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vi Contents

2.2 Numbers 55
2.2.1 Positional Notation 56
2.3 Binary Arithmetic 57
2.4 Signed Integers 59
2.4.1 Sign and Magnitude Representation 60
2.4.2 Two’s Complement Arithmetic 60
Calculating Two’s Complement Values 61
Properties of Two’s Complement Numbers 62
Arithmetic Overflow 62
2.5 Introduction to Multiplication and Division 63
2.5.1 Shifting Operations 63
2.5.2 Unsigned Binary Multiplication 64
2.5.3 High-speed Multiplication 64
Booth’s Algorithm 66
2.5.4 Division 67
Restoring Division 68
Non-Restoring Division 70
2.6 Floating-Point Numbers 71
Normalization of Floating-Point Numbers 72
Biased Exponents 72
2.6.1 IEEE Floating-Point Numbers 72
IEEE Floating-Point Format 73
Characteristics of IEEE Floating-Point Numbers 75
2.7 Floating-Point Arithmetic 77
Rounding and Truncation Errors 78
2.8 Floating-Point Arithmetic and the Programmer 79
2.8.1 Error Propagation in Floating-Point Arithmetic 81
2.8.2 Generating Mathematical Functions 81
Using Functions to Generate New Functions 83
2.9 Computer Logic 84
2.9.1 Digital Systems and Gates 86
2.9.2 Gates 86
Fundamental Gates 87
The AND Gate 87
The OR Gate 87
The Inverter 88
Derived Gates—the NOR (Not OR), NAND
(Not AND), and Exclusive OR 89
2.9.3 Basic Circuits 91
The Half Adder and Full Adder 93
The Decoder 97
The Multiplexer 97
The Voting Circuit 98
The Prioritizer 100
2.10 Sequential Circuits 101
2.10.1 Latches 102
Clocked RS Flip-flops 104
D Flip-flop 105
The JK Flip-Flop 108
2.10.2 Registers 109
Shift Register 110
Left-Shift Register 111
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 Contents vii

2.10.3 Asynchronous Counters 113

Using a Counter to Create a Sequencer 114
2.10.4 Sequential Circuits 115
2.11 Buses and Tristate Gates 118
Registers, Buses, and Functional Units 120
Summary 122
Problems 123

Part II Instruction Set Architectures

3 Architecture and Organization 130
3.1 Introduction to the Stored Program Machine 130
3.1.1 Extending the Processor: Dealing with Constants 136
3.1.2 Extending the Processor: Flow Control 139
Status Information 141
Example of a Branch Instruction 142
3.2 The Components of an ISA 146
3.2.1 Registers 146
General-Purpose Versus Special-Purpose Registers 147
3.2.2 Addressing Modes—an Overview 149
Memory and Register Addressing 151
3.2.3 Instruction Formats 151
3.2.4 Op-codes and Instructions 152
Two Address Machines 153
One Address Machines 153
Zero Address Machines 153
One-and-a-Half Address Machines 154
3.3 ARM Instruction Set Architecture 155
3.3.1 ARM’s Register Set 156
3.3.2 ARM’s Instruction Set 156
3.4 ARM Assembly Language 157
3.4.1 Structure of an ARM Program 158
3.4.2 The Assembler – Practical Considerations 161
3.4.3 Pseudoinstructions 164
3.5 ARM Data-processing Instructions 167
3.5.1 Arithmetic Instructions 167
Addition and Subtraction 167
Negation 168
Comparison 168
Multiplication 169
Division 170
3.5.2 Bitwise Logical Operations 170
3.5.3 Shift Operations 171
Arithmetic Shift 173
Rotate 173
Implementing a Shift Operation on the ARM 173
3.5.4 Instruction Encoding—An Insight Into
the ARM’s Architecture 175
3.6 ARM’s Flow Control Instructions 176
3.6.1 Unconditional Branch 176
3.6.2 Conditional Branch 177
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viii Contents

3.6.3 Compare and Test Instructions 178

3.6.4 Branching and Loop Constructs 178
The FOR Loop 178
The WHILE Loop 178
The UNTIL loop 179
Combination Loop 179
3.6.5 Conditional Execution 179
3.7 ARM Addressing Modes 181
3.7.1 Literal Addressing 182
ARM’s Way 183
3.7.2
Register Indirect Addressing 184
3.7.3
Register Indirect Addressing with an Offset 187
3.7.4
ARM’s Autoindexing Pre-indexed
Addressing Mode 190
3.7.5 ARM’s Autoindexing Post-Indexing Mode 191
3.7.6 Program Counter Relative (PC-Relative)
Addressing 192
3.7.7 ARM’s Load and Store Encoding 193
3.8 Subroutine Call and Return 194
3.8.1 ARM Support for Subroutines 196
3.8.2 Conditional Subroutine Calls 197
3.9 Intermission: Examples of ARM Code 198
3.9.1 Extracting the Absolute Value 198
3.9.2 Byte Manipulation and Concatenation 198
3.9.3 Byte Reversal 199
3.9.4 Multiplication by 2n 2 1 or 2n 1 1 200
3.9.5 The Use of Multiple Conditions 200
3.9.6 With Just One Instruction… 200
3.9.7 Implementing Multiple Selection 201
3.9.8 Simple Bit-Level Logical Operations 201
3.9.9 Hexadecimal Character Conversion 201
3.9.10 Character Output in Hexadecimal 202
3.9.11 To Print a Banner 202
3.10 Subroutines and the Stack 203
3.10.1 Subroutine Call and Return 205
3.10.2 Nested Subroutines 206
3.10.3 Leaf Routines 207
3.11 Data Size and Arrangement 209
3.11.1 Data Organization and Endianism 209
3.11.2 Data Organization and the ARM 211
3.11.3 Block Move Instructions 216
Block Moves and Stack Operations 217
Applications of Block Move Instructions 219
3.12 Consolidation—Putting Things Together 220
Four-Function Calculator Program 220
Summary 223
Problems 224

4 Instruction Set Architectures—Breadth and Depth 228

Historical Background 230

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 Contents ix

4.1 The Stack and Data Storage 231

4.1.1 Storage and the Stack 232
The Stack Frame and Local Variables 234
Example of an ARM Processor Stack Frame 237
4.1.2 Passing Parameters via the Stack 239
Pointers and C 242
Functions and Parameters 243
Pass-by-Reference 246
Using Recursion 248
4.2 Privileged Modes and Exceptions 251
4.3 MIPS: Another RISC 254
MIPS Instruction Format 255
Conditional Branches 256
4.3.1 MIPS Data Processing Instructions 257
Flow Control 258
MIPS Example 259
Other Loads and Stores 259
MIPS and the ARM Processor 259
4.4 Data Processing and Data Movement 260
4.4.1 Indivisible Exchange Instructions 263
4.4.2 Double-Precision Shifting 264
4.4.3 Pack and Unpack Instructions 265
4.4.4 Bounds Testing 266
4.4.5 Bit Field Data 268
4.4.6 Mechanizing the Loop 272
4.5 Memory Indirect Addressing 273
Using Memory Indirect Addressing to
Implement a switch Construct 277
Using Memory Indirect Addressing to
Access Records 280
4.6 Compressed Code, RISC, Thumb, and MIPS16 282
4.6.1 Thumb ISA 282
Design Decisions 283
4.6.2 MIPS16 287
4.7 Variable-Length Instructions 288
Decoding Variable-Length Instructions 292
Summary 294
Problems 294

5 Computer Architecture and Multimedia 298

5.1 Applications of High-Performance Computing 299
Computer Graphics 301
5.1.1 Operations On Images 303
Noise Filtering 303
Contrast Enhancement 303
Edge Enhancement 304
Lossy Compression 305
JPEG 305
MPEG 308
MP3 308

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x Contents

Digital Signal Processing 309

DSP Architectures 312
The SHARC Family of Digital Signal Processors 312
5.2 Multimedia Influences—Reinventing the CISC 314
Architectural Progress 315
5.3 Introduction to SIMD Processing 318
Packed Operations 319
Saturating Arithmetic 321
Packed Shifting 323
Packed Multiplication 323
Parallel Comparison 324
Packing and Unpacking 325
Coexisting with Floating-Point 326
5.3.1 Applications of SIMD Technology 328
Chroma Keying 328
Fade In and Out 330
Clipping 332
5.4 Streaming Extensions and the
Development of SIMD Technology 333
5.4.1 Floating-point Software Extensions 336
5.4.2 Intel’s Third Layer of Multimedia Extensions 338
5.4.3 Intel’s SSE3 and SSE4 Instructions 338
5.4.4 ARM Family Multimedia Instructions 340
Summary 342
Problems 343

PART III Organization and Efficiency

6 Performance—Meaning and Metrics 348
6.1 Progress and Computer Technology 351
Moore’s Law 351
Semiconductor Progress 352
Memory Progress 354
6.2 The Performance of a Computer 356
6.3 Computer Metrics 358
6.3.1 Terminology 359
Efficiency 359
Throughput 360
Latency 360
Relative Performance 360
Time and Rate 361
6.3.2 Clock Rate 361
The Clock and the Consumer 365
6.3.3 MIPS 365
Instruction Cycles and MIPS 367
6.3.4 MFLOPS 369
6.4 Amdahl’s Law 371
Examples of the Use of Amdahl’s Law 372
6.5 Benchmarks 374
LINPACK and LAPACK 374

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 Contents xi

Oracle Applications Standard Benchmark 375

PC Benchmarks 376
Comparison of High-Performance Processors 376
PCMARK7 A Commercial Benchmark for PCs 378
6.6 SPEC 382
SPEC Methodology 384
The SPEC CPU2006 Benchmarks 386
SPEC and Power 389
6.7 Averaging Metrics 391
Geometric Mean 392
Harmonic Mean 393
Weighted Means 394
Summary 394
Problems 395

7 Processor Control 398

7.1 The Generic Digital Processor 401
7.1.1 The Microprogram 404
Modifying the Processor Organization 406
7.1.2 Generating the Microoperations 410
7.2 RISC Organization 414
7.2.1 The Register-to-register Data Path 416
Load and Store operations 417
Jump and Branch Operations 418
7.2.2 Controlling the Single-cycle
Flow-through Computer 419
Execution Time 422
7.3 Introduction to Pipelining 423
7.3.1 Speedup Ratio 427
7.3.2 Implementing Pipelining 427
From PC to Operands 429
Implementing Branch and Literal Operations 430
7.3.3 Hazards 434
Delayed Branch 436
Data Hazards 437
7.4 Branches and the Branch Penalty 442
7.4.1 Branch Direction 443
7.4.2 The Effect of a Branch on
the Pipeline 444
7.4.3 The Cost of Branches 445
7.4.4 The Delayed Branch 448
7.5 Branch Prediction 451
Static and Dynamic Branch Prediction 453
7.6 Dynamic Branch Prediction 454
7.6.1 Branch Target Buffer 456
7.6.2 Two-Level Branch Prediction 459
Combining Instruction Addresses
and Branch History 463
Summary 464
Problems 465

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xii Contents

8 Beyond RISC: Superscalar, VLIW, and Itanium 472

Overview of Chapter 8 473
8.1 Superscalar Architecture 473
In-Order and Out-of-Order Execution 479
8.1.1 Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) 482
Data Dependencies and Register Renaming 484
8.1.2 Superscalar Instruction Issue 486
Control Dependencies 488
Examples of Superscalar Processors 490
The Alpha 490
The Pentium 492
8.1.3 VLIW Processors 499
Interrupts and Superscalar Processing 502
8.2 Binary Translation 504
The IA-32 code 505
8.2.1 The Transmeta Crusoe 506
8.3 EPIC Architecture 510
8.3.1 Itanium Overview 512
IA64 Assembler Conventions 514
8.3.2 The Itanium Register Set 515
The Not a Thing Bit 517
Predicate and Branch Registers 517
Other Itanium Registers 518
8.3.3 IA64 Instruction Format 518
8.3.4 IA64 Instructions and Addressing Modes 519
Addressing Modes 523
8.3.5 Instructions, Bundles, and Breaks 524
IA64 Bundles, STOPs, and Assembly Language Notation 527
8.3.6 Itanium Organization 529
The McKinley—The Itanium 2 531
The Itanium 9300 Tukwila Processor 532
The Itanium Poulson Processor 532
Is the IA64 a VLIW Processor? 532
8.3.7 Predication 532
Compare Instructions in Detail 534
Preventing False Data Dependency in
Predicated Computing 537
Branch Syntax 538
8.3.8 Memory Access and Speculation 539
Control Speculation 540
The Advanced Load 541
8.3.9 The IA64 and Software Pipelining 543
Registers and Function Calls 548
Summary 549
Problems 549

Part IV The System

9 Cache Memory and Virtual Memory 554
Memory Hierarchy 554

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 Contents xiii

9.1 Introduction to Cache Memory 558

9.1.1 Structure of Cache Memory 560
Principle of Locality of Reference 560
9.2 Performance of Cache Memory 561
9.3 Cache Organization 565
9.3.1 Fully Associative Mapped Cache 566
Associative Memory 569
9.3.2 Direct-Mapped Cache 570
9.3.3 Set-Associative Cache 574
9.3.4 Pseudo-Associative, Victim,
Annex, and Trace Caches 579
9.4 Considerations in Cache Design 581
9.4.1 Physical versus Logical Cache 581
9.4.2 Cache Electronics 582
9.4.3 Cache Coherency 582
9.4.4 Line Size 583
9.4.5 Fetch Policy 585
9.4.6 Multi-Level Cache Memory 586
9.4.7 Instruction and Data Caches 587
9.4.8 Writing to Cache 589
9.5 Virtual Memory and Memory Management 592
9.5.1 Memory Management 592
9.5.2 Virtual Memory 595
Memory Management and Multitasking 595
Address Translation 596
Two-Level Tables 598
Summary 601
Problems 602

10 Main Memory 606

10.1 Introduction 606
10.1.1 Principles and Parameters of
Memory Systems 608
Random Access and Sequential
Access Memory 608
Volatile and Nonvolatile Memory 609
Read/Write and Read-Only Memory 609
Static and Dynamic Memory 609
Memory Parameters 610
10.1.2 Memory Hierarchy 611
10.2 Primary Memory 612
10.2.1 Static RAM 612
The Static RAM Memory System 615
The Write Cycle 617
Byte/Word Control 618
Address Decoding 620
10.2.2 Interleaved Memory 622
10.3 DRAM 623
10.3.1 DRAM Timing 627
Write-Cycle Timing 630

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xiv Contents

10.3.2 Developments in DRAM Technology 631

SDRAM 632
DDR DRAM 634
DDR2 and DDR3 DRAM 634
DDR4 636
10.4 The Read-Only Memory Family 637
10.4.1 The EPROM Family 638
The EEPROM 639
Flash Memory 639
Multi-Level Flash Technology 640
NAND and NOR Flash 641
Wear Leveling in Flash Memories 643
10.5 New and Emerging Nonvolatile Technologies 646
10.5.1 Ferroelectric Hysteresis 648
10.5.2 MRAM—Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory 651
10.5.3 Ovonic Memory 652
Summary 654
Problems 654

11 Secondary Storage 658

11.1 Magnetic Disk Drives 659
11.2 Magnetism and Data Storage 660
11.2.1 The Read/Write Head 662
The Recording Process 663
11.2.2 Limits to Magnetic Recording Density 664
11.2.3 Principles of Data Recording on Disk 666
Platter Technology 670
The GMR Head—A Giant Step in Read-Head Technology 671
Pixie Dust 672
The Optically Assisted Head 673
11.3 Data Organization on Disk 674
11.3.1 Tracks and Sectors 676
Formatting a Disk 678
Interleaving 679
11.3.2 Disk Parameters and Performance 679
Accessing Sectors 682
The Internal Disk Cache 684
Transfer Rate 684
11.3.3 SMART Technology 684
Effect of Temperature on Disk Reliability 686
11.4 Secure Memory and RAID Systems 688
RAID Level 1 689
RAID Level 2 and Level 3 690
RAID Level 4 and Level 5 691
Failure of RAID 5—An Example 692
RAID Level 6 692
11.5 Solid-State Disk Drives 693
Special Features of SSDs 695
11.6 Magnetic Tape 698

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 Contents xv

11.7 Optical Storage Technology 700

11.7.1 Digital Audio 701
11.7.2 Reading Data from a CD 702
Disk Speed 705
The Optical Read-Head 706
Focusing and Tracking 706
Buffer Underrun 707
11.7.3 Low-Level Data Encoding 708
11.7.4 Recordable Disks 711
Re-Writable CDs 711
Magneto-Optical Storage 713
11.7.5 The DVD 714
Recordable DVDs 715
11.7.6 Blu-ray 715
Summary 717
Problems 717

12 Input/Output 720
12.1 Fundamental Principles of I/O 721
Memory-Mapped Peripherals 723
12.1.1 Peripheral Register Addressing Mechanisms 725
12.1.2 Peripheral Access and Bus Width 727
Preserving Order in I/O Operations 729
Side Effects 730
12.2 Data Transfer 731
12.2.1 Open-Loop Data Transfers 731
12.2.2 Closed-Loop Data Transfers 732
12.2.3 Buffering Data 733
The FIFO 734
12.3 I/O Strategy 739
12.3.1 Programmed I/O 739
12.3.2 Interrupt-driven I/O 740
Interrupt Processing 741
Nonmaskable Interrupts 742
Prioritized Interrupts 742
Nested Interrupts 743
Vectored Interrupts 745
Interrupt Timing 746
12.3.3 Direct Memory Access 749
12.4 Performance of I/O Systems 751
12.5 The Bus 752
12.5.1 Bus Structures and Topologies 753
12.5.2 The Structure of a Bus 755
The Data Bus 756
Bus Speed 756
The Address Bus 759
The Control Bus 760
12.6 Arbitrating for the Bus 761
12.6.1 Localized Arbitration and the VMEbus 763
Releasing the Bus 766

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xvi Contents

The Arbitration Process 766

VMEbus Arbitration Algorithms 767
12.6.2 Distributed Arbitration 768
NuBus Arbitration 768
12.7 The PCI and PCIe Buses 772
12.7.1 The PCI Bus 772
Data Transactions on the PCI Bus 776
12.7.2 The PCI Express Bus 781
PCIe Data Link Layer 784
12.7.3 CardBus, the PC Card, and ExpressCard 785
CardBus Cards 787
ExpressCard Cards 788
12.8 The SCSI and SAS Interfaces 789
SCSI Signals 790
SCSI Bus Transactions 792
SCSI Messages and Commands 792
12.9 Serial Interface Buses 794
12.9.1 The Ethernet 795
12.9.2 FireWire 1394 Serial Bus 797
Serial Bus Addressing 800
The Physical Layer 800
Arbitration 803
Initialization 804
The Link Layer 804
12.9.3 USB 805
USB – The First Two Generations 805
Electrical Characteristics 806
Physical Layer Data Transmission 808
Logical Layer 809
USB 3.0 811
Summary 812
Problems 813

PART V Processor-Level Parallelism

13 Processor-Level Parallelism 820
Dimensions of Parallel Processing 822
A Brief History of Parallel Computing 823
13.1 Why Parallel Processing? 825
13.1.1 Power—The Final Frontier 826
13.2 Performance Revisited 829
Performance Measurement 831
13.3 Flynn’s Taxonomy and Multiprocessor Topologies 833
13.4 Multiprocessor Topologies 835
13.5 Memory in Multiprocessor Systems 842
13.5.1 NUMA Architectures 842
13.5.2 Cache Coherency in Multiprocessor Systems 843
The MESI Protocol 844
False Sharing 847

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 Contents xvii

13.6 Multithreading 847

13.7 Multi-core Processors 851
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Processors 852
13.7.1 Homogeneous Multiprocessors 852
Intel Nehalem Multi-Core Processor 854
AMD Multi-Core Processors 854
ARM Cortex A9 Multi Core 856
IBM Power7 857
The GPU 858
13.7.2 Heterogeneous Multiprocessors 861
The Cell Architecture 861
13.7.3 Networks on a Chip 862
13.8 Parallel Programming 865
13.8.1 Parallel Processing and Programming 867
OpenMP 868
13.8.2 Message Passing Interface 870
13.8.3 Partitioned Global Address Space 871
13.8.4 Synchronization 872
The Spinlock 873
Summary 874
Problems 874

Bibliography 876
Index 888

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 Preface

The twenty-first century is an age of scientific and technological wonders. Computers have
proved to be everything people expected—and more. Bioengineering has unraveled the mys-
teries of the cell and enabled scientists to synthesize drugs that were inconceivable a decade
ago. Nanotechnology provides a glimpse into a world where the computer revolution is com-
bined with engineering at the atomic level to create microscopic autonomous machines that
may, one day, be injected into the body to carry out internal repairs. Ubiquitous computing
has given us cell phones, MP3 players, and digital cameras that keep us in touch with each
other via the Internet. The computer is at the core of almost all modern technologies. This
book explains how the computer works.
The discipline called computing has been taught in universities since the 1950s. In
the beginning, computing was dominated by the large mainframe, and the subject con-
sisted of a study of computers themselves, the operating systems that controlled the com-
puters, languages and their compilers, databases, and business computing. Since then,
computing has expanded exponentially and now embraces so many different areas that
it’s impossible for any university to cover computing in a comprehensive fashion. We
have to concentrate on the essential elements of computing. At the heart of this disci-
pline lies the machine itself: the computer. Of course, computing as a theoretical concept
could exist quite happily without computers. Indeed, a considerable amount of work on
the theoretical foundations of computer science was carried out in the 1930s and 1940s
before the computer revolution took place. However, the way in which computing has
progressed over the last 40 years is intimately tied up with the rise of the microprocessor.
The Internet could not have taken off in the way it has if people didn’t have access to very
low-cost computers.
Since the computer itself has had such an effect on both the growth of computing and the
path computing has taken, it’s intuitively reasonable to expect that the computing curriculum
should include a course on how computers actually work. University-level Computer Science
and Computer Engineering CS programs invariably include a course on how computers work.
Indeed, professional and course accreditation bodies specify computer architecture as a core
requirement; for example, computer architecture is central to the joint IEEE Computer
Society and ACM Computing Curriculum.
Courses dealing with the embodiment or realization of the computer are known by a
variety of names. Some call them hardware courses, some call them computer architecture
courses, and some call them computer organization courses (with all manner of combinations
in between). Throughout this text, I will use the expression computer architecture to describe
the discipline that studies the way in which computers are designed and how they operate. I
will, of course, explain why this discipline has so many different names and point out that the
computer can be viewed in different ways.
Like all areas of computer science, the field of computer architecture is advancing rap-
idly as developments take place in instruction set design, instruction level parallelism, cache
memory technology, bus systems, speculative execution, multi-core computing, and so on.
We examine all these topics in this book.
Computer architecture underpins computer science; for example, computer performance
is of greater importance today than ever before, because even those who buy personal com-
puters have to understand systems architecture in order to make the best choice.
Although most students will never design a new computer, today’s students need a much
broader overview of the computer than their predecessors. Students no longer have to be
competent assembly language programmers, but they must understand how buses, interfaces,
cache memories, and instruction set architectures determine the performance of a computer
system.
xix
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx Preface

Moreover, students with an understanding of computer architecture are better equipped

to study other areas of computer science; for example, a knowledge of instruction set archi-
tectures gives students a valuable insight into the operation of compilers.
My motivation for writing this book springs from my experience in teaching an interme-
diate level course in computer architecture at the University of Teesside. I threw away the
conventional curriculum that I’d inherited and taught what could be best described as Great
Ideas in Computer Architecture. I used this course to teach topics that emphasized global con-
cepts in computer science that helped my students with both their operating systems and C
courses. This course was very successful, particularly in terms of student motivation.
Anyone writing a text on computer architecture must appreciate that this subject is taught
in three different departments: electrical engineering (EE), electrical and computer engineering
(ECE), and computer science (CS). These departments have their own cultures and each looks
at the computer from their own viewpoint. EE and ECE departments focus on electronics and
how the individual components of a computer operate. EE/ECE-oriented texts concentrate on
gates, interfaces, signals, and computer organization. Many students in CS departments don’t
have the requisite background in electronics, so they can’t follow texts that emphasize circuit
design. Instead, computer science departments place more stress on the relationship between
the low-level architecture of the processor and the higher-level abstractions in computer science.
Although it is near impossible to write a text optimized for use in both EE/ECE and CS
departments, Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations is an effective
compromise that provides sufficient detail at the logic and organizational levels for EE/ECE
departments without including the degree of detail that would alienate CS readers.
Undergraduate computer architecture is taught at three levels: introductory, intermedi-
ate, and advanced. Some schools teach all three levels, some compress this sequence into two
levels, and some provide only an introduction. This text is aimed at students taking first- and
second-level courses in computer architecture and at professional engineers who would like
an overview of current developments in microprocessor architecture. The only prerequisite is
that the reader should be aware of the basic principles of a high-level language such as C and
have a knowledge of basic algebra.
It is difficult to pitch a book at precisely the right level. Indeed, such an ideal level doesn’t
exist. Different students react in different ways to any specific text. If you make a book very
focused and follow a narrow curriculum, you appeal only to students on a tiny handful of
courses. Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations is well-suited to a
wide range of courses, because it covers the basics and some of the more advanced topics in
computer architecture.

Features of the Book

Why inflict yet another text on computer architecture on the world? Computer architecture is
a fascinating topic. It’s all about how you can take vast numbers of a single primitive element
such as a NAND gate and make a computer. It’s all about how common sense and technology
meet. For example, the cache memory that makes processors so fast is conceptually no more
complicated than the note on the back of an envelope. Equally, the way in which all proces-
sors operate uses a technique invented by Ford for car production: the pipeline or production
line. I have tried to make the subject interesting and have covered a greater range of topics
than absolutely necessary. For example, in this text we will look at memory devices that oper-
ate by moving an oxygen atom from one end of a crystal to the other.
The title of this text, Computer Organization and Architecture, emphasizes the struc-
ture of the complete computer system (CPU, memory, buses, and peripherals). The subtitle
Themes and Variations indicates that there is a theme (i.e., the computer system) and also
variations, for example, the different approaches to increasing the speed of a CPU or to orga-
nizing cache memory.
It is often easier to describe something in terms of what it isn’t rather than what it is.
This book is not concerned with the precise engineering details of microprocessor systems

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xxi

design, interfacing, and peripherals. It certainly isn’t an assembly language primer. The central
theme of this book is microcomputer architecture rather than microprocessor systems design.
Computer architecture can be defined, for our present purposes, as the view of a computer
seen by the machine language programmer. That is, a computer’s architecture takes no account
of its actual hardware or implementation and is concerned only with what it does. We will not
consider some of the hardware and interfacing aspects of microprocessors, except where they
impinge on its architecture (e.g., cache memory, memory management, and the bus).

The Target Architecture

Anyone writing an architecture text has to select a target architecture as a vehicle to teach
the fundamentals of machine design and assembly language programming. Professors regu-
larly debate with religious intensity the relative merits of illustrating a course with a real
commercial processor or with a hypothetical generic processor. The generic machine is easy
to understand and has a shallow learning curve. Students often find that absorbing the fine
details of a real processor is time consuming and unrewarding. On the other hand, practical
engineering is all about living with the limitations of the real world. Moreover, a real machine
teaches students about the design decisions that engineers have to make in order to create a
commercially viable product.
In the 1970s and 1980s DEC’s PDP-11 minicomputer was widely adopted as a teaching
vehicle. The PDP-11 gradually dropped out of the curriculum with the advent of 16-bit micro-
processors such as the Motorola 68K. From the academic’s point of view, the 68K (loosely
based on the earlier PDP-11) was a dream machine, because its architecture is relatively
regular and that made it easy for students to write programs in 68K assembly language. A
casual observer might have expected the ubiquitous Intel IA32 family, which is found in most
PCs, to have played a significant role in computer architecture education. After all, count-
less students get hands-on experience of Intel’s processors. The 80x86 family has never really
caught on in the academic world because its complex architecture grew in an ad-hoc fashion
as each new member of the family was released and this presents students with an excessive
burden. Some academics illustrate their course with a high-performance RISC processor,
such as MIPS, which is both powerful and easy to understand. Such high-end RISC proces-
sors are found in workstations but are relatively unknown to many students (professors have
observed that students often request PC-based technology due to their familiarity with the
PC). However, RISC processors are used in both high-performance computers and most cell
phones.
I have selected the ARM processor as a vehicle to introduce assembly language and
computer organization. It is a processor that is powerful, elegant, yet easy to learn. Moreover,
development tools for the ARM processor are widely available which means that students can
write programs in ARM assembly language and run them in the lab or at home on their PCs.
A strong contender for the role of target architecture in a modern text is Intel’s IA64
Itanium processor. This is a device of immense power and sophistication, yet its basic archi-
tecture is simpler than the 80x86 family. The rich and innovative features of the Itanium’s
architecture illustrate numerous concepts found in a computer architecture course–from
the data stack to speculative execution, and from pipelining to instruction level parallelism
(ILP). Consequently, I also introduce some features of this processor when we look at high-­
performance computing.
Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations isn’t a conventional
computer architecture text. I go beyond the conventional curriculum and cover material that
is interesting, important, and relevant. One of my principal objectives is to provide students
with an appropriate body of knowledge that they can absorb. All too often, students graduate
from university with embarrassingly large gaps in their knowledge. I know of no other text
that adopts my approach. For example, all computer architecture texts introduce floating-
point arithmetic, yet very few discuss the codes for data compression required to store large
volumes of textual and video information, and none describe the MP3 data compression
that’s at the heart of an entire industry. Similarly, computer architecture texts often lack

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii Preface

coverage of architectural features intended to support multimedia applications. Some of the

highlights of this text are described below.

History
Books on computer architecture usually have a section on the history of the computer. Such
history chapters are often inaccurate and have received criticism from experts in the field.
However, I feel that a history chapter is important, because a knowledge of computer history
helps students appreciate how and why developments took place. By knowing where comput-
ers came from, students are better able to understand how they are likely to develop in the
future. In this text, I provide a short overview of the history of computing and include further
historical background in the supplementary web-based material that accompanies this book.

OS Support
The operating system is intimately bound up with computer architecture. Computer
Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations covers topics in architecture of inter-
est to those who also study operating systems (e.g., memory management, context switching,
protection mechanisms).

Multimedia Support
The most important driving force behind modern computer architectures is the growth of
multimedia systems with their insatiable demand for high performance and high bandwidths.
This text demonstrates how modern architectures have been optimized for multimedia appli-
cations. We look at the effect of multimedia applications on both the architectures of comput-
ers and the design of buses and computer peripherals, such as hard disks for use in audiovisual
applications.

Input/Output Systems
Today’s computers are not only much faster than their predecessors, but they also provide
more sophisticated means of getting information into and out of the computer. I/O was of
relatively little importance when the typical computer was interfaced only to a keyboard,
modem, and printer. Computers are now routinely interfaced to peripherals, such as digital
video cameras that demand massive data transfer rates. We will look at some of the modern,
high-performance I/O systems, such as the USB and FireWire interfaces. We will also delve
more deeply into input/output-related topics such as handshaking and buffering.

Computer Memory Systems

Memory is the Cinderella of the computer world. Without high-density, high-performance
memory systems, neither low-cost desktop systems nor digital cameras with 32GB of storage
would be possible. I have divided memory systems into two chapters: the first dealing with
semiconductor memory and the second dealing with magnetic and optical memory. We will
also take a look at some of the interesting emerging memory technologies, such as Ovonic
memory and ferroelectric memory.

Approach
The books that I’ve most enjoyed are those where a little of the author’s personality and view
of the subject shines through. I hope that the same is true of this book. Computer architecture
isn’t something that can be expressed as a set of cold equations to be learned; it is a culture

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xxiii

that has developed over the years. At conferences, you will meet academics who passionately
argue the relative merits of this computer over that one. I would be a poor educator if I did
not at least hint to students that computer architecture can be as much fad as fact.
It’s also true that different authors emphasize different topics. For example, most authors
stress the design of the processor and have relatively little to say about memory, buses, and
peripherals–even though all of these elements are necessary to create a computer system.
Perhaps some feel that one aspect of a computer is more intrinsically interesting than others.
I provide more coverage of memory, buses, and interfaces than many texts, because I feel that
these topics are as important as the processor itself. Similarly, I’ve included details of memory
elements such as Ovonic devices, which store data by melting a bead of glass and then stor-
ing a 1 or 0 by selecting how fast it cools. This is such a remarkable example of engineering
ingenuity that I felt I had to include it. I’d like students to share the enthusiasm I have for
this subject.
I find that a significant shortcoming of many texts is the quality of diagrams and illustra-
tions. All too often a figure has far too little annotation, and its meaning is entirely lost. I
have drawn virtually all of the included diagrams myself, and I hope that they do a good job
in illustrating the meaning of the text.

Here’s an example of a diagram that illustrates the effect of a sequence of three instruc-
tions on a register. The purpose of the code is to take a byte from two registers and then
concatenate them in a third register. The use of color makes it easy to see how the data is
being processed.

ADD r2,r1,r2, LSL #16

ADD r2,r2,r0, LSL #8

MOV r2,r2, ROR #16

Contents Overview
I have divided the book into five parts.

Part I: An Introduction to Computer Architecture covers the enabling material that allows us
to discuss computer architecture. Chapter 1 takes an unusual approach to the introduction of
a computer. I begin by presenting a problem, solving it, and then inventing a system to imple-
ment the solution–the computer. My aim is to demonstrate that the computer closely models
the way in which we solve problems. Because so many topics in computer architecture are
interrelated, I provide a brief overview of the computer system to allow me to mention topics,
like cache memory, before I discuss them in detail.
We will look at the way in which information is encoded and represented in binary form;
for example, I introduce the computer arithmetic of both signed and unsigned integers, dem-
onstrate how floating-point numbers represent very large and very small quantities, and then

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
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Paris, London, New York and California now share in the ministering
care which she has provided.
 THE STORY OF THE RED CROSS
WAR’S AFTERMATH.

Improvised hospitals were organized in every straggling village, but

by far the largest number of wounded were brought to Castiglione.
There was an almost interminable procession of wagons, packed
with officers and soldiers—cavalrymen, infantry, artillery—all battered
and bleeding, covered with dirt and dust and blood, each jolt of the
carts adding to their suffering. Many died on the way, their bodies
being transferred from the wagons to the roadside, and left there for
others to bury. Such were reported as “missing.”
From Castiglione many of the wounded were sent on to hospitals
in other Lombard towns for regular treatment and necessary
amputations. As the means of transportation were very limited, long
delays were caused and the overcrowding baffles description. The
whole city became one vast improvised hospital. The convents, the
barracks, the churches and the private houses were filled with
wounded. Others were placed on straw in the open courts and parks,
with hastily constructed roofs of planks and cloth. The citizens of the
town were seen running from street to street, seeking doctors for
their suffering guests. Later others came and went with dejected air,
begging for assistance to remove the dead bodies, with which they
knew not what to do. All the physicians in the place were inadequate
and most of the military surgeons were forced to leave with their
armies.
By Saturday following the battle the wounded who had been
assembled in the city became so numerous that the attempt to cope
with the attention they required became impossible, and the most
terrible scenes followed. There was food and water, but the wounded
died from hunger and thirst, for there were not hands enough to
minister to their necessities. There was lint in abundance, but not
enough persons to apply it, nor to give it out. To make matters even
worse, a sudden panic
occurred. A detachment
of hussars escorting a
convoy of prisoners was
mistaken by some of
the peasants for
Austrians and the report
rapidly spread that the
Austrian Army was
returning. Houses were
barricaded, their
inhabitants hiding in
cellars and garrets, and
the French flags were
burned. Others fled to
the fields, and still
others hastily sought
Austrian wounded upon
whom to lavish care.
Down the streets and Napoleon III.
roads, blocked with
vehicles of all kinds
carrying wounded, raced frightened horses, amidst a din of curses
and cries of fear and pain. Indescribable confusion prevailed; the
wounded were thrown from the wagons and some were trampled
under foot. Many of those in the temporary hospitals rushed out into
the streets, only to be knocked down and crushed, or to fall
exhausted from their weakness and fright. What agonies, what
suffering, were undergone during those terrible days of June 25th,
26th and 27th! Wounds infected because of the heat, the dust and
lack of care became insufferable. Poisonous vapors filled the air.
Convoys of wounded still poured in. On the stone floors of the
churches men of different nationalities lay side by side; French,
Austrians, Slavs, Italians, Arabs, covered the pavement of the
chapels, their oaths, curses and groans echoing through the vaulted
roofs of the sanctuaries. The air was rent with cries of suffering
—“We are abandoned, we are left to die in misery, and yet we fought
so bravely.” In spite of the sleepless nights and the fatigue they had
endured, they found no rest. In their distress they cried in vain for
help. Some struggled in the convulsions of lockjaw. There lay one,
his face black with the flies which infested the air, turning his eyes to
all sides for help, but no one responded. There lay another, shirt,
flesh and blood forming a compact mass that could not be detached.
Here a soldier entirely disfigured, his tongue protruding from a
shattered jaw, attracted M. Dunant’s pitying attention, and taking a
sponge full of water he squeezed it into the formless cavity
representing the man’s mouth. There, a miserable victim, whose
nose, lips and chin had been taken off by a sabre cut, unable to
speak and half blind, made signs with his hands, and M. Dunant
brought him water and bathed his wounds gently. A third, with cloven
skull, expired in a pool of his own blood on the floor of the church, a
horrible spectacle, and those about him pushed aside his body with
their feet, as it obstructed the passage.
By Sunday morning, though every household had become a
hospital, M. Dunant succeeded in organizing a volunteer corps of
women to aid the hundreds of wounded in the churches and open
squares who were without assistance. Food and drink had to be
brought them, as they were literally dying of hunger and thirst; their
wounds had to be dressed; their poor bleeding bodies, covered with
dust and vermin, washed, and all this in a terrible heat, in a
nauseating atmosphere, and amidst the cries and lamentation of the
suffering. In the largest church of Castiglione were nearly five
hundred soldiers and a hundred more lay on the pavement in front of
the church. In the churches the Lombard women—young and old—
went from one to another, carrying water and giving courage to the
wounded. From the fountains the boys brought great jugs of water.
After the thirst of the suffering men had been assuaged, bouillon and
soup were provided. Before any lint had been obtained the men’s
underlinen had been torn into bandages to bind their wounds. M.
Dunant bought new linen and sent his carriage to Brescia for other
necessary supplies, for oranges, lemons and sugar, for refreshing
drinks. He secured some new recruits for his volunteer band of
mercy—an old naval officer, some English tourists, a Swiss
merchant and a Parisian journalist. Some of these soon found the
work more than they could endure and withdrew.
Pitiful are the stories M. Dunant tells of individual cases. Man after
man would cry out in despair, “Oh, do not let me die,” as they seized
the hands of their kind benefactor. “Oh, sir, please write to my father
to console my poor mother!” exclaimed a young corporal of only
twenty. M. Dunant took the address of his parents and in a few
minutes the poor boy was dead. He was an only son, and but for the
letter M. Dunant sent his parents they would never have learned his
fate. An old sergeant, decorated with many chevrons, repeated with
great sadness and with bitter conviction, “If I had only had care at
first I should have lived—and now I must die,” and death came to
him at nightfall. “I will not die! I will not die!” cried with almost fierce
energy a grenadier of the guards, who only three days before was
well and strong and who now, fatally wounded, struggled against this
certain fate. M. Dunant talked with him, and, listening, he became
calm and consoled, and finally resigned himself to death with the
simplicity of a child.
On the steps of an altar, which were covered with straw, lay an
African Chasseur, wounded in the thigh, leg and shoulder. For three
days he had had nothing to eat. He was covered with dried mud and
blood, his clothing was in rags. After M. Dunant had bathed his
wounds, given him some bouillon and placed a blanket over him the
poor fellow lifted his benefactor’s hands to his lips with an expression
of infinite gratitude. At the entrance of the church was a Hungarian
who kept crying aloud for a doctor. His back and shoulders,
lacerated by grape-shot, were one quivering mass of raw flesh. The
rest of his body was horribly swollen. He could not lie down nor rest.
Gangrene had set in and the end came soon. Not far from him lay a
dying zouave, crying bitterly. The fatigue, the lack of food and rest,
the horror of the suffering, the fear of dying without any care
developed among even the bravest soldiers a nervous condition that
reduced many to tears. Often when not overcome by pain the
dominant thought of the soldier was for his mother, and the fear of
what she would suffer when she learned of his death. Around the
neck of one of the dead men was found a locket containing the
portrait of an elderly woman, evidently his mother, which, with his left
hand, he had pressed to his heart.
On the pavement outside the church lay about one hundred
French soldiers. They were placed in two long rows between which
one could pass. Their wounds had been dressed and some soup
given to them. They were calm, following with their eyes M. Dunant
as he moved among them. Some said he was from Paris; others
from South France. One asked if he were not from Bordeaux. Each
wished to claim him for their own province or city. They called him
“The Gentleman in White” because of the white clothes he wore. The
resignation of these poor soldiers was pathetic; they suffered without
complaint and died humbly and quietly.
On the other side of the church were wounded Austrian prisoners,
fearing to receive the care they defied. Some tore away their
bandages, others remained silent, sad and apparently without
feeling, but most of them were thankful for any kindness received
and their faces expressed their gratitude. In a remote corner one
boy, not yet twenty, had received no food for two days. He had lost
an eye and was burning with fever. He had hardly strength enough to
speak or to drink a little soup. With good care he improved, and later,
when sent to Brescia, he was almost in despair at being parted from
the good women of Castiglione, whose hands he kissed while
begging them not to abandon him. Another prisoner, delirious with
fever, and also under twenty, lay with whitened hair from the horrors
of the battle and his sufferings.
The women of Castiglione, noticing that M. Dunant made no
distinction because of the nationality of the wounded, followed his
example, caring for all alike, repeating with compassion: “All are
brothers.”
All honor to these good women and young girls of Castiglione,
devoted as they were modest. They never considered fatigue, nor
disgust, nor sacrifice; nothing daunted nor discouraged them in their
work of mercy.
 RULES FOR THE PREVENTION OF
RAILROAD ACCIDENTS
(Upon the suggestion of a high official of one of the prominent
railroads of the country, a poster to be exhibited in railway passenger
stations has been prepared by the Red Cross. The poster is printed
in two colors (red and black) on white cardboard. A number of
railways, in response to a communication from the chairman of the
Central Committee, have asked for from 25 to 3,000 copies each.
Over 19,000 of these posters have already been asked for by
railroads).
The American Red Cross
William H. Taft
President
Robt. W. de Forest
Vice-President
Chairman of Central Committee
MAJ.-GEN. GEO. W. DAVIS
U. S. Army
 CHARLES L. MAGEE
Secretary

Rules for the Prevention of Railroad

Accidents
NEVER cross a railway at a grade crossing before making sure that
no trains are approaching.
NEVER jump on or off cars in motion.
NEVER stand on platforms of cars in motion.
NEVER put head or other part of person out of car window.
NEVER cross in front or rear of standing or moving train without first
making sure that there is no danger from some other train or
cause.
NEVER disobey the cautionary rules for safety posted at stations,
crossings, etc.
NEVER forget that carelessness on your part in regard to these
precautions not only endangers your life, but the happiness and
welfare of those most dear to you.
“Prevention of accidents and injuries by all legitimate means is a
personal duty which everyone owes not to himself alone, but also to
his family.”
ISSUED JANUARY 1, 1909, BY THE AMERICAN RED CROSS
 NOTES
CENTRAL COMMITTEE.
With the change in the administration there occurs a number of changes
in members of the Red Cross Central Committee who represent the
Governmental Departments. It is with the very greatest regret that the Red
Cross loses from that committee such men as James R. Garfield, of the
Department of the Interior, Robert Bacon, of the Department of State,
Beekman Winthrop, of the Treasury, Henry Hoyt, of the Department of
Justice, and Major-General O’Reilly, of the War Department. The service
that these members have given to the Red Cross cannot be too highly
appreciated. Besides the time and thought they have expended at
committee meetings, they have done much special work for the Society.
Mr. Bacon, at the time of the foreign relief rendered after many disasters in
other lands, Mr. Winthrop as National Treasurer, Mr. Hoyt as Counsellor
and General O’Reilly as Chairman of the War Relief Board, and to all of
these members of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross our
people owe a debt of gratitude for their unselfish assistance and deep
interest in our National Society.
The new members to be appointed by the President of the United States
we feel will soon take a like interest in this great international institution. A
sketch of the new members will be given in the July Bulletin.
The War Department has prepared the following form of certificate to be
issued by that Department to such members of the American Red Cross
as are accepted for the volunteer active personnel in time or war.

Field Service Form 58 R

Series ____
No. ____
____________ 19__
This Certificate is designed to identify
________________________ a member of ____________ branch
 of the American National Red Cross, who is attached to the
sanitary service of the Army of the United States and who does not
wear military uniform.
The bearer belongs to the personnel protected in virtue of
Articles 9, 10 and 11, International Red Cross Convention and has
fixed to the left arm a brassard with a red cross on a white ground,
delivered and stamped by competent military authority. The number
of said brassard is ____
__________________________
Medical Corps, U. S. Army.
Seal

The Central Committee has accepted as an affiliated body the New York
Red Cross Hospital, of which affiliation a report will be made in a later
Bulletin.
The Western Union and Postal Telegraph-Cable Companies granted the
Red Cross the free use of their wires and cables for all messages
pertaining to the Italian earthquake relief, and the Central Committee
hereby extends its thanks to these companies for this generous act, which
has saved to the relief fund a considerable amount of money.
The action of the South Carolina and Georgia Branches in returning
unexpended balances of their relief funds is most heartily to be
commended. Nothing will do more for our American Red Cross than such
illustrations of careful administration of the funds entrusted to it, and the
desire of the State Branches to turn back into the General Emergency
Fund of the National Red Cross all balances given for Emergency Relief
that such balances may be immediately available for future disasters. The
Central Committee desires to express its appreciation of this act and the
good work done by the South Carolina and Georgia Red Cross Branches.

CALIFORNIA.
Los Angeles organized a division of the State Branch on February 18,
1909. The following officers were elected: Dr. Rose Burcham, Chairman;
Rev. Robert J. Burdette, First Vice-Chairman; Joseph Scott, Second Vice-
Chairman; Mrs. Berthold Baruch, Third Vice-Chairman; Mrs. George H.
Kress, Secretary; Perry W. Weidner, Treasurer. Committee members will
be named by Dr. Burcham next week, when an earnest campaign to make
the organization a substantial one will be commenced.
Bishop Thomas J. Conaty and Rabbi S. Hecht were the leading
speakers at the organization meeting. In addition to the committees for
routine work several of special importance will be appointed by Dr.
Burcham on the enrollment of physicians, nurses and a first aid legion.

CANAL ZONE BRANCH.

On representation of Major Carroll A. Devol, Quartermaster’s
Department, now on duty at the Canal Zone, that in view of the bright
prospects of organizing a Red Cross branch on the isthmus, it would be
desirable to have Major Charles Lynch, Medical Corps, U. S. Army, sent
there to start the work, the latter officer was detailed for this duty by the
War Department on the request of the Central Committee of the Red
Cross. He sailed from New York on December 26, 1908, reaching Colon
on January 2, 1909. Major Devol and Mr. A. B. Minear, General Secretary
Young Men’s Christian Association, Canal Zone, had already made
arrangements for lectures by Major Lynch. These were fixed as follows:

Monday, January 4th, Tivol Hotel, Ancon.

Tuesday, January 5th, Club House, Gorgona.
Wednesday, January 6th, Club House, Culebra.
Thursday, January 7th, Colon.

Major Devol and Major Lynch appeared at all these meetings, the former
explaining the special features of the Red Cross work on the Canal Zone,
and the latter discussing the achievements of the Red Cross generally,
with some special reference to first aid instruction. The various lectures
were well attended and a considerable amount of interest was elicited in
the Red Cross.
The Canal Zone Branch was organized on February 28th and on March
2d the President, Major C. A. Devol, reported a membership of 1,020.

IOWA.
 The Iowa branch of the American Red Cross has been organized in Des
Moines. J. B. Weaver, Jr., was elected President; W. W. Morrow, State
Treasurer, was named Treasurer, and Charles Hutchinson was chosen for
Secretary. An advisory board of seven influential men is made up as
follows: Harvey Ingham, D. S. Chamberlain, W. O. Finkbine, Gov. Warren
Garst, Lafayette Young, S. H. M. Byers and George F. Henry. All of these,
and others, became members of the Society by paying the membership
fee of $1.

MASSACHUSETTS BRANCH.
As a means of raising funds for the Italian
earthquake relief the Massachusetts
Branch, by authority of the Central
Committee, issued a special stamp, a cut of
which is shown here. The report of Mr.
Walter E. Kruesi, the Stamp Secretary of the
Branch, contains the following:
“I hope the Central Committee will make a
note (in the Bulletin) of the ‘Italian Red
Cross stamps’ of Massachusetts, issued with the authority of the National
Office. I think this is due to the members of the Red Cross as an
explanation of the authority for the issue of these stamps. Between $1,100
and $1,200 worth of these stamps have been sold to date (March 15th)
and the funds are still being received. The expenses, as I have stated
before, were relatively heavy because we expected a much larger sale and
feel that we would have had it if other State Officers had been urged in any
measure to assist in the campaign. The receipts have been very largely
from people who said that they had been given no other opportunity to
subscribe.
“The Massachusetts funds were materially stimulated by the use of
stamps and by the advertisement the stamps gave to the general
Massachusetts relief fund. I send a cut of the stamp under separate cover,
and think many of your members would be glad to have a few as a
souvenir. They can also get the posters from us as souvenirs. These are
very handsomely executed and have been widely commented on because
of their artistic merit. The poster was painted by E. W. Kingsbury. We sell
them at ten cents each.”
 SOUTH CAROLINA.
Mr. A. C. Kaufman, President of the South Carolina Branch, on January
18th wrote the National Secretary as follows:
“Treasurer Reeves will forward today a check for $333.21, balance from
the Southern Flood Sufferers’ Fund. This fund has been splendidly handled
by the Columbia and Marion Committees. The destitute have been largely
relieved by obtaining employment for the men, which did not seem
possible a month ago.”

BELGIUM.

Letter to President Taft.

Brussels, January 20, 1909.
Mr. President—The Executive Committee of the Belgian Red
Cross, at its meeting held on the 15th of December, 1908, decided
by unanimous vote to send a congratulatory address to Mr. W. H.
Taft, President of the American Red Cross, on the occasion of his
election to the Presidency of the United States.
The Belgians rejoice to see therein the sanction, by the vote of
millions of citizens, of their universally prevalent desire to have
peace insured. The international work of Geneva is a symbol of the
union of nations, and constitutes a most reliable guarantee of the
maintenance of humane principles throughout the world.
The choice of your high personality, whose generous sentiments
are well known, is for all a happy token of the great role which your
country will take in future in the domain of charity.
Again have the American people given to the world a beautiful
example of humane solidarity in preceding other nations in showing
their generosity to the populations afflicted by the Calabrian
cataclysm.
Be pleased to accept, Mr. President, the expressions of our
highest consideration.
The President,
PRINCE DE LIGNE.
 HON. WILLIAM H. TAFT.
President of the American National Red Cross.

FRANCE.
As soon as the reports came of the disaster in Italy a meeting was held
of the Central Committee of the French Red Cross for the purpose of
considering what assistance it could render. Ninety Red Cross nurses were
promptly sent to the scene of the calamity.
Reports of what other Red Cross Societies have done for Italy will be
given after their bulletins and other publications have been received.

GERMAN RED CROSS.

On January 6th the German Red Cross dispatched for Southern Italy a
number of physicians, trained nurses and relief corps men with the
equipment of a field hospital. The party proceeded from Naples first to
Catania, where the Austrians were rendering efficient assistance and
where a number of Greek ships, flying the Red Cross flag, were acting as
hospital ships, so it continued directly on to Syracuse, and was there put in
charge of a hospital established in a large barracks. In the same barracks
the Red Cross of Brescia was in charge of a hospital and another was
under a Florentine personnel. By evening the many patients had been
moved from the military cots to the comfortable Red Cross beds. An
operation room was put in order and promptly utilized, for it had not been
possible for the physicians of this small town to care for the hundreds of
wounded who poured in upon them.

THE CONGO.
The Congoese African Red Cross, after twenty years of existence as a
separate society with headquarters in Brussels, has, upon the annexation
of the Congo by Belgium, given up its existence. Its hospitals at Banana
and Leopoldville and its sanitarium at Banana, with its remaining funds,
amounting to some seventeen thousand dollars, have been accepted by
the Belgian Government, which, in its turn, has agreed to maintain these
institutions with their personnel.
 The Red Cross Needs Members
Will You Not Be One?

Annual Membership, $1.00

Life Membership, $25.00

For Address of Your State Branch,

See 3rd Page of Cover
If There is No Branch in Your State, Send Your
Application to the National Secretary,
Room 341, State, War and Navy Building,
Washington, D. C.
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A HEALTH RESORT
 WASHINGTON SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST SANITARIUM. TAKOMA
PARK, D. C.

The first Sanitarium established by Seventh-Day Adventists was at

Battle Creek, in 1866. Since then institutions have been started in
many places. At present nearly sixty exist in various parts of the
world.

Washington is known as “The City Beautiful.” Much has been written of the
many beautiful and historic spots around Washington, but one which is a
revelation to all who visit it, is the new Washington Sanitarium, located at
Takoma Park, on an elevation of 300 feet. The Washington Sanitarium has
only been in operation a little over a year. It already has a splendid
patronage; it is undoubtedly destined to become well known not only for its
beauty and delightful surroundings, but as a health resort. During the fall
and winter the climate is almost ideal; the summer climate is good—no
mosquitoes or other pests are to be found.
A Branch Sanitarium is conducted at Nos. 1 and 2 Iowa Circle. The
Branch Sanitarium has recently been overhauled, and extensive
alterations have been made. The surroundings of this health-home are
also attractive and restful. Both institutions are thoroughly scientific, and
employ the most modern methods in the treatment of patients.
Massage, electricity in its various forms, baths of all descriptions, and
special dieting are the agencies chiefly depended upon.
For further information, address

The Washington Sanitarium

TAKOMA PARK, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Phone, Takoma 127 and 128 Branch Sanitarium Phone, North 1325