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Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers. Principles of IoT and Python Programming 1st Edition G. Kanagachidambaresan Download PDF

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100% found this document useful (5 votes)
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Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers. Principles of IoT and Python Programming 1st Edition G. Kanagachidambaresan Download PDF

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MAKER
I N N O VAT I O N S
SERIES

Internet
of Things Using
Single Board
Computers
Principles of IoT and
Python Programming

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
Internet of Things
Using Single Board
Computers
Principles of IoT and Python
Programming

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers: Principles of IoT and
Python Programming

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
Chennai, India
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8107-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8108-6
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6

Copyright © 2022 by G. R. Kanagachidambaresan


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Table of Contents
About the Author�������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii

About the Technical Reviewer������������������������������������������������������������xv


Acknowledgments����������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
Preface����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xix

Chapter 1: An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT)


and Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Energy-based��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Signal Output���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Mode of Operation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Electronic Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Connectivity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Bluetooth���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Zigbee��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Wi-Fi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
LoRa��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Wired Communication�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Machine Intelligence�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Active Management��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Sensor Fusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15

v
Table of Contents

Smart Devices�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Human-Computer Interaction������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Context Awareness���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Actuators�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
IoT and Smart City Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Automobile Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Smart Home Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Smart Transportation Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������25
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28

Chapter 2: IoT Sensors and Their Interfacing Protocols���������������������31


Vision and Imaging Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Light Rings�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Shop Floor and Production Line Inspections�������������������������������������������������33
Line Scan Cameras����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
3D Depth Cameras�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
Event/Production Line Triggering�������������������������������������������������������������������35
Sensors That Measure Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������36
Thermocouples����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)��������������������������������������������������������38
Temperature Thermistor Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������39
Semiconductor Temperature Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������40
Thermometers�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Radiation Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Proximity Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Inductive Field Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Magnetic Field Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Types of Photoelectric Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������46

vi
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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������47


Pressure Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Position Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49
Photoelectric Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
Particle Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
Types of Particle Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Metal Detectors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Level Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Leak Detectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Humidity Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
Gas and Chemical Sensors����������������������������������������������������������������������������56
Gas Detectors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������57
Carbon Monoxide (MQ7) Detectors����������������������������������������������������������������58
Force Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������58
Force Sensor Types���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Flow Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60
Mass Flow Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Velocity Flow Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Flaw Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66
Flame Detectors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66
Voltmeter and Ammeter Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������67
Contact Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
Non-Contact Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Sensor Communication Protocols�����������������������������������������������������������������69
Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70

vii
Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Programming SBCs�����������������������������������������������������������75


Arduino Programming�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Raspberry Pi��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Introduction to Raspberry Pi GPIO Access����������������������������������������������������������78
Interfacing DHT���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Interfacing Pi cam to Raspberry Pi zero w����������������������������������������������������84
Pi Camera Specifications������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Pi Camera Access�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Interfacing PIR Sensor����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86
Python�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
File Concepts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Spreadsheet Concepts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Communication Concepts������������������������������������������������������������������������������95
Wired and Wireless Programming Concepts�������������������������������������������������99
Wired Programming Concepts���������������������������������������������������������������������101
Node-RED����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Node-RED Features�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Node-RED Architecture��������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Node-RED Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
MQTT Protocols�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Google Sheets Programming (gspread)������������������������������������������������������������106
Firebase Programming��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Matplotlib����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Getting Started��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Bar Graphs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Scatter Plot��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Spectrum Representation����������������������������������������������������������������������������126

viii
Table of Contents

Coherence of Two Signals���������������������������������������������������������������������������129


Cross-Correlation Graph������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
Autocorreleation Graph��������������������������������������������������������������������������������133
Changing Figure Size in Different Units�������������������������������������������������������135
Scale������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Pie Charts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Style Sheets������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
FiveThirtyEight Style Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������145
Solarized Light Style Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������146
3D Graphs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
Plotting 2D Data on a 3D Plot����������������������������������������������������������������������148
Creating 2D Bar Graphs in Different Planes�������������������������������������������������150
Creating a 3D Histogram of 2D Data������������������������������������������������������������152
3D Surfaces�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
Animation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Live Line Graph��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Oscilloscope Live�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������161

Chapter 4: Wireless Connectivity in IoT��������������������������������������������163


Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163
Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs)������������������������������������������������������164
RFID Protocol�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������168
XBEE Radios with Arduino���������������������������������������������������������������������������173
Bluetooth with Arduino��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175
Arduino with a GSM Modem������������������������������������������������������������������������177
Arduino with Firebase Cloud Connectivity���������������������������������������������������180
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184

ix
Table of Contents

Chapter 5: The Internet of Things Through the Raspberry Pi�����������187


Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
Cluster Computing with Raspberry Pi Zero W���������������������������������������������������189
Message Passing Interface (MPI)����������������������������������������������������������������189
Networking with RPis for Simple MPI Scripts���������������������������������������������189
Simple MPI Programming����������������������������������������������������������������������������191
Types of Communication in Cluster Computing������������������������������������������������192
Persistent Communication��������������������������������������������������������������������������193
Broadcasting�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193
Scattering���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
Gathering�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������196
A Simple Web Service–Based Home Automation Using a Flask Server������������197
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������199

Chapter 6: Home Electrification and Node-RED��������������������������������201


References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������208

Chapter 7: Supply Chain Management: Industry 4.0 and MQTT


Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Working Principle����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������210
Publisher Source Code��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Subscriber Source Code�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������218
Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223

Chapter 8: Raspberry Pi–Based Go/No-Go Kit Design Using


the RPi Camera and Image Processing Algorithms��������������������������225
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������239

x
Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Programming Water-­Quality Sensors������������������������������241


Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������241
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������264

Chapter 10: IoT-Based Shrimp Farming��������������������������������������������265


References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������278

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������281

xi
About the Author
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan completed
his PhD in Information and Communication
Engineering from Anna University, Chennai,
in 2017. He is currently an associate professor
in the CSE Department at Vel Tech Rangarajan
Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and
Technology. He is also a visiting professor at
the University of Johannesburg.
His main research interest includes the
Internet of Things, Industry 4.0, body sensor
network, and fault-tolerant wireless sensor
network. He has published several reputed articles and undertaken several
consultancy activities for leading MNC companies. He has guest-edited
several special issue volumes and books and served as an editorial review
board member for peer-reviewed journals. He is TEC committee member
in DBT, GOI, India.
He is presently working on several government-sponsored research
projects like ISRO, DBT, and DST. He is Wiley’s editor-in-chief of the Next
Generation Computer and Communication Engineering Series. He is also
the managing director for Eazythings Technology Private Limited.

xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years
of experience in security, web/mobile
development, cloud, and IT architecture. His
true IT passions are security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java,
VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than
20 years.
He has a master of science degree in
computing science from the University of
Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect, information security manager,
PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years.

xv
Acknowledgments
My heartfelt thanks to Apress, especially Jessica Vakili and Susan
McDermott, for helping me throughout this project.
I sincerely thank the Department of BioTechnology (DBT-India) for
their funding (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020) on the smart aquaculture
project.
I would also like to extend thanks to my JRFs: Ms. Meenakshi KV, Mr.
M. Akash, Ms. A. V. Anandhalekshmi, and Ms. V. Sowmiya.
I give special thanks to my son Mr. Ananthajith K, my wife, Dr. Mahima
V, my parents, Mr. G. S. Ramasubramanian and Mrs. Lalitha, and
Mrs. Chandra, Mr. Venkatraman, Mrs. V. Chitra, and Mr. V. Bharath for their
timely support.

xvii
Preface
The rapid growth of technology and new smart, sustainable development
initiatives has made the Internet of Things (IoT) and edge analytics
an inevitable platform for all engineering domains. The need for a
sophisticated and ambient environment has resulted in an exponential
growth in automation and artificial intelligence. The right sensor or
actuator, a specific processor, and the correct transmission unit can offer
the best solution to any IoT problem. Lightweight machine learning
or mathematical logic can bring a good solution to existing smart-city
problems.
This book provides detailed information on sensors, their interfacing
connections, programming with single-board computers, and creating
integrated projects with a combination of sensors, processors, and
actuators. A detailed introduction to Python and Arduino-based
programming is also discussed to kindle interest in IoT programming. IoT
products’ wired and wireless connections are discussed, and programming
examples are provided.
This is a completely new textbook that reflects recent developments
while providing a comprehensive introduction to the fields of IoT, single-­
board computers, and Python programming. It is aimed at advanced
undergraduates as well as researchers and practitioners. This book deals more
with electronics and programming than simple text. It best suits outcome-
based education systems and can aid industry-ready IoT engineers.

Funding Information
The part of this book is supported by the Department of Biotechnology
funding information (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020).

xix
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
to the declared policy of the Legislature.

Section 2.
REBELLION INSTIGATED.

On the other hand, let us suppose compulsory manumission


inoperative; that Government discover its latent difficulties, and that
they wish ostensibly to enforce its enactment while they fetter it with
restrictions to prevent its practical working.
Here it is conceived that still more disastrous consequences would
ensue. You tell the negro that he has a right to purchase his
freedom; and when he comes forward to claim it, he finds himself
mocked and imposed upon.
In common reason, is this the kind of legislation we are to expect
after the many warnings we have had of negro-susceptibility, and
the well-grounded conviction that there are embers, only wanting
one kindling breath to involve the whole colonies in destruction?
Since the agitation of negro-emancipation, within these few years
past, a great excitement has prevailed among the slaves, and
mischief on no common scale has occurred, merely from the
delusion practised upon the negroes as to the pretended benefits
intended them. During the insurrection in Demerara, when the
insurgents were told by the governor, of the new laws and
indulgences to be granted them, they received the boon with
comparative derision; they said, to quote the words of the
Governor’s despatch, that “those things were no comforts for them;
that they were tired of being slaves; that their good King had sent
orders that they should be free, and that they would not work any
more.”
By obvious analogy we may judge of the danger if an inoperative
law be now passed. To inspire hopes which can never be realized, is
at any time bad; but in the case of the slaves, it is to render them
for ever dissatisfied with their lot, and to arouse every angry passion
in their minds. The strongest indignation, therefore, should be
expressed at attempts made to palliate the manifold errors of the
measure, or to procure the unreflecting concurrence of parties
locally interested, by representing that it might ostensibly be allowed
to pass, if rendered inoperative, because then no harm can result
from it. Such a mode of proceeding to all parties concerned, both
master and slave, would be unworthy of the British Government, and
not more disingenuous than impolitic.
Imagine, for a moment, the feelings of a slave, who, relying upon
the efficacy of the law promulgated, applies for his freedom, but
finds all a fallacy! Think of his baffled hope—the pinings of the heart
—the burning sense of injustice! And it is all-important to reflect,
that the obnoxious object of these excited passions will be the
master, or the resident proprietor. The negro will never believe that
he has been deceived by the King of England. He will decide, that
the King has conferred on him the boon, and that it has been
intercepted by combination of the colonial proprietors.
The negroes are just beginning to be sensible that amelioration is
different from what they first imagined it. Proclamations and
proceedings of the governors have tended to check their fatal
impression that a life of idleness was now at hand; but if you disturb
the existing tranquillity, if you again raise the delusive cry of
“Freedom!” may we not apprehend that kindred spirits, brooding
over their fancied wrongs, will coalesce, and discontent thus swell
into rebellion. It is vain to disguise or cloak the measure. Every
colonial proprietor knows the excitement that will always be kept up
by the anti-colonial party. “If I am to be robbed,” he will say, “rather
let me suffer at once, than be kept in perpetual dread of ruin. If a
slave worth 300l. comes to demand his freedom, better suffer a loss
of 100l. than send him back with a refusal, for assuredly he will
never be a peaceable or good subject again.” In his own defence,
therefore, he must refuse to sanction any modifications of a measure
which will equally injure himself, and endanger the public safety.
Whether, then, compulsory manumission contain an executory
principle, or otherwise, it is incompatible with the safety of the
colonies.

We have now contemplated the measure in every point of view,


and it must be emphatically pronounced to be contrary both to the
letter and the spirit of the Resolutions of both houses of Parliament.
Chapter VI.

NO JUST ANALOGY IN THE PRECEDENTS


ADDUCED BY GOVERNMENT.

A thousand precedents would never justify a bad measure—it may


therefore be deemed superfluous to offer a remark on this head; but
as Mr. Canning has argued, that whatever is adopted in one colony
can safely be introduced into all the rest, and as this maxim has
been taken for granted by many persons willing to save themselves
the trouble of thinking, it is necessary to enter into some
explanation.

Section 1.
TRINIDAD.

When the order in council for negro treatment was sent out to
Trinidad, great objections were offered, both generally, and to the
individual clauses which constitute compulsory manumission.
It is not necessary here to inquire how often that order has been
altered, or the reasons why the colonists of Trinidad have been
constrained to submit to the authority imposed upon them. We have
only to show that the case of that island differs from that of the
other British colonies.
Trinidad was originally a Spanish colony; its laws were framed
previously to the abolition of the slave-trade, and have continued
unaltered since the cession of the island to Great Britain.
Now it is apparent that, when fresh slaves can be procured,
compulsory manumission is not so objectionable; because the place
of those who purchase their freedom can be immediately filled up by
others.
It has consequently been considered that, while the slave-trade
was in active operation in the Spanish colonies, the practice of
manumission was encouraged, as increasing the means of
preventing insurrection.
But it is surely unfair to hold up to the imitation of another colony
the enactments and usages introduced by one whose laws were
adapted to a state of things so different; and to require that the
provisions of a code adapted to the existence of the slave-trade,
should be engrafted upon other codes framed since its abolition.
The order in council for Trinidad has not affected the principle of
the Spanish law, or rather the practice in the Spanish colonies, which
allows a slave to enfranchise himself by purchase. But the British law
in our settlements gives no such right whatever to a slave.
According to those codes, the interest of an owner in his slave is
that of a fee-simple absolute: he purchased upon that tenure, he
has continued to hold upon the same, and cannot be deprived of
that legal title without a direct violation of property.
In Trinidad it is otherwise: a person purchasing a slave in that
colony, knows beforehand that he acquires only a precarious title in
such a slave, which depends on the ability of the slave to purchase
himself.
Nor has sufficient time yet elapsed to make known the great
difference in the working of the measure that must take place now
that the slave-trade has ceased, contrasted with the period when it
was in active prosecution.
It ought also to be stated, that the hardship and evils of the law in
Trinidad, even subsequent to the abolition of the slave-trade, had
not been so much felt, from the nature of its laws not being
generally known in this country: consequently, there was no
extraneous excitement upon the subject given to the minds of the
negroes.
But now, when this excitement has been given, the brief
experience already afforded, tends strongly to corroborate the
arguments we have advanced; and it is credibly asserted, that the
Secretary for the Colonies has received representations and appeals,
proving evils to have proceeded from the operation of this law.
Among these evils, theft is shown to have increased; and the
proceedings before the local magistrates are said to evince a
progressive demoralization amongst the negroes.
It is further known, that instances have occurred where the sum
assessed by the appraisers, as the price of manumission, has been
higher than the negro was able, or considered himself entitled, to
pay; and the being sent back under these circumstances has visibly
produced in him a sullenness and discontent exactly as has been
described, and in all probability as injurious to the interests of his
master, as if he had obtained his discharge at his own valuation.
From these circumstances, it is apparent that there is no analogy
between the case of Trinidad and that of the other British Colonies,
and that thus far no proper precedent is established.

Section 2.
ST. LUCIE.

In regard to this colony, the measure has been but recently


introduced, and without the spontaneous concurrence of its
inhabitants. It was established there by the force of arbitrary
authority. There was no adequate court or power, similar in
constitution and functions to the Assemblies in the other islands, to
resist its promulgation; and the threat conveyed in the despatch of
Earl Bathurst to the Governor, thus amounted to an imperative
mandate for the adoption of the measure as law in the colony.
Is this a precedent?
Section 3.
BERBICE.

The case of Berbice is still more flagrant. This colony possessed, a


short time back, a council composed of persons having property at
stake. Before the enactments relating to the slaves in that colony
were brought forward, this council was dismissed, and another
arbitrarily appointed, consisting of persons having no interest in the
cultivation of the colony.
It was previously declared, that the new laws relating to the
slaves, in whatever way they might be finally settled, should not be
carried into operation at Berbice, unless the same measures were at
the same time adopted in Demerara. In the latter colony, all the
measures relating to amelioration were received, and compulsory
manumission alone rejected; but in Berbice, the new council, so
appointed and so composed, passed the latter measure contrary to
the wish of every proprietor in the colony.
It ought moreover to be stated that, before the new laws were
promulgated in Demerara, they were sent home to Lord Bathurst for
confirmation, upon which his Lordship observes,—“The King has
been graciously pleased to approve the decision that you adopted, of
referring the draft of the Act to his Majesty, for his consideration,
instead of immediately promulgating it as a law in the colony.”
But how does the new Council of Berbice act? The most important
of all the new measures they carry at once into effect; that is to say,
they allow no opportunity for parties in England to carry
remonstrance or explanation to the foot of the throne.
Again, let us ask, is this a precedent? What is the meaning of the
term? does it not warrant the inference, in this case, that some
assembly, composed of parties interested, have given their
concurrence? But how marked is the difference between a council
composed of persons possessing little or no property in slaves, and a
court where several of the members hold large plantations, and are
deeply interested in the permanent prosperity of their colony.
The possession of this large stake by the members, and the
circumstance of having delegated interests to represent, peculiarly
conduce to safe and practicable legislation. Such circumstances
present a security against precipitancy,—prompt to a careful and
minute consideration of all local peculiarities,—and procure for every
public measure a full and patient examination of all its relations,
both direct and contingent, before it is permitted to be put in
execution.
And further, in respect to any one of these West India cases, has
there elapsed a time sufficient to enable us to estimate the policy of
the experiment, and still less to pronounce upon its fitness for the
whole of our West Indian possessions?

Section 4.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

How this colony should be referred to as a precedent it is difficult to


explain. Its climate differs materially from that of the West Indies. In
the latter, the evils apprehended from giving freedom to the slaves
arise from the impossibility of procuring free labourers to supply
their place. It is but a very short time since emigration from this
country to the Cape of Good Hope was greatly encouraged; and it is
ascertained, by experience, that Europeans can work without injury
or inconvenience in that climate.
Thus the supply of voluntary labourers not only existing, but
increasing in that colony, the inducements to perpetuate slavery
must progressively expire, and slaves may consequently be freed
without injury to the property of their owners, or danger to the
public safety.
From this obvious difference in physical circumstances between
the West India colonies and the Cape of Good Hope, there is no just
analogy between the two; and though compulsory manumission may
be enacted in the one, it cannot, therefore, be taken as a model for
imitation to the other.
This straining after inapplicable precedent clearly indicates
deficiency of argument.
No enactment containing inherently a principle of evil, even
though acceded to willingly, or acquiesced in passively, by individual
bodies, should ever be set up by a wise government as an example
for general adoption.

It has been more than once remarked in Parliament, by persons of


high character, that the precedent generally existing throughout the
Spanish colonies served as a sufficient ground for the measure.
But there are two points which should never be omitted in
reflecting on the question:
I. As to the opportunity of procuring other labourers.
II. The difference of amount sunk in fixed capital, between the
Spanish colonies and those of Great Britain.
In regard to the first, fresh labourers can be procured in the
Spanish colonies, but cannot in the British; and in regard to the
second, there must surely be some difference in the working of a
measure when the amount of capital to be withdrawn varies in the
proportion of 20,000l. in the one case, to a few hundreds in the
other.
Chapter VII.

RESPONSIBILITY ATTACHING TO MINISTERS IF


THEY ENFORCE COMPULSORY MANUMISSION.

Whoever notices the levity of manner with which this question is


treated, would imagine that our constitution had undergone a
change, and that His Majesty’s advisers were relieved from
responsibility for the acts of the executive. On any occasion it is a
rash step to counsel the crown to important measures before a full
investigation has been instituted. But when a step is taken so
contrary to the laws of the realm, as, by eminent law-authorities,
Compulsory Manumission, in regard to mortgaged property, is
conceived to be, responsibility ceases to be an idle term, and
circumstances may arise from it to disturb the peace of a minister of
state much longer than he anticipates.
It can never be too often repeated that, so far as legislation for
the negroes is concerned, what is once done is irrevocable. In other
public measures, an opportunity is afforded to a minister, when he
makes a false step, to change his policy by a dexterous manœuvre.
But no such resource being afforded in the West India Question, we
should conclude that more cautious deliberation would in the first
instance be exercised, and that a full examination would take place
before excitement was created by announcing even the heads of a
new measure. The proceedings hitherto have been on a principle
directly opposite. While the Irish Question remains undecided,
though more than a generation has passed by since it commenced;
and while the Corn Question has stood over until argument on the
subject is exhausted: In the West India Question—where, wrong
measures being once taken, all remedy is hopeless—the parties
whose whole property is at stake cannot be allowed more than the
lapse of a few weeks, to put on record all their objections to the
most essential innovations.
This presents an anomaly in the history of public measures, and it
can only be accounted for by supposing that ministers, amid their
many duties, have completely undervalued the importance of the
measure now pending. This conclusion is confirmed by what is
understood to be their language to independent members of the
legislature whose suffrage they solicit in future discussion. They say
the principal opposition of the West Indians is no more than idle and
transient clamour. It is merely of a piece with what has been always
witnessed. When the abolition of the slave-trade was under
discussion, did we not hear the cry, that our ancient colonies would
be ruined? That great measure was carried, yet no ruin ensued.
When the Registry Bill was brought in, had we not a similar clamour,
that the most dangerous excitement among the slaves would be the
consequence? That point, too, was carried; yet no such direful evils
attended it. Again, when the recent Amelioration Clauses were
proposed, how furious was the opposition in the colonies,—the
proprietors there were to be utterly ruined. Many of these clauses
have since been enacted, even where opposition was strongest at
the first, and yet no injury or change has taken place! What is the
inference in regard to compulsory manumission? We have strenuous
opposition at present, it is true; but when the measure is once
carried, that will soon subside, and all the frightful features of
danger which have alarmed the colonists will turn out to be mere
phantoms of the imagination.
Now, in answer, may we not allege, in the first place, that the
objections urged against those former measures were not
groundless. Our abolition of the slave-trade, without securing the
effectual concurrence of foreign powers in a similar act, has
transferred from British to foreign colonies the principal supply of
Europe with sugar, and without the smallest benefit to Africa. The
Registry Bills are an enormous tax on our impoverished colonies, and
it is not to them we owe the extinction of our colonial slave-trade. Of
our recent Amelioration Clauses, the effect in diminishing production
is as yet more certain than that of increased benefit to the negro-
population.
In the second place, may we not pronounce that the case we are
now submitting is very different from any of those cited?
But in this age of superficiality, where all laborious investigation
seems exploded, and when a well-turned period of declamation in
Parliament sways the nation, let us take another mode of pointing
out the difference of this case.
In those important measures which were passed some time back,
the Government carried a great number of colonial proprietors living
in this country along with them. How different, then, on primâ facie
evidence, must be the nature and bearings of the measure now
proposed, when colonial proprietors, who have always acted with
ministers, are constrained, as a solemn duty in defence of their
properties and of their families, to oppose it strenuously! It is
evident, that to occasion such a feeling, there must be something in
the measure alarmingly important, and demanding the most
cautious scrutiny.
In former times, the letters sent out by colonial proprietors in
England to their friends in the colonies impressed upon the latter, to
do all that they were able, to silence clamour in England; but with
regard to compulsory manumission, the lesser evil is chosen, and the
admonition is, “Beware of passing this measure, and thus
committing yourselves by your own act. Throw all the responsibility
upon ministers, that you may hereafter have full claims for
indemnification.”
The question then resolves itself into this,—Are ministers,
considering the situation in which they are placed, and having a due
regard to their own fame, prepared to take this responsibility upon
themselves? Do they rely upon the passing opinions of the day for
their support? Lord Bathurst says, in his despatches, that the
colonial legislature “may be assured, that from the final
accomplishment of this object this country will not be diverted.”
Now it may be true that, with the unthinking populace, the
extinction of slavery is desired; but what practical statesman would
take this vague expression of feeling for his guide? It may safely be
affirmed, that the intelligent portion of the community are aware of
the difficulties, and expect from Government, not what is
theoretically to be desired, but what is practically and wisely
attainable. They are not prepared to lose our West India colonies,
which are believed to contribute largely to the prosperity and
strength of the kingdom; nor are they at all disposed to inflict
injustice upon their fellow-subjects, knowing well, that whatever
odium may now attach to the colonial proprietor, the charge of
having countenanced slavery is one which he shares with the whole
British nation.
But it ought further to be known, and well reflected on by His
Majesty’s ministers, that humane and enlightened individuals, not
anxious for the political so much as the moral grandeur of the
country, who waive every notion of expediency, and consider the
cause of humanity as paramount, are beginning to entertain doubts
as to the wisdom of the proceedings of Government.
This is not vague opinion, but is founded on weighty reasons.
First: That it is the object of British humanity to exalt the entire
African race, and to accomplish it as a matter of genuine
philanthropy in the most general and efficient manner.
It appears by parliamentary documents, that as cultivation, during
some years past, has decreased in the British colonies, precisely in
the same degree has the slave-trade of foreigners increased.
To ruin or deteriorate the British colonies is thus to encourage the
horrors of the slave-trade, and to increase the sum of African
suffering.
Therefore, it being the object of the British nation to abridge that
suffering, and not to make a mere display of sensibility, if the
proposed measures can be proved to be destructive of cultivation in
the British colonies, their spirit must be pronounced to be contrary to
the sentiments of the country.
And, Secondly: That having long since committed the crime of
transporting the negroes to our West India colonies, it is expected
by the British nation, that the welfare of future generations will be
contemplated; and that, hereafter, a black society may be witnessed,
possessing in itself the attributes, moral, intellectual, and political, of
a civilized people.
So strongly does this sentiment pervade the nation, that it is
common to hear the inquiry—“What are the negroes to do when
free?” implying the belief that rash interference may have proceeded
far to accomplish the object, but that judicious legislation has
stopped short on the threshold.
If we were to make an appeal to Lord Bathurst, and to all who
have taken an active part in the promotion of compulsory
manumission, must they not acknowledge, that since the agitation of
the subject in 1823, a considerable and perceptible change has
taken place in public opinion, in consequence of the inquiry relative
to free labour; and that the idea of having a free negro-peasantry
labouring under a tropical climate for hire is impracticable and
hopeless.
Does not, then, the whole question depend on free labour?
We cannot but infer, that when the relations and consequences of
granting freedom to the negroes by compulsion are fully understood
in all their widely-spreading effects, the opinion of the country will
be as strongly expressed in reprobation, as Earl Bathurst pronounces
it at present to be in approbation of the speedy adoption of the
measure.
Without any disrespect it may be stated, that some of our
ministers, who are upborne by the current of public applause, have
had sufficient experience of the fickleness of popularity. Let us recall
to mind the wise precept of Mr. Canning in 1819—“Speak not the will
of the populace, but consult their benefit.”
We appeal to each member of parliament to further this counsel.
The question of negro-emancipation is virtually before them. It is
conceived, by all those whose properties are at stake, to be
presented in its most objectionable form, and they unanimously
oppose it. Before deciding on the subject, let every member reflect
on the sentiments of two of our greatest statesmen.
Mr. Pitt, in every discussion in which negro-emancipation was
agitated, pronounced, that it was an act which must “flow from the
master alone.”
When that presiding genius of the country’s commercial greatness
was no more—when Mr. Fox had coalesced with Lord Grenville,—and
above all, when the whole anti-colonial party, with Mr. Wilberforce at
its head, had joined his ranks, Mr. Fox, in the full tide of his
popularity and his power, declared—
“That the idea of an act of parliament to emancipate the slaves in
the West Indies, without the consent and concurrent feeling of all
parties concerned, both in this country and in that, would not only be
mischievous in its consequences, but totally extravagant in its
conception, as well as impracticable in its execution.”

THE END.
LONDON:

PRINTED BY W. CLOWES,

Stamford-street.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after
careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of
external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed (e.g., “West India” and
“West Indian”) and added (e.g., “sugar-plantation” and “sugar-estate”), when a
predominant preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings and inconsistent or
archaic usage in the text have been retained.
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