders of the world asked Zia not to go for this punishment and leave Bhutto. Only Zia had
the power to pardon Bhutto as a president. Bhutto was rearrested in September 1977 and
finally was put to death on 4th April 1979.

41
Hasan Askari Zaidi, TheMilitary and Politics in Pakistan (Delhi, 1988), 219
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Zia and his Era 1977-88
Zia came in power through martial law on 5th July 1977. He suspended the
constitution and promised the people of Pakistan a new government would be formed
through elections within three months. Later he stayed in power for the next 11 years. Zia
told people that the country is going through a very chaotic phase and we need someone to
save us from this turmoil. He presented himself to be that savior and claimed that he would
take the country out of all the troubles.
Zia was unable to abrogate the constitution of 1973 because according to it whoever
abrogate this constitution will be considered enemy of the country and should be hanged.
The main problem in front of Zia was to get support for his rule and legitimize it through any
means. For this purpose he took the support of Islam and the religious political parties who
were against Bhutto.
Some steps of his Islamization process;

Islamisation by Zia:

i. He made “Dupatta” compulsory for all Muslims women going in public

places.
ii. He prohibited the sale of alcohol openly and specially to Muslims. It could
be sold by and to non-Muslims under a license.
iii. He made Islamiat and Pakistan studies compulsory for all students in
Pakistan.
iv. He made shariat courts,
v. He introduced and implemented Hudood ordinances. There were four
major aspects covered in ; a) offences of wrong allegation b) offences of
Zina c) Offences against property and d) prohibition of drinking alcohol.
vi. He also introduced Zakat and Ushur ordinance.
vii. A council of Islamic ideology was setup to recommend different policies in
economics and other matters.
viii. He introduced the “Ehteram-e-Ramzan” (respect of the holy month of
Ramzan) ordinance.
ix. The government issued the orders for the regular observance of Namaz and
s
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 pecial arrangements were made to arrange Zohar in government offices.
x. The degrees granted by the religious institutions were given the equal
status to M.A.

Support to Zia’s rule:

Till 1979 the rule of Zia was not stable but some international events became the
saviors of Zia. Russia attacked Afghanistan. This was a great event and was very significant
for the Western World. USA and other Western countries saw it as a spread of socialism
which was not acceptable to them at any cost. Afghanistan became the battle field for the all
the great powers.
In this situation Western World wanted someone like Zia (who could be easily
manipulated) to support them in all aspects. Zia was an army man and country was under
martial law so whatever Zia does he can enforce it through power. It was an ideal scenario
for the West. They support Zia’s rule and return they wished that he support them to check
the advances of Russia. West fought whole Afghan War from Pakistan. A new term came in
international politics “proxy war” due to this event. Finally West was able to achieve its
goals and Russia lost the war and disintegrated.
Secondly another great event of international importance took place which also
indirectly supported the rule of Zia. In Iran Islamic Revolution took place. In this revolution
the more liberal and modern government was over thrown by Islamic political leader led by
Imam Khomeini in 1979. The revolutionaries first attacked US embassy and an international
scandal started. In this scenario as well US needed unconditional support from Pakistan. The
reason due to which these two events affected Pakistan was that it shared borders with both
the countries.
For USA a strong rule like military rule of Zia was ideal under the circumstances
because he would do whatever they wished because his rule was illegitimate and USA was a
super power. Zia willingly agreed to the wishes of US and secured a strong position for
himself in the politics of Pakistan. He later stayed in power till 1988 when a tragic air crash
took his life near Bahawalpur.

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The referendum:
Zia conducted a referendum before conducting elections. He wanted to strengthen
his position and provide legitimacy to his rule. He knew that he might not get popular
vote through elections so he planned a tricky referendum in which he played with his
voters. He posted a question which was very difficult for common people to say no to.
Instead of asking people a simple question about his presidency like, ‘do you want to see
Zia as president’ he framed a question, ‘do you agree with the process of Islamization and
do you want to continues or not’.
Most of the population of Pakistan did not take part in this so called referendum.
Those who went to take part were unable to deal with this tricky referendum and fell pray of
Zia’s wish.

Elections of 1985:
After securing his position through referendum he went for elections. Again like
referendum he planned to conduct which suited him and his plans to stay in power. He
declared that the elections would be conducted on nonparty basis. This sounds like a joke
and mockery of democracy. How is it possible for people to take part in electoral process
without their political orientation and association?
The elections were conducted under the strict supervision of army. Muhammad
Khan Junejo became the Prime Minister of the so called elections. Even after the
elections Zia did not lift Martial Law. Junejo was pressurized by the parliament to lift the
Martial Law. However Zia had other plans. He said until the parliament accepts all the
amendments made by him he will not lift it. So under the pressure the parliament
legalized all the ordinances he made. 59 articles were amended in this single amendment
called 8th amendment. The most famous article is 58 ii b, through which the president has
the power to dissolve national assembly.

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Benazir Bhutto Frist Government 1988-1990:

Introduction:
Benazir Bhutto was the eldest daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto the founding member
and first chairman of Pakistan People’s Party (PPP). She stayed outside of Pakistan throughout
her educational years and received education in Oxford University, England. When her father’s
government was taken over by General Zia ul Haq she with other members of her family was
captured by Zia and sent to jail for several years. After coming out of jail she and her family
went out of Pakistan.
She decided to permanently join politics and carry the mission of her father forward.
She was guided by some senior members of PPP and finally decided to come back to Pakistan
in 1986 and take charge of the party. She was married to Asif Ali Zardari in 1986 at Karachi.
In 1988 August General Zia ul Haq died in an air crash near Bahawalpur after which the
army of Pakistan decided to back out from active politics and did not announce another
military president. The military administration announced election in 1988 which were
conducted accordingly.

Formation of Government:
The party position in the elections of 1988 was not very strong however PPP emerged
as the single largest party which did not have enough seats to make government on their own.
Consequently a coalition government was formed with the support of other political parties.
Due to the weak position of Benazir she made some compromises with the army and the
caretaker President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
She agreed to support Ghulam Ishaq Khan in presidential election. Ghulam Ishaq was a
former bureaucrat with illustrious career in terms of holding important government posts. She
even agreed to continue with the foreign minister of Zia’s regime Sahibzada Yaqub Khan
because the establishment could not afford any alteration in the foreign policy during those
trouble years.

The troika:
The term Troika was coined during the first government of Benazir it means the Prime
Minister, President and Army Chief, consult before major important decisions. This was a
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enpao
zirnth.acdom
to make if she wanted to form a government. The political forces
were weak and army backed out of their own decision rather than the wishes of people or
political parties. Army could have taken over again at any time if their role in decision making
was challenged.

Friction between Islamabad and Provinces:

According to the constitution of 1973 Pakistan was a federation with four provinces
which were responsible for many things concerning their development for example, education
(schools, colleges, and universities), health (hospitals, clinics, doctors, nursing schools), roads,
some taxes, industrialization etc. However the power to govern these elements was not yet
given to provinces in reality.
The provincial governments wanted autonomy over these things so that do not have to
depend upon Federal Government any more. The major opposition was posted from Punjab
where anti PPP government was ruling under the leadership of Mian Nawaz Sharif. Islamic
Democratic Front (Islami Jamhori Ittehad) was a union of pro-Islamic parties under the central
leadership of Nawaz Sharif. This party was made b army in 1988 to counter the public
popularity of PPP. Army although backed out from politics in 1988 but they did not want any
single party to be powerful enough to make major changes in the government so they preferred
a dilute political structure.
The headlines of daily newspapers were occupied by comments and remarks of the
leadership of PPP and IJI against each other. Benazir had control over federal government and
Nawaz Sharif was ruling the largest province of Pakistan with more than 60% population. It
was a fight between two giants and people were suffering.
Benazir made Ghulam Mustafa Khar governor of Punjab who had the power to dissolve
the provincial assembly on the advice of President. IJI reacted strongly against this
appointment. A very shameful incident occurred during 1990 when three FIA (Federal
Investigation Agency) agents were arrested by Punjab Police on the orders of Punjab
Government, when they were investigating tax evasion by a minister of Punjab Government in
one of his factories.
The establishment of Punjab Bank in 1989 was seen a rebellion against the federation
of Pakistan by Nawaz Sharif however the constitution provided provisions for such step by
provincial governments. The blame game escalated by passing time and both parties targeted
next elections. IJI wanted midterm elections so they can test their arm in government. IJI
targeted Benazir for her position on Kashmir and relations with India. She was looking forward
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to defuse tension between the two countries for their better future. This issue was highlighted
by IJI and they twisted it to such angles which supported them.
This fight between the two largest parties of Pakistan served no purpose to the people
perhaps it served the ambitions of political leadership. There was a debate that democracy
could no function in Pakistan because of incompetent political leadership and the 1988-90
government strengthen this believe.

Fall from power:

The decline of Benazir started form Karachi. The government in Islamabad was
supported by MQM (Muhajir Quami Movement). The leadership of MQM was facing different
challenges than any other political party in Pakistan because of their political agenda. MQM
was established due to the marginalization of Muhajir community and people supported them
because they stood for them. There were many expectations from MQM due to which the
leadership had to work quick.
Before 1988 election a massacre took place in Hyderabad in area of MQM supporters in
which around 120 people lost their lives in spray of firing from cars at several places at one
time. MQM demanded action from PPP their coalition partners on many such issues and they
finally left PPP in 1989 and joined IJI and blamed PPP for turning away from its promises. On
the top of it Pucca Qila operation took place in May 1990 when police raided Pucca Qila an old
fort in Hyderabad in suspension of criminals hiding in it. Police opened fire and killed 31
supporters of MQM along with women and children. It is reported that women came out with
Quran on their heads to stop the shooting but they were unable to do so.
After this incident violence started in Karachi and Hyderabad. The president of
Pakistan Ghulam Ishaq Khan used his power to dismiss government under the article 58-2,b.
He said the government has failed to control violence, they are corrupt, they introduced
nepotism and they are incompetent.

Some achievements of Benazir:

1. First Women Bank was opened by Benazir for giving larger role to women of Pakistan.

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 2. There was a ban on trade unions during the time period of Zia. Benazir lifted the ban
and allowed worker to make unions and demand their rights from employers.
3. In1971 Bangladesh was created and it became a member of Commonwealth. Since then
Pakistan left commonwealth on protest. In 1988 Benazir government rejoined
commonwealth.
4. Women were given job on a greater scale. They were now more government job than
ever. They went into police and judiciary.

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Nawaz Sharif
Introduction:
Nawaz Sharif belonged to a well-established business family of Punjab. He started hi
politics during the time of Zia ul Haq, who was responsible for many business favors to Nawaz
Sharif. Even today the sugar mill owned by Sharif in Pakpattan in Punjab has Zia ul Haq’s
name on the founding stone. He was in fact brought into politics by military establishment to
counter PPP in Punjab and later across the country. He became the Chief Minister of Punjab n
1986 due to good graces of Zia. He became the leader of IJI in 1988 when military
establishment founded this party by bribes given to many leaders. The founder of IJI General
Asif Nawaz has now told the story of its establishment and Mr. Asghar Khan has challenged
the founding of IJI in court in a case, which is still pending in Supreme Court.
In t 1990 elections Nawaz Sharif and his party claimed 105 seats against 45 seats of
PPP. IJI emerged as the single largest party in Pakistan and went to form federal government.
After forming the government he started to works towards his policies which were business
friendly.

Economic policies:
Being a business man he believed in free market economy and decided to privatize 89
government owned organization which included railways, shipping, energy,
telecommunication etc. Uncontrolled privatization was dangerous to Pakistan’s economy and
people because it would allow owners to maximize their profit without giving benefits to their
workers. During his time millions of dollars came in for investment.
He started a yellow cab scheme in which loans were given to people who could become
owners of a taxi and pay the government later through its income. This was a very popular
scheme and thousands of households benefitted with it.
He fixed the minimum wages for workers to be 1500 Rs.. His policies were heavily
criticized by PPP who compared his policies with plundering of Pakistan. His economic efforts
generally benefitted the wealthy due to encouragement private business without governmental
control.

Gulf war and Nuclear issue:

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 In 1990 Gulf War started when Ghulam Mustaf Jatoi was care taker Prime Minister. He
supported USA on its advances on Iraq and also sent Pakistani soldiers to support US. When
Nawaz Sharif became Prime Minister he continued the policy of support. This was not taken as
a good move by many Pakistani’s including many supporters of Nawaz. He face huge criticism
but did not change his stance.
One of the reasons for Pakistan’s support was that US had put some economic and
military sanctions on Pakistan on the doubt that Pakistan is developing it nuclear weapons. US
demanded to immediately stop the nuclear program. Pakistan’s government thought by
supporting US in Gulf war they might get some benefits, however US did not lift the sanctions
even after unconditional support by Pakistan.

Internal disturbances:
During Afghan war Pakistan became a market for illegal weapons and drugs.
Thousands of Afghan Refugees came to Pakistan who had their links back at home. All the
weapons used in Afghan war came to Pakistan which were being bought by criminals and drug
dealers.
Nawaz Sharif faced the challenge of dealing with this menace with firm hand. He took
many steps towards controlling these elements but did not succeed. He also made Speedy Trial
Courts to conduct and conclude cases related to crimes then and there so more and more cases
can be solved. However criticism was raised against the function of these courts and dealing
with innocent because it had only one chance of appeal.

Reasons for removal from Power:

Bank scandals were the first major blows to the government of Nawaz Sharif. A bank
BCCI (bank of Credits and Commerce International) was started by a Pakistani banker Agha
Hasan Abedi in 1972. This bank dealt with most of the prominent politicians and business men
of Pakistan including Sharif family who were major costumer of the bank.
The bank was black listed by England and they closed all operations of the bank on the
charges of frauds, money laundering and criminality. However Pakistan’s government
supported the bank and allowed it to function in Pakistan. US government wanted to arrest
Agha Hasan and extradite him fo America, but Nawaz Sharif refused to hand him over.
On the other hand Nawaz Sharif started a military operation on it coalition partner
MQM in Karachi. Army wasted to conduct this operation against the criminals of Sind. There
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was a division of opinion with in Nawaz’s leadership Chaudhry Nisar was of the opinion that it
should not target MQM because it will further deteriorate the situation. However the operation
was given green signal and Karachi became an urban battlefield. According to MQM
thousands of it supporters were killed under the shadow of the operation.
Ghulam Ishaq Khan the president of Pakistan once again decided to use his power to
dissolve the national and provincial assemblies. He did it and framed same allegations against
IJI government as Benazir’s government. Nawaz went Supreme Court against the use of 58-2b
by president. Supreme Court favored Nawaz and ordered the restoration of assemblies calling
the act by president as illegal.
After restoration Nawaz under the pressure of military establishment finally decided to
resign and call for fresh elections. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was also forced by army to
resign as president.

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Languages:
Why Urdu was chosen as the national language of Pakistan?
At the time of independence there were many languages spoken in Pakistan, for
example Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi and Pashto. However all of these languages were
associated with a particular province or people. There was no single language which was
spoken all across Pakistan. The other fact was that all the above mentioned languages were
regional and people speaking them could not understand each other’s language.
In these circumstances choosing any one regional language over the other could
create regional jealousies and hatred. Urdu was a language which was not associated with
any one province. Urdu could also work as a bridging language between the different
communities of Pakistan. This way no province of Pakistan can say that the government has
neglected them over other province.
Secondly Urdu was a language which originated in sub-continent some 8 centuries
ago amongst Muslims. The early Muslim invaders had different races in their army for
example Arabs, Turks, Persian, and Afghans etc. These people when started to communicate
with each other a new language was formed which had words from all the languages these
people spoke. So Urdu had always been associated with Muslims of sub-continent. Pakistan
was a country made for the Muslims of sub-continent so their cultural identity was Urdu and
this factor was considered by the early Government of Pakistan before choosing Urdu as a
national language.

Development of provincial languages by the government:

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 Many steps have been taken by the government to promote provincial languages in
their respective provinces.

i. The government universities offer Master’s level degree in their regional

language, for example Karachi University and Sind University situated in Sind
have Sindhi department where students study Sindhi literature. Likewise
Punjab University has Punjabi department which offers Punjabi literature.
ii. The government supports the institutions which promote regional languages.
For example newspapers are being published in the regional languages which
are authorized by the government.
iii. On the national television PTV news was telecasted in provincial language in
respective province.

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List of Secretary of state for India
1. Edward Henry Stanley, Lord Stanley (September 2, 1858 - June 11, 1859)
2. Sir Charles Wood (June 18, 1859 - February 16, 1866)
(resigned after being injured in a hunting accident)
3. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 3rd Earl de Grey
(February 16, 1866 - June 26, 1866)
4. Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne
(July 6, 1866 - March 8, 1867)
5. Sir Stafford Henry Northcote (March 8, 1867 - December 1, 1868)
6. George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll
(December 9, 1868 - February 17, 1874)
7. Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
(February 21, 1874 - April 2, 1878)
8. Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 1st Viscount Cranbrook
(April 2, 1878 - April 21, 1880)
9. Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington
(April 28, 1880 - December 16, 1882)
10. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (December 16, 1882 - June 9, 1885)
11. Lord Randolph Churchill (June 24, 1885 - January 28, 1886)
12. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (February 6, 1886 - July 20, 1886)
13. Sir Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross (1886)
(August 3, 1886 - August 11, 1892)
14. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (August 18, 1892 - March 10, 1894)
15. Henry Hartley Fowler (March 10, 1894 - June 21, 1895)
16. Lord George Hamilton (July 4, 1895 - October 9, 1903)
17. St John Brodrick (October 9, 1903 - December 4, 1905)
18. John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley (1908) (Dec. 10, 1905 - November 3, 1910)
19. Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Earl of Crewe, 1st Marquess of Crewe (1911)
(November 3, 1910 - March 7, 1911)
20. John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley (March 7, 1911 - May 25, 1911)
21. Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe (May 25, 1911 - May 25, 1915)
22. Austen Chamberlain (May 25, 1915 - July 17, 1917)
23. Edwin Samuel Montagu (July 17, 1917 - March 19, 1922)
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 24. William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel (March 19, 1922 - January 22, 1924)
25. Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier (January 22, 1924 - November 3, 1924)
26. Frederick Smith, Earl of Birkenhead (November 6, 1924 - October 18, 1928)
27. William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel (October 18, 1928 - June 4, 1929)
28. William Wedgwood Benn (June 7, 1929 - August 24, 1931)
29. Sir Samuel Hoare (August 25, 1931 - June 7, 1935)
30. Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland (June 7, 1935 - May 28, 1937)

List of Governors-General

Governors-General of the Presidency of Fort William, 1774–1833

1. Warren Hastings, 20 October 1773–1 February 1785
2. Sir John MacPherson, 1 Feb. 1785–12 September 1786, provisional
3. The Earl Cornwallis, 12 Sept. 1786–28 Oct. 1793, first time (from
1792, The Marquess Cornwallis)
4. Sir John Shore, 28 October 1793–March 1798
5. Sir Alured Clarke, March 1798–18 May 1798, provisional
6. The Earl of Mornington, 18 May 1798–30 July 1805 (from 1799, The
Marquess Wellesley)
7. The Marquess Cornwallis, 30 July 1805–5 October 1805, second time
8. Sir George Hilario Barlow, 10 October 1805–31 July 1807, provisional
9. The Lord Minto, 31 July 1807–4 October 1813
10. The Earl of Moira, 4 October 1813–9 January 1823 (from 1817, The
Marquess of Hastings)
11. John Adam, 9 January 1823–1 August 1823, provisional
12. The Lord Amherst, 1 August 1823–13 March 1828 (from 1826, The
Earl Amherst)
13. William Butterworth Bayley, 13 March 1828–4 July 1828, provisional
14. Lord William Bentinck 4 July 1828–1833

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Governors-General of India, 1833–1858
1. Lord William Bentinck 1833–20 March 1835, continued
2. Sir Charles Metcalfe, 20 March 1835–4 March 1836, provisional
3. The Lord Auckland, 4 March 1836–28 February 1842 (from 1839, The Earl
of Auckland)
4. The Lord Ellenborough, 28 February 1842–June 1844
5. William Wilberforce Bird, June 1844–23 July 1844, provisional
6. Sir Henry Hardinge, 23 July 1844–12 January 1848 (from 1846, The Viscount
Hardinge)
7. The Earl of Dalhousie, 12 January 1848–28 February 1856 (from 1849, The
Marquees of Dalhousie)
8. The Viscount Canning, 28 February 1856–1 November 1858

Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858–1947

1. The Viscount Canning, 1 November 1858–21 March 1862, continued (from
1859, The Earl Canning)
2. The Earl of Elgin, 21 March 1862–20 November 1863
3. Sir Robert Napier, 21 November 1863–2 December 1863, provisional
4. Sir William Denison, 2 December 1863–12 January 1864, provisional
5. Sir John Lawrence, 12 January 1864–12 January 1869
6. The Earl of Mayo, 12 January 1869–8 February 1872
7. Sir John Strachey, 9 February 1872–23 February 1872, provisional
8. The Lord Napier, 24 February 1872–3 May 1872, provisional
9. The Lord Northbrook, 3 May 1872–12 April 1876
10. The Lord Lytton, 12 April 1876–8 June 1880
11. The Marquess of Ripon, 8 June 1880–13 December 1884
12. The Earl of Dufferin, 13 December 1884–10 December 1888
13. The Marquess of Lansdowne, 10 December 1888–11 October 1894
14. The Earl of Elgin, 11 October 1894–6 January 1899
15. The Lord Curzon of Kedleston, 6 January 1899–18 November 1905
16. The Lord Ampthill, 1904, acting for the Lord Curzon of Kedleston
17. The Earl of Minto, 18 November 1905–23 November 1910
ww
18w. .T
cshseeL
xoarmdpHoain
rdti.cnogemof Penshurst, 23 November 1910–4 April 1916
 19. The Lord Chelmsford, 4 April 1916–2 April 1921
20. The Earl of Reading, 2 April 1921–3 April 1926
21. The Lord Irwin, 3 April 1926–18 April 1931
22. The Earl of Willingdon, 18 April 1931–18 April 1936
23. The Marquess of Linlithgow, 18 April 1936–1 October 1943
24. The Viscount Wavell, 1 October 1943–21 February 1947
25. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 21 February 1947–15 August 1947

Governors-General of India, 1947–1950

1. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 15 August 1947–June 1948, continued
2. Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, June 1948–25 January 1950

Governors-General of Pakistan, 1947–1958

1. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, 15 August 1947–11 September 1948
2. Khwaja Nazimuddin, 14 September 1948–17 October 1951
3. Ghulam Mohammad, 17 October 1951–6 October 1955
4. Iskander Mirza, 6 October 1955–23 March 1956

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Prime Ministers of Pakistan
1) Liaquat Ali Khan (August 14, 1947 to October 16, 1951)
2) Khawaja Nazimuddin (October 17, 1951 – April 17, 1953)
3) Muhammad Ali Bogra (April 17, 1953 – August 12, 1955)
4) Chaudhry Muhammad Ali (August 12, 1955 – September 12, 1956)
5) Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (September 12, 1956 – October 17, 1957)
6) Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (October 17, 1957 – December 16, 1957)
7) Sir Feroz Khan Noon (December 16, 1957 – October 7, 1958)
8) Mohammad Ayub Khan (October 7, 1958 – October 28, 1958) ,(chief martial law
administrator to 24 Oct 1958).
From 1958 until 1973, no person held the title of Prime Minister due to martial law.

9) Nurul Amin (December 7, 1971 – December 20, 1971)

10) Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (August 14, 1973 – July 5, 1977)

The office was again suspended from July 5, 1977 until March 24, 1985 due to martial law.

11) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq (July 5, 1977 – March 24, 1985) ,(chief martial law
administrator).
12) Muhammad Khan Junejo (March 24, 1985 – May 29, 1988)
(Again) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq, (June 9, 1988 – August 17, 1988)
13) Benazir Bhutto (Dec 2, 1988 – August 6, 1990)
14) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (August 6, 1990 – November 6, 1990)
15) Nawaz Sharif (November 6, 1990 – April 18, 1993)
16) Balakh Sher Mazari (April 18, 1993 – May 26, 1993)
(Restored) Nawaz Sharif (May 26, 1993 – July 18, 1993)
17) Moin Qureshi (July 18, 1993 – October 19, 1993)
(Again) Benazir Bhutto (October 19, 1993 – November 5, 1996)
18) Miraj Khalid, (interim) (November 5, 1996 – February 17, 1997)
(Again) Nawaz Sharif (February 17, 1997 – October 12, 1999)

On October 12, 1999, Pervez Musharraf overthrew Nawaz Sharif, and took the title of Chief
Executive. On June 20, 2001, he was made the President of Pakistan.
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19) Pervez Musharraf (October 12, 1999 – November 23, 2002) ,(de facto to 14
Oct 1999, from 14 Oct 1999 chief executive)
Elections were held on October 10, 2002 leading to the return of the position of Prime Minister
20) Zafarullah Khan Jamali (November 21, 2002 – June 26, 2004)
21) Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain (June 30 2004, August 28 2004
22) Shaukat Aziz (August 28, 2004- November 16, 2007
23) Mian Muhammad Sumru (November 16, 2007 – March 25, 2008
24) Sayyed Yousuf Raza Gillani (March 25, 2008 – Present

Presidents of Pakistan:
1) Iskander Mirza (March 23, 1956 to October 27, 1958)
2) Muhammad Ayub Khan* (October 27, 1958 - March 25, 1969)
3) Yahya Khan* (March 25, 1969 - December 20, 1971)
4) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (December 20, 1971 - August 13, 1973)
5) Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry (13-Aug-1973 to September 16, 1978)
6) Muhammad Zia ul-Haq* (September 16, 1978 - August 17, 1988)
7) Ghulam Ishaq Khan (August 17, 1988 - July 18, 1993)
8) Wasim Sajjad (July 18, 1993 - November 14, 1993)
9) Farooq Leghari (November 14, 1993 - December 2, 1997)
10) Wasim Sajjad (December 2, 1997 - January 1, 1998)
11) Muhammad Rafiq Tarar (January 1, 1998 - June 20, 2001)
12) Pervez Musharraf* (June 20, 2001 – August 18 2008)
13) Muhammad Mian Soomro (August 18 2008 – September 9, 2008)
14) Asif Ali Zardari (September 9, 2008 – till present)

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1. http://historypak.com/first-cabinet-1947/

“The first cabinet of Pakistan took oath on 15th August 1947. It included the following
members:

Liaquat Ali Khan Prime Minister, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Defense

I.I. Chundrigar Minister for Commerce, Industries and Works

Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar Minister for Communications

Raja Ghazanfar Ali Minister for Food, Agriculture and Health (In December he was shifted
to Evacuee and Refugee Rehabilitation).

Jogendra Nath Mandal Minister for Labour and Law

Ghulam Muhammad Minister for Finance

Fazlur Rahman Minister for Interior, Information and Education

In December Muhammad Zafrullah Khan was inducted as Minister for Foreign Affairs and
Common wealth relations and Abdus Sattar Pirzada was given the portfolio of Food,
Agriculture and Health. Raja Ghazanfar Ali’s ministry was changed and he was made in charge
of the Ministry of Evacuee and Refugee Rehabilitation.

Quaid-i-Azam also asked for many skilled British technocrats to stay and serve in the Pakistani
government; 3 out of the 4 provincial governors were British. Sir Frederick Bourne was the
Governor of East Benga, Sir Francis Mudie the Governor of West Punjab and Sir George
Cunningham the Governor of N.W.F.P. Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah, the Governor of
Sindh) was the only local governor, while Balochistan did not have a governor as it was
Governor-General’s province. All chiefs of the armed forces were British as well – General Sir
Frank Messervey chief of the Royal Pakistan Army, Air Vice-Marshal Perry-Keane chief of
the Royal Pakistan Air Force, and Admiral Jefford the chief of Royal Pakistan Navy. The
financial advisor to the Governor-General, Sir Archibald Rowland, was also British.

During the early days after its creation, Pakistan faced a myriad of crisis and difficulties and the
ministers often found themselves helpless to tackle them; so they looked towards Jinnah to help
them with these problems. The first cabinet of Pakistan passed a special resolution to allow
Jinnah to deal with the problems faced by provincial ministers. Jinnah also helped ministers in
policy making. In case of a difference of opinions Quaid’s decision was to be final. All these
riw
ghwtsww.cesrseegxiavm
enptooinJitn.cnoam
h until new constitution came into force.
 Quaid had a colossal task ahead of him, during the early days of Pakistan but he remained
committed in his duties and under his dynamic leadership and guidance the nation proved that
it had the determination to succeed. Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah, undoubtedly enjoyed extraordinary
powers but these powers were given to him by the Cabinet to meet the unexpected
circumstances that clearly demanded extraordinary actions.

Even though nation building has proved to be a difficult task for Pakistan, under the guidance
of Jinnah and his competent cabinet members it continued to show its spirit and capacity to
survive and adapt to changing circumstances. James A. Muchener, a visitor to Pakistan in the
early years, wrote, “I have never seen so hardworking a government as Pakistan’s. It is literally
licking itself by its own intellectual book-straps”.

List of Governors of Punjab:

 Sir Robert Francis Mudie (1947-1949)

 Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar (1949-1951)
 Mr I I Chundrigar (1951-1953)
 Mian Aminuddin, ICS (1953-1954)
 Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola (June-November 1954)


Name Took office Left office Affiliation

Lt Gen Attiqur Rahman 1 Jul1970 23 Dec 1971 Military Administration
  12 November 
Ghulam Mustafa Khar 23 Dec 1971 Pakistan Peoples Party
1973
 12 November  
Sadiq Hussain Qureshi 14 Mar 1975 Pakistan Peoples Party
1973
Ghulam Mustafa Khar 14 Mar 1975 31 Jul 1975 Pakistan Peoples Party
Mohammad Abbas Abbasi 31 Jul 1975 5 Jul 1977 Pakistan Peoples Party
Justice Aslam Riaz Hussain 5 Jul 1977 18 Sept 1978 Pakistan Peoples Party
Lt Gen Sawar Khan 18 Sept 1978 1 May 1980 Military Administration
Lt Gen Ghulam Jilani Khan 1 May 1980 30 Dec 1985 Military Administration
Sajjad Hussain Qureshi 30 Dec 1985 9 Dec 1988 Civil Administration
Gen Tikka Khan 9 Dec 1988 6 Aug 1990 Pakistan Peoples Party
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 Mian Muhammad Azhar 6 Aug 1990 25 Apr 1993 Islami Jamhoori Ittehad
Chaudhary Altaf Hussain 25 Apr 1993 19 Jul 1993 Pakistan Peoples Party
Lt Gen Muhammad Iqbal 19 Jul 1993 26 Mar 1994 Independent
Chaudhary Altaf Hussain 26 Mar 1994 22 May 1995 Pakistan Peoples Party
Justice Muhammad Ilyas 22 May 1995 19 Jun 1995 Acting
Lt Gen Raja Saroop Khan 19 Jun 1995 6 Nov 1996 Pakistan Peoples Party
Justice Khalilur Rehman 6 Nov 1996 11 Nov 1996 Acting
Khawaja Tariq Rahim 11 Nov 1996 11 Mar 1997 Pakistan Peoples Party
   Pakistan Muslim
Shahid Hamid 11 Mar 1997 18 Aug 1999
League (N)
Lt Gen Muhammad Safdar 25 Oct 1999 29 Oct 2001 Military Administration
Lt Gen Khalid Maqbool 29 Oct 2001 16 May 2008 Military Administration
Chaudhry Muhammad Afzal   
27 Nov 2002 11 Apr 2008 Acting
Sahi
Salmaan Taseer* 17 May 2008 4 Jan 2011 Pakistan Peoples Party
Rana Muhammad Iqbal 4 Jan 2011 13 Jan 2011 Acting
Latif Khosa 13 Jan 2011 22 Dec 2012[1] Pakistan Peoples Party
Makhdoom Syed Ahmed   Pakistan Muslim
25 Dec 2012 13 May 2013
Mahmud League (F)
 29 January Pakistan Muslim
Mohammad Sarwar 2 Aug 2013[2] [3]
2015 League (N)
 Pakistan Muslim
Malik Muhammad Rafique
7 May 2015[4] Incumbent
Rajwana League (N)

www.cssexampoint.com
List of Governors of Sindh:42

Dec 27, 2002

TO
30
To date
Dr. Ishrat Ul Ebad Khan
May 25, 2000
29 TO
Mr. Mohammadmian Soomro Dec 26, 2002

Oct 25, 1999

TO
28
May 24, 2000
Air Marshal Azim Daud Pota

Jun 19, 1999

TO
27
Oct 12, 1999
Mr. Mamnoon Hussain
Mar 17, 1997
TO
26
Jun 17, 1999
Lt. Gen.(Retd) Moin-ud-Din Haider, HI (M)
May 22, 1995
TO
25
Mar 16, 1997
Mr. Kamal uddin Azfar
Jan 23, 1994
TO
24
May 21, 1995
Mr. Mahmood A. Haroon
Jul 19, 1993
TO
23
Jan 23, 1994
Hakim Muhammad Saeed

Aug 6, 1990
TO
22
Jul 18, 1993
Mr. Mahmood A. Haroon
Apr 19, 1989
TO
21
Aug 6, 1990
Justice (Retd) Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim
Sep 12, 1988
TO
20
Apr 18, 1989
Justice (Retd) Qadeeruddin Ahmed

whw
42
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://.wcw
sswe.gxoavm
ernpoorisn
intd.hc.ogm
ov.pk/governors/
 Jun 24, 1988
General (Retd) Rahimuddin, HI (M).Bt TO
19
Sep 11, 1988
Jan 5, 1987
18 TO
Mr. Ashraf W. Tabani Jun 23, 1988

Apr 7, 1984
TO
17
Jan 4, 1987
Lt. Gen. Jahan Dad Khan
Sep 18, 1978
TO
16
Lt. Gen. S.M. Abbasi Apr 6, 1984

Jul 6, 1977
TO
15
Sep 17, 1978
Justice (Retd) Abdul Kadir Shaikh
Mar 1, 1976
TO
14
Jul 5, 1977
Al-Haj Muhammad Dilawar Khanji
Feb 15, 1973
TO
13
Feb 28, 1976
Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali Khan
Jun 1, 1972
TO
12
Feb 14, 1973
Mir Rasool Bux Talpur
Dec 22, 1971
TO
11
Mr. Mumtaz Ali Bhutto Apr 29, 1972

Jul 1, 1970
TO
10
Dec 22, 1971
Lt. Gen. Rakhman Gul

Jun 24, 1954

TO
9
Oct 14, 1955
Nawab Iftikhar Hussain
Aug 12, 1953
8 TO
Mr. Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola Jun 23, 1954

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 May 2, 1953
TO
7
Aug 11, 1953
Mr. Goerge Baxandall Constantine

Nov 19, 1952

TO
6
May 1, 1953
Mian Aminuddin C.S.P
Oct 7, 1948
TO
5
Nov 8, 1952
Shaikh Din Muhammad
Aug 14, 1947
4 TO
Shaikh G.H. Hidayatullah Oct 4, 1948

Jan 15, 1947

TO
3
Aug 13, 1947
Sir Robert Francis Mudie
Apr 1, 1941
TO
2
Sir Hugh Dow Jan 14, 1947

Apr 1, 1936
TO
1
Mar 31, 1941
Sir Lancelot Graham

www.cssexampoint.com
List of Governors KPK
Took
Name Left office Affiliation
office
15 Aug
Sir George Cunningham 9 Apr 1948 Indian Civil Service
1947
19 Apr
Sir Ambrose Dundas Flux Dundas 16 Jul 1949 Indian Civil Service
1948
16 Jul
Sahibzada Mohammad Khurshid 14 Jan 1950 Independent
1949
Honourable Justice Khan Bahadur
14 Jan 17 Feb
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan of Judiciary
1950 1950
Chenna (acting)
17 Feb 23 Nov
Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar Muslim League
1950 1951
24 Nov 17 Nov
Khwaja Shahabuddin Muslim League
1951 1954
17 Nov
Qurban Ali Shah 14 Oct 1955 Independent
1954

Provinces merged to form West Pakistan (14 October 1955 – 1 July 1970)

1 Jul 25 Dec Military

Lt Gen K.M. Azhar Khan
1970 1971 Administration
25 Dec 30 Apr Pakistan Peoples
Hayat Sherpao
1971 1972 Party
29 Apr 15 Feb National Awami
Arbab Sikandar Khan
1972 1973 Party
15 Feb 24 May National Awami
Aslam Khattak
1973 1974 Party
24 May Pakistan Peoples
Maj Gen Syed Ghawas 1 Mar 1976
1974 Party
1 Mar Pakistan Peoples
Maj Gen Naseerullah Babar 6 Jul 1977
1976 Party
6 Jul 17 Sept Civil
Abdul Hakeem Khan
1977 1978 Administration

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 11 Oct 12 Dec Military
Lt Gen Fazl-Haq
1978 1985 Administration
30 Dec 18 Apr Jamiat
Nawabzada Abdul Ghafoor Khan Hoti
1985 1986 Ulema-e-Islam
18 Apr 27 Aug Civil
Syed Usman Ali Shah
1986 1986 Administration
27 Aug Pakistan Muslim
Fida Mohammad Khan 16 Jun 1988
1986 League (N)
16 Jun
Bri Gen Amir Gulistan Janjua 19 Jul 1993 Independent
1988
19 Jul
Maj Gen Khurshid Ali Khan 5 Nov 1996 Independent
1993
5 Nov 11 Nov
Justice Said Ibne Ali Independent
1996 1996
11 Nov 17 Aug
Lt Gen Arif Bangash Independent
1996 1999
18 Aug Pakistan Muslim
Miangul Aurangzeb 21 Oct 1999
1999 League (N)
21 Oct 14 Aug Military
Lt Gen Mohammad Shafiq
1999 2000 Administration
14 Aug 15 Mar Military
Lt Gen Iftikhar Hussain Shah
2000 2005 Administration
15 Mar 23 May Pakistan Muslim
Commander Khalilur Rehman
2005 2006 League (Q)
24 May Military
Lt Gen Ali Jan Aurakzai 7 Jan 2008
2006 Administration
7 Jan
Owais Ahmed Ghani 9 Feb 2011 Independent
2008
10 Feb 10 Feb Pakistan Peoples
Syed Masood Kausar
2011 2013 Party[1]
10 Feb 25 March Pakistan Peoples
Shaukatullah Khan
2013 2015 Party[2]
15 April 08 February Pakistan Muslim
Mehtab Ahmed Khan Abbasi
2015 2016 League (N)

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 25 Feb Pakistan Muslim
Iqbal Zafar Jhagra present
2016 League (N)

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List of Governors Balochistan:

# Governor Term start Term end Political affiliation

25 December
1 Lt. General Riaz Hussain 1 July 1970 military
1971

Nawab Ghous Bakhsh 29 December

2 13 April 1972 Independent
Raisani 1971

15 February
3 Ghaus Bakhsh Bizenjo 29 April 1972 National Awami Party
1973

15 February
4 Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti 2 January 1974 Jamhoori Watan Party
1973

5 Ahmad Yar Khan 2 January 1974 5 July 1977 Independent

18 September
6 Khuda Bakhsh Marri 5 July 1977 Independent
1978

18 September
7 Rahimuddin Khan 12 March 1984 Military
1978

18 November
8 F.S. Khan Lodhi 22 March 1984 Military
1984

18 November 30 December
9 Khushdil Khan Afridi Military
1984 1985

30 December
10 Musa Khan 12 March 1991 Military
1985

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11 Mir Hazar Khan Khoso 12 March 1991 13 July 1991 Independent

Gul Mohammad Khan

12 13 July 1991 19 July 1993 Independent
Jogezai

Sardar Abdur Rahim

13 19 July 1993 19 May 1994 Military
Durrani

14 Imran Ullah Khan 19 May 1994 8 April 1997 Pakistan People's Party

15 Mir Abdul Jabbar 10 April 1997 22 April 1997 Independent

Pakistan Muslim League

16 Miangul Aurangzeb 22 April 1997 17 August 1999
(N)

Sayed Muhammad Fazal

17 18 August 1999 12 October 1999 Independent
Agha

18 Amir-ul-Mulk Mengal 25 October 1999 29 January 2003 Independent

19 Abdul Qadir Baloch 1 February 2003 11 August 2003 Military

20 Owais Ahmed Ghani 11 August 2003 5 January 2008 Independent

Justice Amanullah 28 February

21 5 January 2008 Independent
Yaseenzai 2008

28 February
22 Nawab Zulfikar Ali Magsi 11 June 2013 Pakistan People's Party
2008

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 Muhammad Khan Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami
23 11 June 2013 Present
Achakzai Party

Tenure Governor of East Bengal

15 August 1947 - 31 March 1950 Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne

31 March 1950 - 31 March 1953 Sir Feroz Khan Noon

31 March 1953 - 29 May 1954 Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman

29 May 1954 - May 1955 Iskandar Ali Mirza

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Chief Justices of Punjab

11. Sir Abdul Rashid 1946 - 1948

Muhammad
12. 1949 - 1954
Munir

As result of One Unit

Elevated to formation, he was
Dr. Sheikh Supreme made Chief Justice
13. 1954 - 1955
Abdul Rahman Court of West Pakistan High
Pakistan Court during
1955-1958

Malik Rustam
14. 1958 - 1962
Kayani

Sheikh Manzur
15. 1962 - 1963
Qadir

Abdul Aziz
16. 1963 - 1965
Khan

17. Inamullah Khan 1965 - 1967

Elevated to
1967 -
Waheed-ud-Din Supreme
18. September
Ahmad Court of
22, 1969
Pakistan

Qadeer-ud-Din
19. 1969 - 1970
Ahmad

Elevated to
1970 -
Sheikh Anwarul Supreme
20. October 16,
Haq Court of
1972
Pakistan

Sardar
October 16,
21. Muhammad
1972 - 1976
Iqbal
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 Elevated to
1976 -
Aslam Riaz Supreme
22. January 11,
Hussain Court of
1978
Pakistan

Elevated to
January 12,
Maulvi Mushtaq Supreme
23. 1978- June 1,
Hussain Court of
1980
Pakistan

Shamim Hussain
24. 1980 - 1982
Qadri

Elevated to
1982 -
Supreme
25. Dr. Javed Iqbal October 5,
Court of
1986
Pakistan

Elevated to
Ghulam 1986 - April Supreme
26.
Mujaddid Mirza 21, 1988 Court of
Pakistan

Elevated to
Abdul Shakurul Supreme
27. 1988 - 1989
Salam Court of
Pakistan

Elevated to
1989 -
Mohammad Supreme
28. October 31,
Rafique Tarar Court of
1991
Pakistan

Mian Mahboob
29. 1991 - 1994
Ahmad

Muhammad
30. 1994 - 1995
Ilyas
*. Irshad Hassan June 19, Acting Chief Justice
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 Khan 1995 - April
15, 1996

May 15, Elevated to

Chaudhary 1996 - Supreme
31.
Zahid December Court of
17, 1996 Pakistan

December Elevated to
17, 1996 - Supreme
32. Sh. Ijaz Nisar
May 28, Court of
1997 Pakistan

May 29, Elevated to

Sheikh Riaz 1997 - Supreme
33.
Ahmad November 3, Court of
1997 Pakistan

November 4,
Rashid Aziz 1997 -
34.
Khan February 4,
2000

February 5,
Mian Allah Muhammad
35. 2000 - July
Nawaz Rafiq Tarar
13, 2000

Elevated
July 14, 2000
Muhammad to Supreme
36. Falak Sher - September
Rafiq Tarar Court of
6, 2002
Pakistan

took oath
September 7,
on PCO 1999 and
Iftikhar Hussain 2002 - Pervez Normal
37. later PCO 2007 as
Chaudhry December Musharraf Retirement
sitting judge of
31, 2007
Lahore High Court

38. Sayed Zahid January 1, Pervez Elevated to took oath

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 Hussain 2008 - April Musharraf Supreme on PCO 1999 and
12, 2009 Court of later PCO 2007 as
Pakistan sitting judge of
Lahore High Court

April 13,
Khawaja
2009 - Asif Ali
39. Muhammad Retired
December 8, Zardari
Sharif
2010

December 9, Elevated
Ijaz Ahmad 2010 - Asif Ali to Supreme
40.
Chaudhry November Zardari Court of
16, 2011 Pakistan

November Elevated
Sheikh Azmat 17, 2011 - Asif Ali to Supreme
41.
Saeed May 31, Zardari Court of
2012 Pakistan

elevated
1 June 2012
Umar Ata Asif Ali to supreme
42. – 17 June
Bandial Zardari court of
2014
pakistan

17 June 2014
Khawaja Imtiaz – 05 Mamnoon
43.
Ahmad November Hussain
2015

06
November Mamnoon
44. Ijaz Ul Ahsan
2015 – Hussain
Present

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