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About
Financial Accounting
Volume 1
Seventh Edition
About
Financial Accounting
Volume 1
Seventh Edition
Contributing authors
F Doussy (editor)
D Scott
Volume 2
Seventh Edition
Contributing authors
RN Ngcobo
A Rehwinkel
D Scheepers (editor)
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© 2018
Full acknowledgement is given to the IFRS Foundation for quotes and definitions used in this publication.
Copyright subsists in this work. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the publisher’s written permission. Any unauthorised reproduction of this work will constitute a copyright
infringement and render the doer liable under both civil and criminal law.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the information published in this work is accurate, the
editors, authors, writers, contributors, publishers and printers take no responsibility for any loss or damage
suffered by any person as a result of the reliance upon the information contained therein.
The accelerating globalisation of business has affected South Africa in many ways and
the discipline of accounting has not been left untouched. Accounting is a challenging
subject because it is always changing. These changes are reflected in this book, but
the authors have not lost sight of the fact that the basic principles of accounting have
not altered since the invention of double-entry bookkeeping centuries ago.
One has to learn to crawl before one can learn to walk. This is a fact of life and a re-
flection of life itself. With this in mind, many aspects of the intricacies of disclosure and
the exact or complete disclosure requirements of generally accepted accounting prac-
tice were left for the more advanced student of accounting. This book is not intended
to be a reference book. Rather, the following guidelines were adopted by the authors:
• simplicity
• basic principles
• creating knowledge blocks
• practical application
• demonstration by way of examples.
To achieve this goal, the focus is on a handwritten system, thus avoiding the notion
that the basics of accounting, like the processing of data and closing-off procedures,
are mysterious activities that take place inside a computer. This notion seems to be a
growing problem for serious students of accounting.
The book is divided into two volumes. Volume 1 deals with the concepts, principles
and procedures of financial accounting. Volume 2 (suitable for NQF level 6) deals with
accounting for partnerships, close corporations, branches and manufacturing entities.
Volume 2 also covers some management accounting principles such as budgets and
the analysis and interpretation of financial statements. It introduces the reader to com-
panies and discusses ordinary shares and different types of preference shares, the
calculation of dividends in respect of the different share types, conversions and de-
bentures issues at par, at a discount and at a premium. This edition has been updated
with the March 2018 Conceptual Framework and introduces International Financial
Reporting Standards (IFRSs) to readers. The standards that are covered in Volume 2
are IAS 1 (presentation of financial statements), an introduction to financial instruments,
and IAS 7 (cash flows).
The authors of this book represent a large pool of lecturing and practical experience
gained over many years of work and study. This book reflects the hard work and deter-
mination of these authors, for which we are very grateful.
The editors
November 2018
v
Table of abbreviations
vii
Contents
Page
Preface .................................................................................................................... v
Table of abbreviations ............................................................................................ vii
1. The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting ..................... 1
2. The financial position .................................................................................... 21
3. The financial performance ............................................................................ 33
4. The recording of transactions ....................................................................... 45
5. Processing accounting data ......................................................................... 71
6. Adjustments .................................................................................................. 109
7. The closing-off procedure, determining profit and
preparing financial statements ..................................................................... 127
8. Cash and cash equivalents .......................................................................... 163
9. Credit granted: Trade and other receivables ............................................... 197
10. Inventory ....................................................................................................... 233
11. Property, plant and equipment ..................................................................... 249
12. Other non-current assets and financial assets ............................................. 283
13. Current liabilities ........................................................................................... 295
14. Non-current liabilities .................................................................................... 311
15. Financial statements of a sole proprietorship ............................................... 323
16. Non-profit entities .......................................................................................... 339
17. Incomplete records ....................................................................................... 369
Index ....................................................................................................................... 385
ix
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CHAPTER 1
The basic concepts, principles and objectives
of accounting
Contents
Page
Overview of financial accounting ............................................................................ 3
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 3
1.2 What is bookkeeping and what is accounting? ............................................ 4
1.3 Why study accounting? ................................................................................ 5
1.4 Developments in accounting ........................................................................ 5
1.5 The function of accounting ........................................................................... 6
1.6 The reporting entity concept ......................................................................... 7
1.7 The nature of and the need for financial information .................................... 8
1.8 Users of financial information ....................................................................... 9
1.9 The objective of general purpose financial statements ................................ 10
1.10 Financial performance, changes in equity, financial position and
cash flow ....................................................................................................... 10
1.10.1 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income ......... 10
1.10.2 Statement of changes in equity ....................................................... 11
1.10.3 Statement of financial position......................................................... 11
1.10.4 Statement of cash flows................................................................... 13
1.11 The accounting process ............................................................................... 13
1.12 The domains of accounting .......................................................................... 14
1.13 Going concern assumption .......................................................................... 14
1.14 Fundamental qualitative characteristics of financial statements .................. 15
1.14.1 Relevance ........................................................................................ 15
1.14.2 Faithful representation ..................................................................... 16
1.14.3 Further enhancements to the qualitative characteristics of
financial information......................................................................... 16
1.14.3.1 Comparability .................................................................. 16
1.14.3.2 Verifiability ....................................................................... 16
1.14.3.3 Timeliness ....................................................................... 16
1.14.3.4 Understandability ............................................................ 17
1.14.3.5 Applying the enhancing qualitative characteristics ........ 17
1.14.4 The cost constraint on useful financial reporting............................. 17
1
2 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
Page
1.15 The elements of financial statements ........................................................... 17
1.16 Recognition of the elements of financial statements .................................... 17
1.17 Measurement of the elements of financial statements ................................. 18
1.18 Summary ....................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 3
ACCOUNTING
Bookkeeping
• Orderly & systematic
• Reporting on the financial results
of these transactions • Identification &
• Provision of financial information recording of
monetary value
• Generating financial statements as
of economic
basis for decision-making
transactions
1.1 Introduction
Study objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
l describe how accounting developed over the ages;
l define accounting;
l describe the function of accounting;
l explain the entity concept;
l explain why an accounting framework is necessary;
l describe the nature of and the need for financial information;
l identify the various users of financial information;
l describe what the objectives of financial statements are;
l explain what is meant by financial performance, changes in equity, financial
position and cash flow;
l describe what the accounting process entails;
continued
4 About Financial Accounting: Volume 1
The above definition indicates that accounting must fulfil the following requirements:
l the orderly and systematic recording of
l the monetary values of
l economic transactions of
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 5
The 300 years between Pacioli’s Summa and the more scientific accounting of the
nineteenth century was a period of refinement and elaboration of the procedures
described by Pacioli. The Summa became the standard reference work for book-
keepers and a model for numerous textbooks that provided a record of bookkeeping
innovations between the fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries.
The development of bookkeeping can be divided into three phases:
l The period from 1450 to 1560: Business practices were more sophisticated than
textbooks, and authors tried to promote bookkeeping mechanics as developed by
merchants.
l The period from 1560 to about 1800: Major improvements were made to the
bookkeeping model and theoretical research on bookkeeping began, especially
with the emergence of financial statements and the acknowledgement of
enterprises as being separate and distinct from their owners.
l The period since 1800: Manufacturing operations, income tax and the emerging
accounting profession have acted as major stimulants to the development of
bookkeeping.
The early literature mainly described the technique of bookkeeping, i.e. how
transactions could be recorded according to the double-entry system. The
development of the theory of accounting, i.e. the why as opposed to the how, began
only in the nineteenth century.
Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the formation of professional accounting
societies began in many countries. The purpose of the various institutes and societies
was to make recommendations on accounting practice to their members. This was to
improve uniformity in dealing with financial transactions and to formulate basic
principles applicable to financial statements. Today, the issuing of recommendations
on accounting practice is one of the most important functions of professional societies
of accountants and auditors throughout the world.
The first organised society of accountants in South Africa came into being in 1894,
with the formation of the Institute of Accountants in the then South African Republic
(the ZAR). Today, the profession in South Africa is organised into various provincial
and national accounting institutes and societies, the most prominent being the South
African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA).
Currently, the Audit Profession Act 26 of 2005 controls the practising section of the
accountancy profession in South Africa. This legislation regulates the Public
Accountants’ and Auditors’ Board, whose functions include registering accountants
and auditors who are permitted to practice in public, ensuring discipline in the
profession and training accountants.
and costs on the one hand and the higher selling price on the other is called a profit.
The proceeds from the profit increase the assets of the entity and are available for use.
The financial results of economic activities therefore have two aspects:
l the value added to the net worth of a person or an entity during a particular period;
and
l the accumulated net worth of that person or entity.
A single statement may not be enough to fulfil all the needs of a user of the information
since information about one transaction may be included in different statements. For
example, the information disclosed on the statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income may give an incomplete picture of the entity’s performance
and the information in the statement of financial position and statement of cash flows,
or even that disclosed in the notes or schedules, may be necessary.
The notes and schedules include aspects such as risks and uncertainties that may
influence the future results or position of the entity. Resources and obligations not
disclosed on the statement of financial position (such as insurance claims against or
by the institution) are also included in the notes. It would therefore be necessary to
make a study of the complete set of financial statements before a decision can be
made.
Information about the financial results of an entity is provided in a complete set of
financial statements consisting of:
l a statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
l a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the period. It can
also be called the statement of financial performance;
l notes comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other
explanatory information;
l a statement of cash flows for the period;
l a statement of changes in equity for the period; and
l the methods, assumptions and judgements used in estimating the amounts
presented or disclosed and changes in those methods, assumptions and
judgements.
entity to which the information relates must be clearly defined. A person using the
financial information must be sure about the identity of the entity concerned.
Most entities are defined legally, i.e. by statute – for example, companies registered in
terms of the Companies Act or close corporations registered in terms of the Close
Corporations Act – or by common law, and can be identified fairly easily. In terms of
the Companies Act, an incorporated (registered) company is a legal person and is
therefore an independent entity.
Specifications regarding the accounting concepts, principles, procedures and
methods are not given in the Act. These have been laid down by the accounting
profession. The same requirement applies to close corporations and other institutions
created by statute.
An accounting entity does not necessarily have to be an acknowledged legal entity.
Any economic entity, whether it exists as an individual legal entity or not, for which
separate financial statements must be prepared, can be considered to be an
accounting entity.
In the private sector, there are mainly four types of business organisations with profit
motives that can be considered as individual entities:
l sole traders (or sole proprietors);
l partnerships;
l close corporations; and
l companies.
A wide variety of private-sector organisations with various objectives and without a
profit motive can be regarded as individual entities:
l clubs;
l charitable organisations;
l churches;
l educational institutions;
l associations; and
l trusts.
In the public sector, the state as a whole or individual government establishments
such as provinces, state departments, municipalities, boards and commissions are all
regarded as accounting entities.
Planning decisions are sometimes very simple as in, for example, the case of
routine activities, sometimes very complex when, for example, decisions regarding
the financial strategy and planning of an entity for the next financial year are to be
made.
l Control decisions entail using financial information to evaluate the results of
financial activities. A control decision can be that the decision-maker is satisfied
with the results and that no further action is required. If the decision-maker is not
satisfied with the results, action, which will lead to additional corrective steps being
taken, may be necessary.
The most important control function of financial information is the provision of
accountability and stewardship. Financial accountability is the responsibility of a
person to whom assets have been entrusted and entails giving account to the
provider of the assets regarding the use of the assets. The provider of the assets
exercises control over the use of the assets through the enforcement of
accountability.
The different decision-makers have different needs and use the information disclosed
in the financial statements differently.
The financial performance reflects the profit made or the loss incurred by the entity
over a specific period of time. It is reported in a statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. A statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
reports the two elements of financial performance, i.e. revenue that was earned and
expenses that were incurred to earn the revenue. The difference between the revenue
and the expenses results in the profit or loss for that specific period. The various types
of revenue and expenses are shown as separate items on the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income.
Information about the performance of an entity is required to assess potential changes
in the economic resources that the entity may control in the future. This type of
information is useful in predicting the capacity of the entity to generate cash flows from
its existing resources. It may also help in assessing the effectiveness of the way in
which new resources will be managed. Example 1.1 shows the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income of Alpha Services.
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 11
Example 1.1
Alpha Services
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for
the year ended 31 March 20.2
R
Revenue 850 000
Income from services rendered 850 000
Distribution, administrative and other expenses (579 000)
Salaries 520 000
Wages 50 000
Telephone expenses 4 000
Stationery 2 000
Insurance 3 000
R
Balance at 1 April 20.1 409 000
Additional capital invested 100 000
Profit/Total comprehensive income for the year 271 000
Drawings (90 000)
Balance at 31 March 20.2 690 000
R
ASSETS
Property, plant and equipment 500 000
Trade and other receivables 100 000
Cash and cash equivalents 300 000
900 000
The first part of the statement of financial position reflects the assets of the entity, while
the second part reflects the sources from which the assets were financed.
The first part of the statement of financial position in example 1.3 shows that assets to
the value of R900 000 were in the possession of Alpha Services as at 31 March 20.2.
The statement of financial position also shows a breakdown of the total assets into the
various types of assets.
The second part of the statement of financial position shows the sources from which
the assets were financed. The owner, Mr Alpha, made a personal contribution of
R690 000 which he invested in Alpha Services. The entity therefore owes this amount
to the personal account of Mr Alpha. Alpha Services also borrowed an amount of
R150 000 from the bank. Creditors supplied goods and/or services to Alpha Services
to the value of R60 000. Alpha Services must repay these amounts in future.
Two main types of sources of finance are distinguished, namely equity and liabilities.
The contribution by the owner is the equity. Equity represents the interest of the
owner(s) in the assets of the entity. Liabilities are the amounts owing to creditors, for
purchases or services received which are to be paid for at a later stage, or financial
institutions from which the entity borrowed money. Liabilities reflect the claims of
creditors against the assets of the entity. The statement of financial position therefore
Chapter 1: The basic concepts, principles and objectives of accounting 13
reflects the three elements of the financial position – assets, equity and liabilities, as
indicated in diagram 1.2:
Diagram 1.2
The information processed in the accounting records is then presented in the financial
statements and communicated to the users of the information. The accounting process
will be explained in detail from chapter 2.
— Kihlatutko?
Hän poistui.
CAROLIS'IN LUONA.
— He ovat oikeassa.
— Tunnetteko Alsheimin?
— Yliopistolle päin.
— Sinnehän minäkin.
— Olivat kyllä.
— Nimesi?
KOHTAAMINEN.
— Entä sitten?
— Huvittava tuttavuusko?
— Hänkö?
— Ja miksi niin?
Syntyi hiljaisuus; isku oli sattunut. Jean kävi aivan kalpeaksi. Hän
jatkoi:
— Kuinka niin?
— Niin onkin.
— Entä sitten?
— Otin?
— Niin.
— Niin.
— Entä muut?
— Rakas Jean, rakas Jean veikko, hän sanoi, sen, minkä minun
tähteni teet, palkitsen auttamalla sinua parhaani mukaan. Kukapa
tietää, emmekö yhteisvoimin voine selvittää pulmaa?