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vi Contents

2.2 Numbers 55
2.2.1 Positional Notation 56
2.3 Binary Arithmetic 57
2.4 Signed Integers 59
2.4.1 Sign and Magnitude Representation 60
2.4.2 Two’s Complement Arithmetic 60
Calculating Two’s Complement Values 61
Properties of Two’s Complement Numbers 62
Arithmetic Overflow 62
2.5 Introduction to Multiplication and Division 63
2.5.1 Shifting Operations 63
2.5.2 Unsigned Binary Multiplication 64
2.5.3 High-speed Multiplication 64
Booth’s Algorithm 66
2.5.4 Division 67
Restoring Division 68
Non-Restoring Division 70
2.6 Floating-Point Numbers 71
Normalization of Floating-Point Numbers 72
Biased Exponents 72
2.6.1 IEEE Floating-Point Numbers 72
IEEE Floating-Point Format 73
Characteristics of IEEE Floating-Point Numbers 75
2.7 Floating-Point Arithmetic 77
Rounding and Truncation Errors 78
2.8 Floating-Point Arithmetic and the Programmer 79
2.8.1 Error Propagation in Floating-Point Arithmetic 81
2.8.2 Generating Mathematical Functions 81
Using Functions to Generate New Functions 83
2.9 Computer Logic 84
2.9.1 Digital Systems and Gates 86
2.9.2 Gates 86
Fundamental Gates 87
The AND Gate 87
The OR Gate 87
The Inverter 88
Derived Gates—the NOR (Not OR), NAND
(Not AND), and Exclusive OR 89
2.9.3 Basic Circuits 91
The Half Adder and Full Adder 93
The Decoder 97
The Multiplexer 97
The Voting Circuit 98
The Prioritizer 100
2.10 Sequential Circuits 101
2.10.1 Latches 102
Clocked RS Flip-flops 104
D Flip-flop 105
The JK Flip-Flop 108
2.10.2 Registers 109
Shift Register 110
Left-Shift Register 111
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 Contents vii

2.10.3 Asynchronous Counters 113

Using a Counter to Create a Sequencer 114
2.10.4 Sequential Circuits 115
2.11 Buses and Tristate Gates 118
Registers, Buses, and Functional Units 120
Summary 122
Problems 123

Part II Instruction Set Architectures

3 Architecture and Organization 130
3.1 Introduction to the Stored Program Machine 130
3.1.1 Extending the Processor: Dealing with Constants 136
3.1.2 Extending the Processor: Flow Control 139
Status Information 141
Example of a Branch Instruction 142
3.2 The Components of an ISA 146
3.2.1 Registers 146
General-Purpose Versus Special-Purpose Registers 147
3.2.2 Addressing Modes—an Overview 149
Memory and Register Addressing 151
3.2.3 Instruction Formats 151
3.2.4 Op-codes and Instructions 152
Two Address Machines 153
One Address Machines 153
Zero Address Machines 153
One-and-a-Half Address Machines 154
3.3 ARM Instruction Set Architecture 155
3.3.1 ARM’s Register Set 156
3.3.2 ARM’s Instruction Set 156
3.4 ARM Assembly Language 157
3.4.1 Structure of an ARM Program 158
3.4.2 The Assembler – Practical Considerations 161
3.4.3 Pseudoinstructions 164
3.5 ARM Data-processing Instructions 167
3.5.1 Arithmetic Instructions 167
Addition and Subtraction 167
Negation 168
Comparison 168
Multiplication 169
Division 170
3.5.2 Bitwise Logical Operations 170
3.5.3 Shift Operations 171
Arithmetic Shift 173
Rotate 173
Implementing a Shift Operation on the ARM 173
3.5.4 Instruction Encoding—An Insight Into
the ARM’s Architecture 175
3.6 ARM’s Flow Control Instructions 176
3.6.1 Unconditional Branch 176
3.6.2 Conditional Branch 177
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viii Contents

3.6.3 Compare and Test Instructions 178

3.6.4 Branching and Loop Constructs 178
The FOR Loop 178
The WHILE Loop 178
The UNTIL loop 179
Combination Loop 179
3.6.5 Conditional Execution 179
3.7 ARM Addressing Modes 181
3.7.1 Literal Addressing 182
ARM’s Way 183
3.7.2
Register Indirect Addressing 184
3.7.3
Register Indirect Addressing with an Offset 187
3.7.4
ARM’s Autoindexing Pre-indexed
Addressing Mode 190
3.7.5 ARM’s Autoindexing Post-Indexing Mode 191
3.7.6 Program Counter Relative (PC-Relative)
Addressing 192
3.7.7 ARM’s Load and Store Encoding 193
3.8 Subroutine Call and Return 194
3.8.1 ARM Support for Subroutines 196
3.8.2 Conditional Subroutine Calls 197
3.9 Intermission: Examples of ARM Code 198
3.9.1 Extracting the Absolute Value 198
3.9.2 Byte Manipulation and Concatenation 198
3.9.3 Byte Reversal 199
3.9.4 Multiplication by 2n 2 1 or 2n 1 1 200
3.9.5 The Use of Multiple Conditions 200
3.9.6 With Just One Instruction… 200
3.9.7 Implementing Multiple Selection 201
3.9.8 Simple Bit-Level Logical Operations 201
3.9.9 Hexadecimal Character Conversion 201
3.9.10 Character Output in Hexadecimal 202
3.9.11 To Print a Banner 202
3.10 Subroutines and the Stack 203
3.10.1 Subroutine Call and Return 205
3.10.2 Nested Subroutines 206
3.10.3 Leaf Routines 207
3.11 Data Size and Arrangement 209
3.11.1 Data Organization and Endianism 209
3.11.2 Data Organization and the ARM 211
3.11.3 Block Move Instructions 216
Block Moves and Stack Operations 217
Applications of Block Move Instructions 219
3.12 Consolidation—Putting Things Together 220
Four-Function Calculator Program 220
Summary 223
Problems 224

4 Instruction Set Architectures—Breadth and Depth 228

Historical Background 230

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 Contents ix

4.1 The Stack and Data Storage 231

4.1.1 Storage and the Stack 232
The Stack Frame and Local Variables 234
Example of an ARM Processor Stack Frame 237
4.1.2 Passing Parameters via the Stack 239
Pointers and C 242
Functions and Parameters 243
Pass-by-Reference 246
Using Recursion 248
4.2 Privileged Modes and Exceptions 251
4.3 MIPS: Another RISC 254
MIPS Instruction Format 255
Conditional Branches 256
4.3.1 MIPS Data Processing Instructions 257
Flow Control 258
MIPS Example 259
Other Loads and Stores 259
MIPS and the ARM Processor 259
4.4 Data Processing and Data Movement 260
4.4.1 Indivisible Exchange Instructions 263
4.4.2 Double-Precision Shifting 264
4.4.3 Pack and Unpack Instructions 265
4.4.4 Bounds Testing 266
4.4.5 Bit Field Data 268
4.4.6 Mechanizing the Loop 272
4.5 Memory Indirect Addressing 273
Using Memory Indirect Addressing to
Implement a switch Construct 277
Using Memory Indirect Addressing to
Access Records 280
4.6 Compressed Code, RISC, Thumb, and MIPS16 282
4.6.1 Thumb ISA 282
Design Decisions 283
4.6.2 MIPS16 287
4.7 Variable-Length Instructions 288
Decoding Variable-Length Instructions 292
Summary 294
Problems 294

5 Computer Architecture and Multimedia 298

5.1 Applications of High-Performance Computing 299
Computer Graphics 301
5.1.1 Operations On Images 303
Noise Filtering 303
Contrast Enhancement 303
Edge Enhancement 304
Lossy Compression 305
JPEG 305
MPEG 308
MP3 308

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x Contents

Digital Signal Processing 309

DSP Architectures 312
The SHARC Family of Digital Signal Processors 312
5.2 Multimedia Influences—Reinventing the CISC 314
Architectural Progress 315
5.3 Introduction to SIMD Processing 318
Packed Operations 319
Saturating Arithmetic 321
Packed Shifting 323
Packed Multiplication 323
Parallel Comparison 324
Packing and Unpacking 325
Coexisting with Floating-Point 326
5.3.1 Applications of SIMD Technology 328
Chroma Keying 328
Fade In and Out 330
Clipping 332
5.4 Streaming Extensions and the
Development of SIMD Technology 333
5.4.1 Floating-point Software Extensions 336
5.4.2 Intel’s Third Layer of Multimedia Extensions 338
5.4.3 Intel’s SSE3 and SSE4 Instructions 338
5.4.4 ARM Family Multimedia Instructions 340
Summary 342
Problems 343

PART III Organization and Efficiency

6 Performance—Meaning and Metrics 348
6.1 Progress and Computer Technology 351
Moore’s Law 351
Semiconductor Progress 352
Memory Progress 354
6.2 The Performance of a Computer 356
6.3 Computer Metrics 358
6.3.1 Terminology 359
Efficiency 359
Throughput 360
Latency 360
Relative Performance 360
Time and Rate 361
6.3.2 Clock Rate 361
The Clock and the Consumer 365
6.3.3 MIPS 365
Instruction Cycles and MIPS 367
6.3.4 MFLOPS 369
6.4 Amdahl’s Law 371
Examples of the Use of Amdahl’s Law 372
6.5 Benchmarks 374
LINPACK and LAPACK 374

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 Contents xi

Oracle Applications Standard Benchmark 375

PC Benchmarks 376
Comparison of High-Performance Processors 376
PCMARK7 A Commercial Benchmark for PCs 378
6.6 SPEC 382
SPEC Methodology 384
The SPEC CPU2006 Benchmarks 386
SPEC and Power 389
6.7 Averaging Metrics 391
Geometric Mean 392
Harmonic Mean 393
Weighted Means 394
Summary 394
Problems 395

7 Processor Control 398

7.1 The Generic Digital Processor 401
7.1.1 The Microprogram 404
Modifying the Processor Organization 406
7.1.2 Generating the Microoperations 410
7.2 RISC Organization 414
7.2.1 The Register-to-register Data Path 416
Load and Store operations 417
Jump and Branch Operations 418
7.2.2 Controlling the Single-cycle
Flow-through Computer 419
Execution Time 422
7.3 Introduction to Pipelining 423
7.3.1 Speedup Ratio 427
7.3.2 Implementing Pipelining 427
From PC to Operands 429
Implementing Branch and Literal Operations 430
7.3.3 Hazards 434
Delayed Branch 436
Data Hazards 437
7.4 Branches and the Branch Penalty 442
7.4.1 Branch Direction 443
7.4.2 The Effect of a Branch on
the Pipeline 444
7.4.3 The Cost of Branches 445
7.4.4 The Delayed Branch 448
7.5 Branch Prediction 451
Static and Dynamic Branch Prediction 453
7.6 Dynamic Branch Prediction 454
7.6.1 Branch Target Buffer 456
7.6.2 Two-Level Branch Prediction 459
Combining Instruction Addresses
and Branch History 463
Summary 464
Problems 465

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xii Contents

8 Beyond RISC: Superscalar, VLIW, and Itanium 472

Overview of Chapter 8 473
8.1 Superscalar Architecture 473
In-Order and Out-of-Order Execution 479
8.1.1 Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) 482
Data Dependencies and Register Renaming 484
8.1.2 Superscalar Instruction Issue 486
Control Dependencies 488
Examples of Superscalar Processors 490
The Alpha 490
The Pentium 492
8.1.3 VLIW Processors 499
Interrupts and Superscalar Processing 502
8.2 Binary Translation 504
The IA-32 code 505
8.2.1 The Transmeta Crusoe 506
8.3 EPIC Architecture 510
8.3.1 Itanium Overview 512
IA64 Assembler Conventions 514
8.3.2 The Itanium Register Set 515
The Not a Thing Bit 517
Predicate and Branch Registers 517
Other Itanium Registers 518
8.3.3 IA64 Instruction Format 518
8.3.4 IA64 Instructions and Addressing Modes 519
Addressing Modes 523
8.3.5 Instructions, Bundles, and Breaks 524
IA64 Bundles, STOPs, and Assembly Language Notation 527
8.3.6 Itanium Organization 529
The McKinley—The Itanium 2 531
The Itanium 9300 Tukwila Processor 532
The Itanium Poulson Processor 532
Is the IA64 a VLIW Processor? 532
8.3.7 Predication 532
Compare Instructions in Detail 534
Preventing False Data Dependency in
Predicated Computing 537
Branch Syntax 538
8.3.8 Memory Access and Speculation 539
Control Speculation 540
The Advanced Load 541
8.3.9 The IA64 and Software Pipelining 543
Registers and Function Calls 548
Summary 549
Problems 549

Part IV The System

9 Cache Memory and Virtual Memory 554
Memory Hierarchy 554

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 Contents xiii

9.1 Introduction to Cache Memory 558

9.1.1 Structure of Cache Memory 560
Principle of Locality of Reference 560
9.2 Performance of Cache Memory 561
9.3 Cache Organization 565
9.3.1 Fully Associative Mapped Cache 566
Associative Memory 569
9.3.2 Direct-Mapped Cache 570
9.3.3 Set-Associative Cache 574
9.3.4 Pseudo-Associative, Victim,
Annex, and Trace Caches 579
9.4 Considerations in Cache Design 581
9.4.1 Physical versus Logical Cache 581
9.4.2 Cache Electronics 582
9.4.3 Cache Coherency 582
9.4.4 Line Size 583
9.4.5 Fetch Policy 585
9.4.6 Multi-Level Cache Memory 586
9.4.7 Instruction and Data Caches 587
9.4.8 Writing to Cache 589
9.5 Virtual Memory and Memory Management 592
9.5.1 Memory Management 592
9.5.2 Virtual Memory 595
Memory Management and Multitasking 595
Address Translation 596
Two-Level Tables 598
Summary 601
Problems 602

10 Main Memory 606

10.1 Introduction 606
10.1.1 Principles and Parameters of
Memory Systems 608
Random Access and Sequential
Access Memory 608
Volatile and Nonvolatile Memory 609
Read/Write and Read-Only Memory 609
Static and Dynamic Memory 609
Memory Parameters 610
10.1.2 Memory Hierarchy 611
10.2 Primary Memory 612
10.2.1 Static RAM 612
The Static RAM Memory System 615
The Write Cycle 617
Byte/Word Control 618
Address Decoding 620
10.2.2 Interleaved Memory 622
10.3 DRAM 623
10.3.1 DRAM Timing 627
Write-Cycle Timing 630

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xiv Contents

10.3.2 Developments in DRAM Technology 631

SDRAM 632
DDR DRAM 634
DDR2 and DDR3 DRAM 634
DDR4 636
10.4 The Read-Only Memory Family 637
10.4.1 The EPROM Family 638
The EEPROM 639
Flash Memory 639
Multi-Level Flash Technology 640
NAND and NOR Flash 641
Wear Leveling in Flash Memories 643
10.5 New and Emerging Nonvolatile Technologies 646
10.5.1 Ferroelectric Hysteresis 648
10.5.2 MRAM—Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory 651
10.5.3 Ovonic Memory 652
Summary 654
Problems 654

11 Secondary Storage 658

11.1 Magnetic Disk Drives 659
11.2 Magnetism and Data Storage 660
11.2.1 The Read/Write Head 662
The Recording Process 663
11.2.2 Limits to Magnetic Recording Density 664
11.2.3 Principles of Data Recording on Disk 666
Platter Technology 670
The GMR Head—A Giant Step in Read-Head Technology 671
Pixie Dust 672
The Optically Assisted Head 673
11.3 Data Organization on Disk 674
11.3.1 Tracks and Sectors 676
Formatting a Disk 678
Interleaving 679
11.3.2 Disk Parameters and Performance 679
Accessing Sectors 682
The Internal Disk Cache 684
Transfer Rate 684
11.3.3 SMART Technology 684
Effect of Temperature on Disk Reliability 686
11.4 Secure Memory and RAID Systems 688
RAID Level 1 689
RAID Level 2 and Level 3 690
RAID Level 4 and Level 5 691
Failure of RAID 5—An Example 692
RAID Level 6 692
11.5 Solid-State Disk Drives 693
Special Features of SSDs 695
11.6 Magnetic Tape 698

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 Contents xv

11.7 Optical Storage Technology 700

11.7.1 Digital Audio 701
11.7.2 Reading Data from a CD 702
Disk Speed 705
The Optical Read-Head 706
Focusing and Tracking 706
Buffer Underrun 707
11.7.3 Low-Level Data Encoding 708
11.7.4 Recordable Disks 711
Re-Writable CDs 711
Magneto-Optical Storage 713
11.7.5 The DVD 714
Recordable DVDs 715
11.7.6 Blu-ray 715
Summary 717
Problems 717

12 Input/Output 720
12.1 Fundamental Principles of I/O 721
Memory-Mapped Peripherals 723
12.1.1 Peripheral Register Addressing Mechanisms 725
12.1.2 Peripheral Access and Bus Width 727
Preserving Order in I/O Operations 729
Side Effects 730
12.2 Data Transfer 731
12.2.1 Open-Loop Data Transfers 731
12.2.2 Closed-Loop Data Transfers 732
12.2.3 Buffering Data 733
The FIFO 734
12.3 I/O Strategy 739
12.3.1 Programmed I/O 739
12.3.2 Interrupt-driven I/O 740
Interrupt Processing 741
Nonmaskable Interrupts 742
Prioritized Interrupts 742
Nested Interrupts 743
Vectored Interrupts 745
Interrupt Timing 746
12.3.3 Direct Memory Access 749
12.4 Performance of I/O Systems 751
12.5 The Bus 752
12.5.1 Bus Structures and Topologies 753
12.5.2 The Structure of a Bus 755
The Data Bus 756
Bus Speed 756
The Address Bus 759
The Control Bus 760
12.6 Arbitrating for the Bus 761
12.6.1 Localized Arbitration and the VMEbus 763
Releasing the Bus 766

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xvi Contents

The Arbitration Process 766

VMEbus Arbitration Algorithms 767
12.6.2 Distributed Arbitration 768
NuBus Arbitration 768
12.7 The PCI and PCIe Buses 772
12.7.1 The PCI Bus 772
Data Transactions on the PCI Bus 776
12.7.2 The PCI Express Bus 781
PCIe Data Link Layer 784
12.7.3 CardBus, the PC Card, and ExpressCard 785
CardBus Cards 787
ExpressCard Cards 788
12.8 The SCSI and SAS Interfaces 789
SCSI Signals 790
SCSI Bus Transactions 792
SCSI Messages and Commands 792
12.9 Serial Interface Buses 794
12.9.1 The Ethernet 795
12.9.2 FireWire 1394 Serial Bus 797
Serial Bus Addressing 800
The Physical Layer 800
Arbitration 803
Initialization 804
The Link Layer 804
12.9.3 USB 805
USB – The First Two Generations 805
Electrical Characteristics 806
Physical Layer Data Transmission 808
Logical Layer 809
USB 3.0 811
Summary 812
Problems 813

PART V Processor-Level Parallelism

13 Processor-Level Parallelism 820
Dimensions of Parallel Processing 822
A Brief History of Parallel Computing 823
13.1 Why Parallel Processing? 825
13.1.1 Power—The Final Frontier 826
13.2 Performance Revisited 829
Performance Measurement 831
13.3 Flynn’s Taxonomy and Multiprocessor Topologies 833
13.4 Multiprocessor Topologies 835
13.5 Memory in Multiprocessor Systems 842
13.5.1 NUMA Architectures 842
13.5.2 Cache Coherency in Multiprocessor Systems 843
The MESI Protocol 844
False Sharing 847

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 Contents xvii

13.6 Multithreading 847

13.7 Multi-core Processors 851
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Processors 852
13.7.1 Homogeneous Multiprocessors 852
Intel Nehalem Multi-Core Processor 854
AMD Multi-Core Processors 854
ARM Cortex A9 Multi Core 856
IBM Power7 857
The GPU 858
13.7.2 Heterogeneous Multiprocessors 861
The Cell Architecture 861
13.7.3 Networks on a Chip 862
13.8 Parallel Programming 865
13.8.1 Parallel Processing and Programming 867
OpenMP 868
13.8.2 Message Passing Interface 870
13.8.3 Partitioned Global Address Space 871
13.8.4 Synchronization 872
The Spinlock 873
Summary 874
Problems 874

Bibliography 876
Index 888

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 Preface

The twenty-first century is an age of scientific and technological wonders. Computers have
proved to be everything people expected—and more. Bioengineering has unraveled the mys-
teries of the cell and enabled scientists to synthesize drugs that were inconceivable a decade
ago. Nanotechnology provides a glimpse into a world where the computer revolution is com-
bined with engineering at the atomic level to create microscopic autonomous machines that
may, one day, be injected into the body to carry out internal repairs. Ubiquitous computing
has given us cell phones, MP3 players, and digital cameras that keep us in touch with each
other via the Internet. The computer is at the core of almost all modern technologies. This
book explains how the computer works.
The discipline called computing has been taught in universities since the 1950s. In
the beginning, computing was dominated by the large mainframe, and the subject con-
sisted of a study of computers themselves, the operating systems that controlled the com-
puters, languages and their compilers, databases, and business computing. Since then,
computing has expanded exponentially and now embraces so many different areas that
it’s impossible for any university to cover computing in a comprehensive fashion. We
have to concentrate on the essential elements of computing. At the heart of this disci-
pline lies the machine itself: the computer. Of course, computing as a theoretical concept
could exist quite happily without computers. Indeed, a considerable amount of work on
the theoretical foundations of computer science was carried out in the 1930s and 1940s
before the computer revolution took place. However, the way in which computing has
progressed over the last 40 years is intimately tied up with the rise of the microprocessor.
The Internet could not have taken off in the way it has if people didn’t have access to very
low-cost computers.
Since the computer itself has had such an effect on both the growth of computing and the
path computing has taken, it’s intuitively reasonable to expect that the computing curriculum
should include a course on how computers actually work. University-level Computer Science
and Computer Engineering CS programs invariably include a course on how computers work.
Indeed, professional and course accreditation bodies specify computer architecture as a core
requirement; for example, computer architecture is central to the joint IEEE Computer
Society and ACM Computing Curriculum.
Courses dealing with the embodiment or realization of the computer are known by a
variety of names. Some call them hardware courses, some call them computer architecture
courses, and some call them computer organization courses (with all manner of combinations
in between). Throughout this text, I will use the expression computer architecture to describe
the discipline that studies the way in which computers are designed and how they operate. I
will, of course, explain why this discipline has so many different names and point out that the
computer can be viewed in different ways.
Like all areas of computer science, the field of computer architecture is advancing rap-
idly as developments take place in instruction set design, instruction level parallelism, cache
memory technology, bus systems, speculative execution, multi-core computing, and so on.
We examine all these topics in this book.
Computer architecture underpins computer science; for example, computer performance
is of greater importance today than ever before, because even those who buy personal com-
puters have to understand systems architecture in order to make the best choice.
Although most students will never design a new computer, today’s students need a much
broader overview of the computer than their predecessors. Students no longer have to be
competent assembly language programmers, but they must understand how buses, interfaces,
cache memories, and instruction set architectures determine the performance of a computer
system.
xix
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx Preface

Moreover, students with an understanding of computer architecture are better equipped

to study other areas of computer science; for example, a knowledge of instruction set archi-
tectures gives students a valuable insight into the operation of compilers.
My motivation for writing this book springs from my experience in teaching an interme-
diate level course in computer architecture at the University of Teesside. I threw away the
conventional curriculum that I’d inherited and taught what could be best described as Great
Ideas in Computer Architecture. I used this course to teach topics that emphasized global con-
cepts in computer science that helped my students with both their operating systems and C
courses. This course was very successful, particularly in terms of student motivation.
Anyone writing a text on computer architecture must appreciate that this subject is taught
in three different departments: electrical engineering (EE), electrical and computer engineering
(ECE), and computer science (CS). These departments have their own cultures and each looks
at the computer from their own viewpoint. EE and ECE departments focus on electronics and
how the individual components of a computer operate. EE/ECE-oriented texts concentrate on
gates, interfaces, signals, and computer organization. Many students in CS departments don’t
have the requisite background in electronics, so they can’t follow texts that emphasize circuit
design. Instead, computer science departments place more stress on the relationship between
the low-level architecture of the processor and the higher-level abstractions in computer science.
Although it is near impossible to write a text optimized for use in both EE/ECE and CS
departments, Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations is an effective
compromise that provides sufficient detail at the logic and organizational levels for EE/ECE
departments without including the degree of detail that would alienate CS readers.
Undergraduate computer architecture is taught at three levels: introductory, intermedi-
ate, and advanced. Some schools teach all three levels, some compress this sequence into two
levels, and some provide only an introduction. This text is aimed at students taking first- and
second-level courses in computer architecture and at professional engineers who would like
an overview of current developments in microprocessor architecture. The only prerequisite is
that the reader should be aware of the basic principles of a high-level language such as C and
have a knowledge of basic algebra.
It is difficult to pitch a book at precisely the right level. Indeed, such an ideal level doesn’t
exist. Different students react in different ways to any specific text. If you make a book very
focused and follow a narrow curriculum, you appeal only to students on a tiny handful of
courses. Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations is well-suited to a
wide range of courses, because it covers the basics and some of the more advanced topics in
computer architecture.

Features of the Book

Why inflict yet another text on computer architecture on the world? Computer architecture is
a fascinating topic. It’s all about how you can take vast numbers of a single primitive element
such as a NAND gate and make a computer. It’s all about how common sense and technology
meet. For example, the cache memory that makes processors so fast is conceptually no more
complicated than the note on the back of an envelope. Equally, the way in which all proces-
sors operate uses a technique invented by Ford for car production: the pipeline or production
line. I have tried to make the subject interesting and have covered a greater range of topics
than absolutely necessary. For example, in this text we will look at memory devices that oper-
ate by moving an oxygen atom from one end of a crystal to the other.
The title of this text, Computer Organization and Architecture, emphasizes the struc-
ture of the complete computer system (CPU, memory, buses, and peripherals). The subtitle
Themes and Variations indicates that there is a theme (i.e., the computer system) and also
variations, for example, the different approaches to increasing the speed of a CPU or to orga-
nizing cache memory.
It is often easier to describe something in terms of what it isn’t rather than what it is.
This book is not concerned with the precise engineering details of microprocessor systems

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xxi

design, interfacing, and peripherals. It certainly isn’t an assembly language primer. The central
theme of this book is microcomputer architecture rather than microprocessor systems design.
Computer architecture can be defined, for our present purposes, as the view of a computer
seen by the machine language programmer. That is, a computer’s architecture takes no account
of its actual hardware or implementation and is concerned only with what it does. We will not
consider some of the hardware and interfacing aspects of microprocessors, except where they
impinge on its architecture (e.g., cache memory, memory management, and the bus).

The Target Architecture

Anyone writing an architecture text has to select a target architecture as a vehicle to teach
the fundamentals of machine design and assembly language programming. Professors regu-
larly debate with religious intensity the relative merits of illustrating a course with a real
commercial processor or with a hypothetical generic processor. The generic machine is easy
to understand and has a shallow learning curve. Students often find that absorbing the fine
details of a real processor is time consuming and unrewarding. On the other hand, practical
engineering is all about living with the limitations of the real world. Moreover, a real machine
teaches students about the design decisions that engineers have to make in order to create a
commercially viable product.
In the 1970s and 1980s DEC’s PDP-11 minicomputer was widely adopted as a teaching
vehicle. The PDP-11 gradually dropped out of the curriculum with the advent of 16-bit micro-
processors such as the Motorola 68K. From the academic’s point of view, the 68K (loosely
based on the earlier PDP-11) was a dream machine, because its architecture is relatively
regular and that made it easy for students to write programs in 68K assembly language. A
casual observer might have expected the ubiquitous Intel IA32 family, which is found in most
PCs, to have played a significant role in computer architecture education. After all, count-
less students get hands-on experience of Intel’s processors. The 80x86 family has never really
caught on in the academic world because its complex architecture grew in an ad-hoc fashion
as each new member of the family was released and this presents students with an excessive
burden. Some academics illustrate their course with a high-performance RISC processor,
such as MIPS, which is both powerful and easy to understand. Such high-end RISC proces-
sors are found in workstations but are relatively unknown to many students (professors have
observed that students often request PC-based technology due to their familiarity with the
PC). However, RISC processors are used in both high-performance computers and most cell
phones.
I have selected the ARM processor as a vehicle to introduce assembly language and
computer organization. It is a processor that is powerful, elegant, yet easy to learn. Moreover,
development tools for the ARM processor are widely available which means that students can
write programs in ARM assembly language and run them in the lab or at home on their PCs.
A strong contender for the role of target architecture in a modern text is Intel’s IA64
Itanium processor. This is a device of immense power and sophistication, yet its basic archi-
tecture is simpler than the 80x86 family. The rich and innovative features of the Itanium’s
architecture illustrate numerous concepts found in a computer architecture course–from
the data stack to speculative execution, and from pipelining to instruction level parallelism
(ILP). Consequently, I also introduce some features of this processor when we look at high-­
performance computing.
Computer Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations isn’t a conventional
computer architecture text. I go beyond the conventional curriculum and cover material that
is interesting, important, and relevant. One of my principal objectives is to provide students
with an appropriate body of knowledge that they can absorb. All too often, students graduate
from university with embarrassingly large gaps in their knowledge. I know of no other text
that adopts my approach. For example, all computer architecture texts introduce floating-
point arithmetic, yet very few discuss the codes for data compression required to store large
volumes of textual and video information, and none describe the MP3 data compression
that’s at the heart of an entire industry. Similarly, computer architecture texts often lack

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxii Preface

coverage of architectural features intended to support multimedia applications. Some of the

highlights of this text are described below.

History
Books on computer architecture usually have a section on the history of the computer. Such
history chapters are often inaccurate and have received criticism from experts in the field.
However, I feel that a history chapter is important, because a knowledge of computer history
helps students appreciate how and why developments took place. By knowing where comput-
ers came from, students are better able to understand how they are likely to develop in the
future. In this text, I provide a short overview of the history of computing and include further
historical background in the supplementary web-based material that accompanies this book.

OS Support
The operating system is intimately bound up with computer architecture. Computer
Organization and Architecture: Themes and Variations covers topics in architecture of inter-
est to those who also study operating systems (e.g., memory management, context switching,
protection mechanisms).

Multimedia Support
The most important driving force behind modern computer architectures is the growth of
multimedia systems with their insatiable demand for high performance and high bandwidths.
This text demonstrates how modern architectures have been optimized for multimedia appli-
cations. We look at the effect of multimedia applications on both the architectures of comput-
ers and the design of buses and computer peripherals, such as hard disks for use in audiovisual
applications.

Input/Output Systems
Today’s computers are not only much faster than their predecessors, but they also provide
more sophisticated means of getting information into and out of the computer. I/O was of
relatively little importance when the typical computer was interfaced only to a keyboard,
modem, and printer. Computers are now routinely interfaced to peripherals, such as digital
video cameras that demand massive data transfer rates. We will look at some of the modern,
high-performance I/O systems, such as the USB and FireWire interfaces. We will also delve
more deeply into input/output-related topics such as handshaking and buffering.

Computer Memory Systems

Memory is the Cinderella of the computer world. Without high-density, high-performance
memory systems, neither low-cost desktop systems nor digital cameras with 32GB of storage
would be possible. I have divided memory systems into two chapters: the first dealing with
semiconductor memory and the second dealing with magnetic and optical memory. We will
also take a look at some of the interesting emerging memory technologies, such as Ovonic
memory and ferroelectric memory.

Approach
The books that I’ve most enjoyed are those where a little of the author’s personality and view
of the subject shines through. I hope that the same is true of this book. Computer architecture
isn’t something that can be expressed as a set of cold equations to be learned; it is a culture

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xxiii

that has developed over the years. At conferences, you will meet academics who passionately
argue the relative merits of this computer over that one. I would be a poor educator if I did
not at least hint to students that computer architecture can be as much fad as fact.
It’s also true that different authors emphasize different topics. For example, most authors
stress the design of the processor and have relatively little to say about memory, buses, and
peripherals–even though all of these elements are necessary to create a computer system.
Perhaps some feel that one aspect of a computer is more intrinsically interesting than others.
I provide more coverage of memory, buses, and interfaces than many texts, because I feel that
these topics are as important as the processor itself. Similarly, I’ve included details of memory
elements such as Ovonic devices, which store data by melting a bead of glass and then stor-
ing a 1 or 0 by selecting how fast it cools. This is such a remarkable example of engineering
ingenuity that I felt I had to include it. I’d like students to share the enthusiasm I have for
this subject.
I find that a significant shortcoming of many texts is the quality of diagrams and illustra-
tions. All too often a figure has far too little annotation, and its meaning is entirely lost. I
have drawn virtually all of the included diagrams myself, and I hope that they do a good job
in illustrating the meaning of the text.

Here’s an example of a diagram that illustrates the effect of a sequence of three instruc-
tions on a register. The purpose of the code is to take a byte from two registers and then
concatenate them in a third register. The use of color makes it easy to see how the data is
being processed.

ADD r2,r1,r2, LSL #16

ADD r2,r2,r0, LSL #8

MOV r2,r2, ROR #16

Contents Overview
I have divided the book into five parts.

Part I: An Introduction to Computer Architecture covers the enabling material that allows us
to discuss computer architecture. Chapter 1 takes an unusual approach to the introduction of
a computer. I begin by presenting a problem, solving it, and then inventing a system to imple-
ment the solution–the computer. My aim is to demonstrate that the computer closely models
the way in which we solve problems. Because so many topics in computer architecture are
interrelated, I provide a brief overview of the computer system to allow me to mention topics,
like cache memory, before I discuss them in detail.
We will look at the way in which information is encoded and represented in binary form;
for example, I introduce the computer arithmetic of both signed and unsigned integers, dem-
onstrate how floating-point numbers represent very large and very small quantities, and then

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Letter to the
Loving and Beloved People of the Parish of
Madeley, and Its Vicinity, Who Have Lost a
Friend to Piety in the Death of Mrs. Fletcher,
Widow of the Rev. J. W. Fletcher, (or de la
Flechere,) Late Vicar of Madeley, Shropshire.
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: A Letter to the Loving and Beloved People of the Parish of

Madeley, and Its Vicinity, Who Have Lost a Friend to
Piety in the Death of Mrs. Fletcher, Widow of the Rev.
J. W. Fletcher, (or de la Flechere,) Late Vicar of
Madeley, Shropshire.

Author: Mary Tooth

Release date: October 10, 2018 [eBook #58067]

Language: English

Credits: Transcribed from the [1815 or 1816] William Smith

pamphlet by David Price

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A LETTER TO THE

LOVING AND BELOVED PEOPLE OF THE PARISH OF MADELEY, AND
ITS VICINITY, WHO HAVE LOST A FRIEND TO PIETY IN THE DEATH
OF MRS. FLETCHER, WIDOW OF THE REV. J. W. FLETCHER, (OR DE
LA FLECHERE,) LATE VICAR OF MADELEY, SHROPSHIRE. ***
Transcribed from the [1815 or 1816] William Smith pamphlet by
David Price, email ccx074@pglaf.org

A LETTER

To the Loving and Beloved People of the Parish of

Madeley, and its Vicinity,
WHO HAVE LOST A FRIEND TO PIETY
IN THE DEATH OF

MRS. FLETCHER,
Widow of the Rev. J. W. FLETCHER,
(or de la Flechere,)
LATE VICAR OF MADELEY, SHROPSHIRE.

BY MARY TOOTH.

The sweet remembrance of the just

Shall flourish while they sleep in dust.
A Mother in Israel hast thou been, and thy works shall praise
thee in the gates

IRONBRIDGE:
PRINTED AND SOLD BY WILLIAM SMITH.
Entered at Stationers’ hall.
 A LETTER, &c.

My dear Friends,
Knowing that it is your desire to hear something respecting the close
of the life of my invaluable friend, Mrs. Fletcher, now in glory, and
being assured that none but myself can undertake the work, as I
alone was her constant companion, being separated scarcely a day
for more than 15 years, I have endeavoured, (while my mind has
been exercised with the most painful feelings of heartfelt sorrow for
the loss of the best of friends, the wisest of counsellors, and the
tenderest of parents,) to set down a few circumstances relative to
the close of a life surpassing in usefulness most of her fellow
mortals.
It was upon the 9th of December, 1815, a day never to be forgotten
by me, that my Elijah was taken to heaven. O that the mantle might
rest on me! She had had many severe attacks from illness in various
ways, in former years, and sometimes was restored as by miracle; I
therefore continued hoping she would be spared this time also; nor
did I give up that hope till two days before her removal from earth
to heaven.
Though she would be often saying to me, “My dear child, do not
flatter yourself that I shall be long with you, for I feel I am going;”—
yet, still willing to hope for what I so much desired, I continued
thinking, it may be the Lord will look graciously upon me, and save
me from drinking this bitter cup for a while longer: but on December
7th, I found it necessary to render her more assistance than usual
while rising in the morning, and conscious that this was a mark of
increased weakness, I became greatly affected; and, having done all
she at that time needed, I retired to plead with the Lord that she
might yet be restored; but, alas! I had no power, and was
constrained to leave it to divine wisdom to do what he saw best; and
before I rose from my knees, it was strongly impressed on my mind,

“The everlasting doors shall soon the saint receive,

Among yon angel pow’rs in glorious bliss to live;
Far from a world of grief and sin,
With God eternally shut in.”

From that moment I gave up every hope of her longer abiding in the
flesh; though once or twice afterwards, my strong desire led me to
plead, that he who had raised the ruler’s daughter, the widow’s son,
and dead Lazarus, would yet restore her: but all the answer I could
obtain was, Divine wisdom cannot err.
For the last month of her life, her breath was more oppressed than
usual: it had been much affected for years, upon motion; yet when
she sat still, or laid herself down at night, she could breathe quite
easy; but the middle of November last her breathing was affected
both while she sat still and when she was laid down. She had also a
troublesome cough, that disturbed her rest at night; and when this
was the case, her strength quickly declined. She had had a wound
for two years and 3 quarters in one side of her left breast, which
was at first supposed to be a cancer; but her sufferings from this
were not to be compared with what she suffered from her breath.
Yet, with all that she went through, how did she labour for the good
of souls! Many times she has gone to speak to the people, when
she has said, “It is like as if every meeting would take away my life,
but I’ll speak to them as long as I can; while I’ve any breath, and
power to get out, I’ll not spare myself.” And truly she did not, as will
be readily testified by many hundreds who have been in the habit of
attending her meetings.
I am inclined to think, that the 24th of last July will not be forgotten
by a large proportion of the great numbers who crowded to hear
her: she explained the 25th chapter of Matthew’s Gospel. It was the
last monday night she was able to speak to a listening crowd of
attentive hearers, some of whom had come many miles, but did not
think much of the pains they took, because of the spiritual good they
derived from the opportunity. I remember she spoke in a peculiarly
striking manner on the necessity of being born again. When she
came to the 13th verse, “Watch therefore, for ye know neither the
day nor the hour wherein the Son of Man cometh,” and from the
following verses respecting the Talents, she enlarged much;
powerfully insisting upon the right use of the understanding, will,
mind, or memory, with every affection; the right application of time,
with every penny of money; and the watching over the tongue,
which she observed might enjoy the honor of being God’s advocate,
but for want of watchfulness was, as the Apostle expresses it, “set
on fire of hell.”
But it is in vain for me to attempt to repeat any part of what at that
time was felt in many hearts. She continued to meet her classes
occasionally, as she had strength for it, until the middle of October.
Her two o’clock sabbath-day meeting she spoke at on the last
sabbath of September: this was her last public engagement. Many
striking proofs we have had that her labours of love in this way were
not in vain; for it is certain many souls were brought to God through
her. In one of her noon meetings she read some account of the
opening of her room for the preaching of the gospel; and as I
believe it will not be unacceptable to you, I will insert it as it was put
down by one present at the time of its first being used for the good
of souls, and the glory of God.

The first sabbath in July, 1788, the room at the Vicarage in

Madeley was opened; it had been for many years a barn, but
was now fitted up for divine worship.
The Rev. Melville Horne preached from I Kings, chap. ix, ver. 3.
“And the Lord said unto him, I have heard thy prayer and thy
supplication that thou hast made before me; I have hallowed
this house which thou hast built, to put my name there, and
mine eyes and my heart shall be there perpetually.” He
observed how great was our privilege in being so favored with
places and opportunities of quietly waiting upon the Lord, and
the advantage of sitting under a pure gospel; and how much
would be required of them to whom so much was given.
He then sweetly invited us to turn our eye towards the living
Temple, in whom we should be always sure to meet the Father’s
love: and, in conclusion, read the part following the text, to the
10th verse; pointing out the covenant blessing on obedience,
and the certain destruction which would follow the reverse.
As soon as he had ended his sermon, before he had time to
pray, he was suddenly called out to a funeral which was waiting,
and left Mrs. Fletcher to dismiss the people. She observed the
solemnity of the occasion, and the great expectation she felt in
her heart that the Lord would pour out his Spirit on the souls
before him; and entreated them to look up, and open their
hearts to receive it. As an encouragement, she reminded them
of the many prayers which for twenty-five years had been night
and day offered up in their behalf; the purport of which was,
that they might behold a reconciled Father in the face of Christ
Jesus: that in the dedication of Solomon’s Temple, the people
were called to eat and to drink, and to send portions to those
who had none. She also observed, all the glory of Israel, being
outward, was but a type of the inward glory of the christian
church. Therefore, (said she,) this day God calls you to eat and
to drink, yea, to take of the water of life, and that freely. But
are some dry and barren? He sends portions to them that have
none. She then added, I will speak freely: since I have been
preparing this place, these words of our Lord have repeatedly
come into my mind, “With desire have I desired to eat this
passover with you before I suffer.” This has caused me
sometimes to think, does my Lord intend shortly to remove me
to himself? Be that as it may, I have a confidence that this
place will be continued to your use for some years to come, and
that the Lord will bless you therein. And now I have two
petitions to ask you, which I think you will not deny me. My
dear friends, my first petition is, that you would consider this
day as a fresh covenanting with the Lord to be his without
reserve, and that we may with one consent unite in a solemn
vow never to draw back. My second request is, that when I am
laid silent in the grave, (which, be it sooner or later, most of you
will probably see,) I ask you, at that time to remember the
transaction of this day, and whensoever you pass by this place,
grant me a moment’s thought;—the carnal say, the tribute of a
tear: not so with me; no, my beloved friends, I rejoice not in
your tears, but in your happiness:—grant me then a moment’s
thought, I will tell you what it shall be. On the first sabbath, in
July, 1788, beneath that roof I covenanted to be the Lord’s;
then pause a moment, and say, “Thy vows are upon me, O God;
I have opened my mouth unto the Lord, and I cannot draw
back.”
She then concluded this uncommonly solemn meeting with
prayer, after singing the following hymn:
Spirit of holiness descend,
And consecrate this place;
With thine Almighty power defend,
And crown it with thy grace.
Let it be stored with heavenly wheat,
The harvest of the Lord,
With sinners brought to Jesu’s feet,
Obedient to his word.
No more design’d for earthly good,
Or product of the ground,
May it be fill’d with sacred food,
And thy high praise resound.
Ye neighbours who surround this place,
The message is for you;
Despise not then his offer’d grace,
Nor slight the heavenly dew.
How many pray’rs in heaven are filed
For Madeley favor’d flock;
Behold a Father reconciled
In Jesus Christ your Rock.
Then let the joys of heaven abound,
O’er Sinners brought to God;
And many at his feet be found,
All wash’d in Jesu’s blood.
That voice which once you loved to hear
Invites you from above,
And bids you cast off every fear,
And trust in Jesu’s love.
Then let us vow to serve the Lord,
And choose his holy ways;
To walk according to his word,
Devoted to his praise.
And when the lips that call you now
Are silent in the dust,
Remember then our solemn vow,
And shew in whom you trust.
For soon the Archangel’s trump shall sound,
And summon us on high;
The Shepherd with his Flock be found,
And all our tears be dry.
Some circumstances occurring last summer, which brought to her
recollection afresh the solemn season of the opening of her room,
27 years before, she took the paper I have now been copying, and
read it to the people; and there is good reason to believe, that our
heavenly Father was pleased to make this also, such a season of
refreshing to some then present, that they will ever remember it
with gratitude: indeed, all her labours of love were, in a peculiar
manner, blest of God. Six years after the opening of her room, the
old church was taken down, and the church service was performed
in it till the new one was erected.
Amongst the numerous company that will have to ascribe glory to
our God for good received through her instrumentality, under that
roof, I cannot forbear saying, my hope is, that I shall stand among
the ransomed of the Lord, and say, “I was born there.” Yes, my
friends, I must say, the good Lord made her the means of the
awakening, conversion, and deepening the work of grace in my soul:
and while I give all the glory to my God for the grace received, I
cannot but feel much love to the channel through which that grace
was communicated. Nor are my feelings in this peculiar, they are
the feelings of a number of lively souls, who bless God that the
sound of her voice ever reached their ears; and in whose affections
she will long live, and though dead yet speak.
On the 4th of September, 1808, she was to have had a meeting at
six o’clock in the evening, but was prevented through sickness; she
therefore wrote, the following note, for me to read to the people:

My dearly beloved in the Lord,

My delight is to worship the Lord with you, and many, very
many, sweet times have we had together; but our unerring
master has, at this time, been pleased to confine me by a
greater degree of weakness than I ever remember before;
therefore, by my pen, through the mouth of my dear friend, I
take this method to assure you, I am with you in spirit, though
absent in body; and I intreat you all to make trial of the ground
 whereon you stand: when sickness and death approaches, there
is no comfort but in the love of God; I find none but what I
derive from that source. O that you would therefore do as
Jacob did, be earnest with the Lord, that his love may fill your
heart, as the scripture expresses it, the love of God shed abroad
in your hearts by the Holy Ghost, given unto you. If you get
your hearts full of the love of God, you will find that is the oil by
which the lamp of faith will be ever kept burning; love makes all
our duty easy; a soul united as one spirit to the Lord, if
temptation presents, has a ready answer; such a one instantly
cries out, How shall I do this great wickedness, and sin against
God? against Him in whom my soul delighteth? Pray, my
friends, pray much for this love; and remember that word, “He
that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him.”

Thus did she, whether sick or well, labour for the increase of
spirituality in the hearts of the people: her eyes were always
heaven-ward, and whether at home or abroad, she was ever
endeavouring to draw souls to a closer walk with God. She was
often reminding us who were about her, of the fulness that was to
be obtained. I shall not exceed the; truth, if I say that none more
fully possessed the happy art of leading souls into a close internal
walk with God, than she did; being herself so experimentally
acquainted with the path of righteousness, she was well qualified to
conduct others therein: and as to her own soul, she was continually
drinking more and more into the spirit of her Lord. Her capacious
soul was always panting after deeper and deeper draughts of the
living water; frequently telling me what sweet openings the Lord had
been giving her, and what enjoyment in the filling and enlarging of
her desires. She was ever desirous that souls would be looking for
great things from the hands of the Lord; frequently saying, “what
pity it is that any rest in low attainments, when so much might be
gained; has not the Lord said, Ask what you will, and I will do it for
you.” This last sentence was one of those sayings of our Divine
Master, in which she delighted to the end of her course. I believe
there are numbers who cannot forget with what energy she would
recommend the wrestling Jacob; and whatever duty she enforced
upon the minds of others, she was exemplary in practising herself.
It was always her custom, unless some providential call prevented,
to go from secret prayer to the class, and from the class to prayer:
thus did she habitually draw fresh supplies of light and life from
above; and when the seed was sown, her unwearied supplications
followed it. Indeed she was a great lover of prayer, and often
continued in that exercise on her knees for such a length of time,
(white her strength would admit of it,) that I have sometimes gone
into her chamber to remind her how long she had been, fearing she
would injure her body; but on such occasions she has sweetly
smiled, and said, “I shall be none the worse for prayer; come, kneel
down by me, let us pray together.” At another of these times, she
has said, “No, not leave off praying yet; my dear husband used to
say, let me wrestle till I die. I can’t leave off yet, but come and join
me; great things are promised where two agree to ask in the name
of Jesus.” Many of these times have become seasons of peculiar
advantage: my soul has cause to praise the Lord both for her
private, social, and public exercises. A paper containing some short
hints for prayer, which I found in a testament that lay by her the last
week of her life, I will here insert. She begins, first in the morning,
by asking permission to throw herself again at the feet of her most
gracious loving Saviour, and to praise him for preserving her from
every evil through the night, and for having brought her to another
day. She notes as subjects of praise, a degree of ease, eye-sight,
hearing, the use of her limbs and understanding; and then names,
as heads for supplication, the power to walk with God, to take up
every cross, and to watch the tongue.
Second time of private prayer.
Intercession for our relations in England, Switzerland, Aleppo, &c. for
the spirit of prayer, light into my state of soul, increase of faith, for
power never to offend with my tongue, with praise and acts of
resignation.
Third time.
For a ready mind to do all the commands of my God, for deep
humility, to be brought into the entire region of love, by the baptism
of the Holy Spirit, that nothing may remain in my soul but pure love
alone; for faithfulness in the use of every talent; light and liberty in
the meetings, and a special blessing on every member thereof; for
the children, the ministry, and the whole parish.
Fourth time.
Praise for the mercies of the day, intreaties for a spiritual night; that
the Lord would fulfil that promise, “I will bless them that bless thee,”
first, by returning all the kindness they have shewn to me; secondly,
by repaying any injuries I may have rendered to any by thought,
word, or deed, if on earth by such blessings as are most for their
good, if in heaven by adding to their crown so much more for what
they had suffered from me.
After mentioning these four times of private prayer, she then notices
praying with me before going to bed; at which time she says,
“remember all the sufferers who have recommended themselves to
my prayer.” The paper concludes with family prayer, of which she
says, “at each time of family prayer, to read with profit, and to pray
with fervor.”
I can witness with how much diligence she discharged this duty of
family prayer, always being remarkably careful that every one who
worked in her house should be present upon this occasion; for she
looked upon it as an opportunity of giving them a message to their
souls: and times more than I can number she has had such up
stairs, that she might pray with them, when her breath has been so
oppressed that she has said, (while they were coming,) “I do not
know whether I can speak a word, but if I can I will.” The last time
the washerwoman and the gardener were in her study, her prayer
will not soon be forgot by the persons present; she was at that time
in a state of great bodily suffering, (it was only a few weeks before
her translation to glory,) and was not able both to read and pray; I
therefore read a short account of a pious man out of the Methodist
Magazine, and she prayed, mentioning each distinctly in such a clear,
striking, and forcible manner, as if fully persuaded she should never
pray with them again. All was deeply solemn, and I could not help
observing, when we rose from our knees, I did not remember ever
feeling such at time before: she answered, “I want them to turn to
God; I long for the salvation of all around us.”
The gardener’s wife has since told me, that when her husband
returned home at night, he told her, “he never heard any thing like
that morning’s prayer.”
But it was not an uncommon thing for her prayers to be unusually
blessed to souls: many have come from far to see her, that she
might plead with God in their behalf; some of these, when they have
come to her, have been laden with guilt, a heavy load, but our good
Lord has heard the voice of her supplications, and so manifested
himself as a sin-pardoning God, that the mourners have been
comforted, their sorrows have been turned into joy, and they have
left her habitation to go on their way rejoicing. I refer not in this to
a solitary instance, but mention it as a circumstance that was often
recurring.
Of her I may say, every talent given was duly improved; for she did
not spare herself, but her strength, her time, and substance, she
cheerfully devoted to the benefit of the souls and bodies of others;
and as her prayers were very prevalent, so were her charities very
extensive. Upon this subject, before I proceed, I feel it my duty to
make one remark: I have heard some persons say, “O she was
imposed upon.” But, as I knew her better than any person now
alive, I must beg leave to affirm, that she was not the dupe of the
designing; her good sense was equal to her piety, and her charities
were conducted with such a degree of wisdom, that fraudulent
cases, in a general way, were detected by her: though, whenever a
doubtful case occurred, she would say, “it is better to be on the right
side, and to give a trifle to an unworthy object, than run a risk of
overlooking one that ought to be relieved.” Upon such occasions no
doubt the worthless have sometimes partaken of her bounty, but
never to any considerable amount. She was one of a thousand for
economy; always sparing of expense upon herself, that she might
have the more to give to the household of faith. She would often
say, “God’s receivers upon earth, are, Christ’s church and poor.”
When, I have proposed the purchase of some article of clothing for
her, she would say, “is it quite necessary? if it is not, do not buy it; it
will be much better to give the money to some of our poor
neighbours, than to lay it out upon me.” Nor was this once only; it
was invariably her conduct, and with great truth it may be said, that

“What her charity impair’d

She saved by prudence in affairs.”

She was always remarkably exact in setting down every penny she
expended. She kept four different accounts, in which all she spent
was included; these four were, the house, sundries, clothes, and
poor. We have often at the end of the year been astonished to find
the house expensed so small, considering how many had shared
with us: at such times, she has said, “It is the Lord who has blessed
our bread and water.” I have, in former years, taken up the book in
which she kept her accounts, and wept over it, with the
consideration, that I should one day probably have to settle it alone;
and now I have drank of the bitter cup. A few days ago, I entered
upon the work; and I think it right, as a confirmation of what I have
before advanced, to state the difference between the expenses of
her clothes, and what she had dispensed to the poor. On making up
the account of her clothes, I found the whole year’s expenditure
amounted to nineteen shillings and six-pence; this was every penny
that had been laid out; on her own person, for the whole year. [27]
I then made up the poor’s account, and found the amount to be 181l
16s. 1d thus liberally had she dispensed abroad. But her desire of
communicating comfort to the afflicted, was very extensive: I do not
think she ever heard of a person in distress, but, if in her power to
do it, she, by some means contrived to send relief. To comfort the
distressed, was always a real comfort to her. With regard to this
world’s wealth, it was no more to her, than dust in the balance. She
has often said, and I am sure with great truth, “Gold is no more to
me than dust; the gold of Ophir than the stones of the brook.” At
another time she would say, “It is not so important what we have, as
how we use it.” Indeed she was truly diligent, so to occupy with this
and every talent, as to be always well-pleasing in the sight of the
Lord.
Her love to every one was so abundant, that she was unwilling to
find a fault in any one; but, ever desirous of casting the mantle of
love over the failings of each, she would seek out the excellencies of
those with whom she was concerned, and would find an excuse for
the conduct of any, if the case would admit of it. And while her
kindness was thus extensively manifested to all with whom she had
any intercourse, her gratitude to others who shewed marks of love
to her, was no less; for when her kind friends sent her any thing
they thought would be acceptable, it was her study to think how she
could return them an equal token of love; and if nothing was
brought to her mind to do for them at the time, she would say,
“Well, if I can do no more for them, I can pray for them:”—then
would she fervently cry to the Lord, that he would repay them for
her, and impart to them spiritual blessings for all the temporal good
they had communicated to her. I never knew her sit down to
partake of any thing that was the gift of a friend, without first
praying for the donor. She would have thought herself very guilty to
have omitted this, but it was a thing she made such a point of, that I
do not think she ever forgot, even in one single instance.
And while her gratitude to the creature was thus evidently discerned,
her praise and thanksgiving to the Creator was still more abundant.
Never was any one more completely sensible of surrounding
mercies, or more fully satisfied with divine appointments. She has
for a long time lived in the spirit of praise, frequently saying, “What
blessings has the Lord bestowed upon me! how comfortable has he
made me in my old age; though I am left here, and my dearly
beloved husband, and my Sally, my child, in glory, yet I know no
lack; for how has the Lord fulfilled that word, given me so many
years ago, God will make you a comfortable habitation. [30] And
what a comfortable habitation has he made me! all is so suitable,
every thing that I want; and such a loving people, I may well say I
dwell among my own people: and that the Lord should bring you
from a distance, first to be my spiritual child, and now my careful
housekeeper, my tender nurse, my faithful friend.”
This was the way that in her common conversation she enumerated
the mercies of the Lord; and as the close of life drew nigh, the spirit
of praise increased more and more. Not quite three weeks before
she was taken from us, she mentioned to some friends, a dream she
had had many years ago. She dreamt she was going down a rough
road, with a short wall by the side of it, which she leaned upon, and
called the wall of salvation: all the light she had, while getting along
with difficulty, was a twinkling star. She persevered to the end, but
then found a mud-pond, which when she saw, she thought, well, if
this is the way, I’ll plunge in; but while she was thinking to do so, in
a moment of time, the twinkling star became a bright comet; and by
the blazing light it gave, she discovered a clean narrow path by
which she was instantly over, she hardly knew how. After our
friends were gone, she said to me, “That dreamt came so powerfully
to my mind, I could not help repeating it; it is being accomplished
now.” Several times after that evening, she said to me, “I am going
down the rough walk; this illness has been a long and painful one,
but I lean upon the wall of salvation, and the comet will come.” She
seemed to be assured, from the time this dream was so impressed
upon her mind, that in an instant of time she should be removed
from a state of suffering to an inconceivable blaze of glory, that
would as much outweigh every spiritual enjoyment upon earth, as
the comet in her sleep outshone the twinkling star.
Before this last three weeks of her life, in which such a striking
application of her dream was made to her, the enemy had at times
suggested what a state of suffering lay before her, if at the end of
her affliction she should be long confined to a sick bed; or it might