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 Preface vii

Web Research Each chapter offers web research activities that encourage students to
further study the topics introduced in the chapter.

Focus on Web Design Most chapters offer additional activities that explore the web
design topics related to the chapter. These activities can be used to reinforce, extend, and
enhance the course topics.

FAQs In the author’s web development courses, she is frequently asked similar questions
by students. They are included in this textbook and are marked with the identifying FAQ logo.

Checkpoints Each chapter contains two or three Checkpoints, which are groups of
questions to be used by students to self-assess their understanding of the material. A
­special Checkpoint icon appears with each group of questions.

Focus on Accessibility Developing accessible websites is more important than

ever and this textbook is infused with accessibility techniques throughout. The special icon Focus on
shown here makes accessibility information easy to find. Accessibility

Focus on Ethics Ethics issues related to web development are highlighted through-
out the textbook and are marked with the special ethics icon shown here.

Reference Materials The appendixes in the Web Developer’s Handbook offer ref-
erence materials, including an HTML5 Quick Reference, an XHTML Quick Reference,
­Special Entity Characters, Comparison of XHTML and HTML5, a CSS Property Reference,
a WCAG 2.0 Quick Reference, an FTP Tutorial, and a Web-Safe Color Palette.

VideoNotes VideoNotes are Pearson’s new visual tool designed for teaching students
key programming concepts and techniques. These short step-by-step videos demon-
VideoNote
strate how to solve problems from design through coding. VideoNotes allow for self-placed
instruction with easy navigation including the ability to select, play, rewind, fast-forward,
and stop within each VideoNote exercise.
Margin icons in your textbook let you know when a VideoNote video is available for a
particular concept or homework problem.

Supplemental Materials
Student Resources The student files for the web page exercises, Website Case
Study assignments, and access to the book’s VideoNotes are available to all readers of
this textbook at its companion website http://www.pearsonhighered.com/felke-morris. A
complimentary access code for the companion website is available with a new copy of this
textbook. Subscriptions may also be purchased online.

Instructor Resources The following supplements are available to qualified ­instructors

only. Visit the Pearson Instructor Resource Center (http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc) or
send an e-mail to computing@aw.com for information on how to access them:
• Solutions to the end-of-chapter exercises
• Solutions for the case study assignments

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 7 12/21/15 7:04 PM

 viii Preface

• Test questions
• PowerPoint® presentations
• Sample syllabi

Author’s Website In addition to the publisher’s companion website for this textbook,
the author maintains a website at http://www.webdevfoundations.net. This website contains
additional resources, including review activities and a page for each chapter with exam-
ples, links, and updates. This website is not supported by the publisher.

Acknowledgments
Very special thanks go to all the folks at Pearson, especially Michael Hirsch,
Matt Goldstein, Carole Snyder, Camille Trentacoste, and Scott Disanno.
Thank you to the following people who provided comments and suggestions that were
useful for this eighth edition and previous editions:
Carolyn Andres—Richland College
James Bell—Central Virginia Community College
Ross Beveridge—Colorado State University
Karmen Blake—Spokane Community College
Jim Buchan—College of the Ozarks
Dan Dao—Richland College
Joyce M. Dick—Northeast Iowa Community College
Elizabeth Drake—Santa Fe Community College
Mark DuBois—Illinois Central College
Genny Espinoza—Richland College
Carolyn Z. Gillay—Saddleback College
Sharon Gray—Augustana College
Tom Gutnick—Northern Virginia Community College
Jason Hebert—Pearl River Community College
Sadie Hébert—Mississippi Gulf Coast College
Lisa Hopkins—Tulsa Community College
Barbara James—Richland Community College
Nilofar Kadivi—Richland Community College
Jean Kent—Seattle Community College
Mary Keramidas—Sante Fe College
Karen Kowal Wiggins—Wisconsin Indianhead Technical College
Manasseh Lee—Richland Community College
Nancy Lee—College of Southern Nevada
Kyle Loewenhagen—Chippewa Valley Technical College
Michael J. Losacco—College of DuPage
Les Lusk—Seminole Community College
Mary A. McKenzie—Central New Mexico Community College
Bob McPherson—Surry Community College
Cindy Mortensen—Truckee Meadows Community College
John Nadzam—Community College of Allegheny County
Teresa Nickeson—University of Dubuque
Brita E. Penttila—Wake Technical Community College
Anita Philipp—Oklahoma City Community College

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 8 12/21/15 7:04 PM

 Preface ix

Jerry Ross—Lane Community College

Noah Singer—Tulsa Community College
Alan Strozer—Canyons College
Lo-An Tabar-Gaul—Mesa Community College
Jonathan S. Weissman—Finger Lakes Community College
Tebring Wrigley—Community College of Allegheny County
Michelle Youngblood-Petty—Richland College

A special thank you also goes to Jean Kent, North Seattle Community College, and Teresa
Nickeson, University of Dubuque, for taking time to provide additional feedback and
sharing student comments about the book.
Thanks are in order to colleagues at William Rainey Harper College for their support and
encouragement, especially Ken Perkins, Enrique D’Amico, and Dave Braunschweig.
Most of all, I would like to thank my family for their patience and encouragement. My
wonderful husband, Greg Morris, has been a constant source of love, understanding,
support, and encouragement. Thank you, Greg! A big shout-out to my children, James and
Karen, who grew up thinking that everyone’s Mom had their own website. Thank you both
for your understanding, patience, and timely suggestions! And, finally, a very special
dedication to the memory of my father who is greatly missed.

About the Author

Terry Ann Felke-Morris is a Professor Emerita of Computer Information Systems at William
Rainey Harper College in Palatine, Illinois. She holds a Doctor of Education degree, a
Master of Science degree in information systems, and numerous certifications, including
Adobe Certified Dreamweaver 8 Developer, WOW Certified Associate Webmaster, Microsoft
Certified Professional, Master CIW Designer, and CIW Certified Instructor.
Dr. Felke-Morris has been honored with Harper College’s Glenn A. Reich Memorial Award
for Instructional Technology in recognition of her work in designing the college’s Web
Development program and courses. In 2006, she received the Blackboard Greenhouse
Exemplary Online Course Award for use of Internet technology in the academic
environment. Dr. Felke-Morris received two international awards in 2008: the Instructional
Technology Council’s Outstanding e-Learning Faculty Award for Excellence and the
MERLOT Award for Exemplary Online Learning Resources—MERLOT Business Classics.
With more than 25 years of information technology experience in business and industry,
Dr. Felke-Morris published her first website in 1996 and has been working with the Web
ever since. A long-time promoter of Web standards, she was a member of the Web
Standards Project Education Task Force. Dr. Felke-Morris was instrumental in developing
the Web Development certificate and degree programs at William Rainey Harper College.
For more information about Dr. Terry Ann Felke-Morris, visit http://terrymorris.net.

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 9 12/21/15 7:04 PM

 Contents

Chapter 1 1.7 Uniform Resource Identifiers and Domain

Names 13
URIs and URLs 13
Introduction to the Internet and Domain Names 13
World Wide Web 1 1.8 Markup Languages 16
1.1 The Internet and the Web 2 Standard Generalized Markup Language
The Internet 2 (SGML) 16
Birth of the Internet 2 Hypertext Markup Language
Growth of the Internet 2 (HTML) 16
Birth of the Web 2 Extensible Markup Language
The First Graphical Browser 2 (XML) 16
Convergence of Technologies 3 Extensible Hypertext Markup Language
(XHTML) 17
Who Runs the Internet? 3
HTML5—the Newest Version
Intranets and Extranets 4
of HTML 17
1.2 Web Standards and Accessibility 4
W3C Recommendations 4
1.9 Popular Uses of the Web 17
E-Commerce 17
Web Standards and Accessibility 5
Mobile Access 18
Accessibility and the Law 5
Blogs 18
Universal Design for the Web 5
Wikis 18
1.3 Information on the Web 6 Social Networking 18
Reliability and Information on the Web 6 Cloud Computing 19
Ethical Use of Information on the Web 7 RSS 19
1.4 Network Overview 8 Podcasts 19
Web 2.0 19
1.5 The Client/Server Model 9
1.6 Internet Protocols 10 Chapter Summary 21
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 10 Key Terms 21
E-mail Protocols 11 Review Questions 21
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 11 Hands-On Exercise 22
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol Web Research 23
(TCP/IP) 11 Focus on Web Design 24

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 Contents xi

Chapter 2 2.18 HTML Validation

Chapter Summary 62
59

HTML Basics 25 Key Terms 62

Review Questions 63
2.1 HTML Overview 26
Apply Your Knowledge 64
HTML 26
Hands-On Exercises 65
XML 26
Web Research 66
XHTML 26
Focus on Web Design 66
HTML5 27
Website Case Study 66
2.2 Document Type Definition 27
2.3 Web Page Template 28
2.4 HTML Element 28
2.5 Head, Title, Meta, and Body
Chapter 3
Elements 28 Configuring Color and Text
The Head Section 28 with CSS 81
The Body Section 29
3.1 Overview of Cascading Style
2.6 Your First Web Page 29 Sheets 82
2.7 Heading Element 33 Advantages of Cascading Style Sheets 82
Accessibility and Headings 35 Configuring Cascading Style Sheets 83
CSS Selectors and Declarations 83
2.8 Paragraph Element 35 The background-color Property 83
Alignment 36
The color Property 84
2.9 Line Break Element 37 Configure Background and Text Color 84
2.10 Blockquote Element 38 3.2 Using Color on Web Pages 85
Hexadecimal Color Values 86
2.11 Phrase Elements 39
Web-Safe Colors 86
2.12 Ordered List 40 CSS Color Syntax 86
The Type, Start, and Reversed
Attributes 41 3.3 Inline CSS with the Style Attribute 87
The Style Attribute 87
2.13 Unordered List 42
3.4 Embedded CSS with the Style
2.14 Description List 44 Element 89
2.15 Special Characters 46 Style Element 89
2.16 Structural Elements 47 3.5 Configuring Text with CSS 92
The Div Element 47 The font-family Property 92
HTML5 Structural Elements 48 More CSS Text Properties 94
The Header Element 48 CSS3 text-shadow Property 97
The Nav Element 48
3.6 CSS Class, Id, and Descendant
The Main Element 48
Selectors 100
The Footer Element 48
The Class Selector 100
Practice with Structural Elements 50
The Id Selector 101
2.17 Anchor Element 51 The Descendant Selector 102
Absolute Hyperlinks 53 3.7 Span Element 104
Relative Hyperlinks 53
Site Map 53
3.8 Using External Style Sheets 105
Link Element 105
E-Mail Hyperlinks 57
Accessibility and Hyperlinks 58 3.9 Center HTML Elements with CSS 110

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 xii Contents

3.10 The “Cascade” 112 4.8 CSS3 Visual Effects 165

3.11 CSS Validation 115 The CSS3 background-clip
Property 165
Chapter Summary 117 The CSS3 background-origin
Key Terms 117 Property 166
Review Questions 117 The CSS3 background-size
Apply Your Knowledge 118 Property 166
Hands-On Exercises 120 CSS3 Multiple Background Images 168
Web Research 122 CSS3 Rounded Corners 170
Focus on Web Design 122 The CSS3 box-shadow Property 172
Website Case Study 123 The CSS3 opacity Property 176
CSS3 RGBA Color 178

Chapter 4 CSS3 HSLA Color 180

CSS3 Gradients 183

Visual Elements and Graphics 135 Chapter Summary 185

Key Terms 185
4.1 Configuring Lines and Borders 136
Review Questions 185
The Horizontal Rule Element 136
Apply Your Knowledge 187
The border and padding Properties 136
Hands-On Exercises 188
4.2 Types of Graphics 142 Web Research 189
Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) Images 142 Focus on Web Design 190
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) Website Case Study 190
Images 143

5
Portable Network Graphic (PNG) Images 144
New WebP Image Format 144
Chapter
4.3 Image Element 145
Accessibility and Images 146
Web Design 205
Image Hyperlinks 147 5.1 Design for Your Target Audience 206
Accessibility and Image Hyperlinks 149 5.2 Website Organization 207
4.4 HTML5 Visual Elements 150 Hierarchical Organization 207
HTML5 Figure and Figcaption Elements 151 Linear Organization 208
HTML5 Meter Element 153 Random Organization 208
HTML5 Progress Element 153 5.3 Principles of Visual Design 209
4.5 Background Images 154 Repetition: Repeat Visual Components
The background-image Property 154 Throughout the Design 209
Browser Display of a Background Image 154 Contrast: Add Visual Excitement and Draw
Attention 209
The background-repeat Property 155
Proximity: Group Related Items 210
The background-position Property 157
Alignment: Align Elements to Create Visual
The background-attachment Property 158
Unity 210
4.6 More About Images 158
5.4 Design to Provide Accessibility 210
Image Maps 158
Who Benefits from Universal Design and
The Favorites Icon 160 Increased Accessibility? 211
Configuring a Favorites Icon 160 Accessible Design Can Benefit Search Engine
Image Slicing 162 Listing 211
CSS Sprites 162 Accessibility is the Right Thing
4.7 Sources and Guidelines for Graphics 162 to Do 211
Sources of Graphics 162 5.5 Writing for the Web 212
Guidelines for Using Images 163 Organize Your Content 212
Accessibility and Visual Elements 164 Choosing a Font 213

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 Contents xiii

Font Size 213 5.12 Web Design Best Practices

Font Weight 213 Checklist 234
Font Color Contrast 213
Line Length 214 Chapter Summary 238
Alignment 214 Key Terms 238
Text in Hyperlinks 214 Review Questions 238
Reading Level 214 Hands-On Exercises 239
Spelling and Grammar 214 Web Research 242
Focus on Web Design 242
5.6 Use of Color 214
Website Case Study 243
Color Scheme Based on an Image 214
Color Wheel 215
Shades, Tints, Tones 215
Color Scheme Based on the
Color Wheel 216
Chapter 6
Implementing a Color Scheme 217 Page Layout 247
Accessibility and Color 217 6.1 The Box Model 248
Colors and Your Target Audience 218 Content 248
5.7 Use of Graphics and Multimedia 220 Padding 248
File Size and Image Dimensions Border 248
Matter 220 Margin 248
Antialiased/Aliased Text in Media 220 The Box Model in Action 249
Use Only Necessary Multimedia 221
6.2 Normal Flow 250
Provide Alternate Text 221
6.3 CSS Float 252
5.8 More Design Considerations 221
Load Time 221
6.4 CSS: Clearing a Float 254
The clear Property 254
Above the Fold 222
The overflow Property 255
White Space 223
Avoid Horizontal Scrolling 223 6.5 CSS Box Sizing 257
Browsers 223 6.6 CSS Two-Column Layout 258
Screen Resolution 223 Your First Two-Column Layout 258
5.9 Navigation Design 224 Two-Column Layout Example 261
Ease of Navigation 224 6.7 Hyperlinks in an Unordered List 262
Navigation Bars 224 Configure List Markers with CSS 262
Breadcrumb Navigation 224 Vertical Navigation with an Unordered List 263
Using Graphics for Navigation 225 Horizontal Navigation with an Unordered List 264
Skip Repetitive Navigation 225
Dynamic Navigation 225
6.8 CSS Interactivity with
Pseudo-Classes 265
Site Map 226
CSS Buttons 267
Site Search Feature 227
5.10 Page Layout Design 227
6.9 Practice with CSS Two-Column
Layout 268
Wireframes and Page Layout 227
Page Layout Design Techniques 228 6.10 Header Text Image Replacement 271
Improved Header Text Image Replacement
5.11 Design for the Mobile Web 231 Technique 272
Three Approaches 231
Mobile Device Design Considerations 231
6.11 Practice with an Image Gallery 273
Example Desktop Website and Mobile 6.12 Positioning with CSS 276
Website 232 Static Positioning 276
Mobile Design Quick Checklist 232 Fixed Positioning 276
Responsive Web Design 232 Relative Positioning 276

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 xiv Contents

Absolute Positioning 277 7.7 CSS3 Media Queries 331

Practice with Positioning 278 What’s a Media Query? 331
6.13 CSS Debugging Techniques 280 Media Query Example Using a Link
Verify Correct HTML Syntax 280 Element 332
Verify Correct CSS Syntax 280 Media Query Example Using an @media
Configure Temporary Background Colors 280 Rule 332
Configure Temporary Borders 280 7.8 Responsive Images 336
Use Comments to Find the Unexpected Flexible Images with CSS 336
Cascade 281 HTML5.1 Picture Element 338
6.14 More HTML5 Structural Elements 282 HTML5.1 Responsive Img Element
The Section Element 282 Attributes 340
The Article Element 282 Explore Responsive Images 341
The Aside Element 282 7.9 Testing Mobile Display 342
The Time Element 282 Testing with a Desktop Browser 342
6.15 HTML5 Compatibility with Older For Serious Developers Only 343
Browsers 284 Media Queries and Internet Explorer 343
Configure CSS Block Display 285 Mobile First 343
HTML5 Shim 285 7.10 CSS3 Flexible Box Layout 344
Configure a Flexible Container 344
Chapter Summary 287
Configure the Flex Items 345
Key Terms 287
Review Questions 287 Chapter Summary 350
Apply Your Knowledge 288 Key Terms 350
Hands-On Exercises 291 Review Questions 350
Web Research 292 Apply Your Knowledge 351
Focus on Web Design 292 Hands-On Exercises 354
Website Case Study 292 Web Research 355

7
Focus on Web Design 355
Website Case Study 356
Chapter
More on Links, Layout, and
Mobile 307 Chapter 8
7.1 Another Look at Hyperlinks 308 Tables 371
More on Relative Linking 308 8.1 Table Overview 372
Relative Link Examples 308 Table Element 372
Fragment Identifiers 310 The border Attribute 373
Landmark Roles with ARIA 312 Table Captions 373
The Target Attribute 312 8.2 Table Rows, Cells, and Headers 374
Block Anchor 313 Table Row Element 374
Telephone and Text Message Hyperlinks 313 Table Data Element 374
7.2 CSS Sprites 313 Table Header Element 374
7.3 Three-Column CSS Page Layout 316 8.3 Span Rows and Columns 376
7.4 CSS Styling for Print 322 The colspan Attribute 376
Print Styling Best Practices 323 The rowspan Attribute 376

7.5 Designing for the Mobile Web 327 8.4 Configure an Accessible Table 378
Mobile Web Design Best Practices 328 8.5 Style a Table with CSS 380
7.6 Viewport Meta Tag 330 8.6 CSS3 Structural Pseudo-Classes 382

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 Contents xv

8.7 Configure Table Sections 384 Telephone Number Input 425

Search Field Input 426
Chapter Summary 387 Datalist Form Control 426
Key Terms 387 Slider Form Control 427
Review Questions 387 Spinner Form Control 428
Apply Your Knowledge 388 Calendar Form Control 429
Hands-On Exercises 390 Color-well Form Control 430
Web Research 391 HTML5 and Progressive Enhancement 433
Focus on Web Design 391
Website Case Study 391 Chapter Summary 434
Key Terms 434

9
Review Questions 434
Apply Your Knowledge 435
Chapter Hands-On Exercises 437
Web Research 438
Forms 399
Focus on Web Design 439
9.1 Overview of Forms 400 Website Case Study 440
Form Element 400

10
Form Controls 401
9.2 Input Element Form Controls 401
Chapter
Text Box 402
Submit Button 403 Web Development 451
Reset Button 403
10.1 Successful Large-Scale Project
Check Box 405
Development 452
Radio Button 406
Project Job Roles 452
Hidden Input Control 407
Project Staffing Criteria 453
Password Box 408
10.2 The Development Process 453
9.3 Scrolling Text Box 408 Conceptualization 455
Textarea Element 408
Analysis 456
9.4 Select List 411 Design 456
Select Element 411 Production 458
Option Element 412 Testing 458
9.5 Image Buttons and the Button Launch 461
Element 413 Maintenance 462
Image Button 413 Evaluation 462
Button Element 413 10.3 Domain Name Overview 462
9.6 Accessibility and Forms 414 Choosing a Domain Name 462
Label Element 414 Registering a Domain Name 463
Fieldset and Legend Elements 416 10.4 Web Hosting 464
The tabindex Attribute 418 Web Hosting Providers 464
The accesskey Attribute 418
10.5 Choosing a Virtual Host 465
9.7 Style a Form with CSS 419
Chapter Summary 468
9.8 Server-Side Processing 420 Key Terms 468
Privacy and Forms 423 Review Questions 468
Server-Side Processing Resources 423 Hands-On Exercises 469
9.9 HTML5 Form Controls 424 Web Research 471
E-mail Address Input 424 Focus on Web Design 472
URL Input 425 Website Case Study 472

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 15 12/21/15 7:04 PM

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 xvi Contents

Chapter 11 Chapter Summary 507

Key Terms 507
Review Questions 507
Web Multimedia and Apply Your Knowledge 509
Interactivity 473 Hands-On Exercises 510
Web Research 510
11.1 Plug-Ins, Containers, and Codecs 474
Focus on Web Design 511
11.2 Getting Started with Audio and Website Case Study 512
Video 476

12
Provide a Hyperlink 476
Working with Multimedia on the Web 477
Chapter
11.3 Adobe Flash 479
HTML5 Embed Element 479 E-Commerce Overview 517
Flash Resources 481 12.1 What Is E-Commerce? 518
11.4 HTML5 Audio and Video Elements 482 Advantages of E-Commerce 518
Audio Element 482 Risks of E-Commerce 519
Source Element 483 12.2 E-Commerce Business
HTML5 Audio on a Web Page 483 Models 520
Video Element 484 12.3 Electronic Data Interchange
Source Element 485 (EDI) 520
HTML5 Video on a Web Page 485
12.4 E-Commerce Statistics 520
11.5 M
 ultimedia Files and Copyright
Law 487 12.5 E-Commerce Issues 521
11.6 CSS and Interactivity 487 12.6 E-Commerce Security 523
Encryption 523
CSS Drop Down Menu 487
Integrity 524
CSS3 Transform Property 489
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 524
CSS3 Rotate Transform 490
Digital Certificate 525
CSS3 Scale Transform 490
SSL and Digital Certificates 526
CSS Transition Property 490
Practice with Transitions 493 12.7 Order and Payment Processing 526
Credit Card 527
11.7 Java 495
Stored-value Card 527
Adding a Java Applet to a
Web Page 496 Digital Wallet 527
Java Applet Resources 498 Digital Cash 527

11.8 JavaScript 498 12.8 E-Commerce Storefront

JavaScript Resources 500 Solutions 528
Instant Online Storefront 528
11.9 Ajax 500
Off-the-Shelf Shopping Cart Software 528
Ajax Resources 501
Custom-Built Solutions 528
11.10 jQuery 501 Semi-Custom-Built Solutions on
jQuery Resources 502 a Budget 529
11.11 HTML5 APIs 502 Chapter Summary 530
Geolocation 502 Key Terms 530
Web Storage 502 Review Questions 530
Offline Web Applications 503 Hands-On Exercises 531
Drawing with the Canvas Element 503 Web Research 532
11.12 Accessibility and Multimedia/ Focus on Web Design 533
Interactivity 505 Website Case Study 533

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 16 12/21/15 7:04 PM

 Contents xvii

13
Review Questions 564

Chapter Hands-On Exercises 565

Web Research 566
Web Promotion 547 Focus on Web Design 566
13.1 Search Engine Overview 548 Website Case Study 567

13.2 Popular Search Engines 548

13.3 Components of a Search Engine
Robot 548
548
Chapter 14
Database 549 A Brief Look at JavaScript and
Search Form 549 jQuery 571
13.4 Search Engine Optimization 549 14.1 Overview of JavaScript 572
Keywords 550
Page Titles 550
14.2 The Development of JavaScript 572
Heading Tags 550 14.3 Popular Uses for JavaScript 573
Description 550 Alert Message 573
Description Meta Tag 550 Popup Windows 573
Linking 551 Jump Menus 574
Images and Multimedia 551 Mouse Movement Techniques 574
Valid Code 551 14.4 Adding JavaScript to a Web Page 575
Content of Value 551 Script Element 575
13.5 Listing in a Search Engine 552 Legacy JavaScript Statement Block
Template 575
Map Your Site 553
Alert Message Box 576
Alliances 554

13.6 Monitoring Search Listings 554

14.5 Document Object Model Overview 578

13.7 Link Popularity 556 14.6 Events and Event Handlers 581

13.8 Social Media Optimization 556

14.7 Variables 584
Writing a Variable to a Web Page 584
Blogs and RSS Feeds 557
Collecting Variable Values Using a Prompt 586
Social Networking 557

13.9 Other Site Promotion Activities 557

14.8 Introduction to Programming
Concepts 588
Quick Response (QR) Codes 557
Arithmetic Operators 588
Affiliate Programs 558
Decision Making 588
Banner Ads 558
Functions 591
Banner Exchange 559
Reciprocal Link Agreements 559 14.9 Form Handling 594
Newsletters 559 14.10 Accessibility and JavaScript 600
Sticky Site Features 559
14.11 JavaScript Resources 601
Personal Recommendations 559
Newsgroup and Listserv Postings 559 14.12 Overview of jQuery 601
Traditional Media Ads and Existing Marketing 14.13 Adding jQuery to a Web Page 601
Materials 560 Download jQuery 601
13.10 Serving Dynamic Content with Inline Access jQuery via a Content Delivery
Network 602
Frames 560
The Ready Event 602
The Iframe Element 561
Video in an Inline Frame 562 14.14 jQuery Selectors 604
Chapter Summary 564 14.15 jQuery Methods 604
Key Terms 564 14.16 jQuery Image Gallery 607

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 xviii Contents

14.17 jQuery Plugins 611 Appendix C Special Entity

Characters 643
14.18 jQuery Resources 615
Appendix D Comparison of XHTML and
Chapter Summary 616 HTML5 645
Key Terms 616
Appendix E CSS Property Reference 653
Review Questions 616
Apply Your Knowledge 617 Appendix F WCAG 2.0 Quick
Hands-On Exercises 619 Reference 659
Web Research 620 Appendix G FTP Tutorial 661
Website Case Study 620
Appendix H Web-Safe Color Palette 665
Answers 667
Web Developer’s Hand book 633
Index 687
Appendix A HTML5 Quick Reference 635
Appendix B XHTML Quick Reference 639

LOCATION OF VIDEONOTES IN THE TEXT

VideoNote
A series of videos have been developed as a companion for this textbook. VideoNote
icons ­indicate the availability of a video on a specific topic.
Chapter 1 Evolution of the Web, p. 2
Chapter 2 Your First Web Page, p. 29
HTML Validation, p. 59
Chapter 3 External Style Sheets, p. 105
CSS Validation, p. 115
Chapter 4 CSS Background Images, p. 154
Rounded Corners with CSS, p. 170
Chapter 5 Principles of Visual Design, p. 209
Chapter 6 Interactivity with CSS pseudo-classes, p. 265
Chapter 7 Linking to a Named Fragment, p. 310
Chapter 8 Configure a Table, p. 372
Chapter 9 Connect a Form to Server-Side Processing, p. 421
Chapter 10 Choosing a Domain Name, p. 462
Chapter 11 HTML5 Video, p. 486
Chapter 12 E-Commerce Benefits and Risks, p. 518
Chapter 13 Configure an Inline Frame, p. 562
Chapter 14 JavaScript Message Box, p. 576

A01_FELK0746_03_SE_FM.indd 18 12/21/15 7:04 PM

 1
Introduction to the
Internet and World
Wide Web
Chapter Objectives   In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .

●● Describe the evolution of the Internet and ●● Identify ethical use of the Web
the Web ●● Describe the purpose of web browsers and
●● Explain the need for web standards web servers
●● Describe universal design ●● Identify networking protocols
●● Identify benefits of accessible web design ●● Define URIs and domain names
●● Identify reliable resources of information on ●● Describe HTML, XHTML, and HTML5
the Web ●● Describe popular trends in the use of the Web

The Internet and the Web are parts of our daily lives. How did they
begin? What networking protocols and programming languages work behind the
scenes to display a web page? This chapter provides an introduction to some of
these topics and is a foundation for the information that web developers need to
know. You’ll be introduced to Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), the language
used to create web pages.

M01_FELK0746_03_SE_C01.indd 1 12/21/15 7:05 PM

 2 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Internet and World Wide Web

1.1 The Internet and the Web

The Internet
The Internet, the interconnected network of computer networks that spans the globe,
seems to be everywhere today. It has become part of our lives. You can’t watch television
or listen to the radio without being urged to visit a website. Even newspapers and maga-
zines have their place on the Internet.

Birth of the Internet

The Internet began as a network to connect computers at research facilities and univer-
sities. Messages in this network would travel to their destination by multiple routes, or
paths. This configuration allowed the network to function even if parts of it were broken or
destroyed. In such an event, the message would be rerouted through a functioning por-
tion of the network while traveling to its destination. This network was developed by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)—and the ARPAnet was born. Four comput-
ers (located at UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, University of California Santa Barbara,
and the University of Utah) were connected by the end of 1969.

Growth of the Internet

As time went on, other networks, such as the National Science Foundation’s NSFnet, were
created and connected with the ARPAnet. Use of this interconnected network, or Internet,
was originally limited to government, research, and educational purposes. The number
of individuals accessing the Internet continues to grow each year. According to Internet
World Stats (http://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm), the percentage of the
global population that used the Internet was 0.4% in 1995, 5.8% in 2000, 15.7% in 2005,
28.8% in 2010, and 45% in 2015. Visit http://www.internetworldstats.com to explore more
statistics about the usage and growth of the Internet.
The lifting of the restriction on commercial use of the Internet in 1991 set the stage for future
electronic commerce: Businesses were now welcome on the Internet. However, the Internet
was still text based and not easy to use. The next set of developments solved this issue.

Birth of the Web

While working at CERN, a research facility in Switzerland, Tim Berners-Lee envisioned a
means of communication for scientists by which they could easily “hyperlink” to another
research paper or article and immediately view it. Berners-Lee created the World Wide
VideoNote
Evolution of the Web Web to fulfill this need. In 1991, Berners-Lee posted the code for the Web in a newsgroup
and made it freely available. This version of the World Wide Web used Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) to communicate between the client computer and the web server, used
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) to format the documents, and was text based.

The First Graphical Browser

In 1993, Mosaic, the first graphical web browser became available. Marc Andreessen and
graduate students working at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA)
at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign developed Mosaic. Some individuals in this

M01_FELK0746_03_SE_C01.indd 2 12/21/15 7:05 PM

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 liberty may mean for each man to do as he pleases, with
himself, and with the product of his labor; while with others
the same word may mean for some men to do as they please
with other men, and the product of other men’s labor. Here
are two, not only different, but incompatible things, called by
the same name, liberty. And it follows that each of the things
is, by the respective parties, called by two different and
incompatible names—liberty and tyranny.
The shepherd drives the wolf from the sheep’s throat, for
which the sheep thanks the shepherd as his liberator, while
the wolf denounces him for the same act, as the destroyer of
liberty, especially as the sheep was a black one. Plainly, the
sheep and the wolf are not agreed upon a definition of the
word liberty; and precisely the same difference prevails today
among us human creatures, even in the North, and all
professing to love liberty.[103]

So the difficulty appeared in his time, and it should hardly be

necessary to point out that no period of modern history has been
more in need of this little homily on the subject of definition than the
first half of the twentieth century.
The relationship between words and essences did then occur to
Lincoln as a problem, and we can show how he was influenced in
one highly important particular by his attention to this relationship.
Fairly early in his struggle against Douglas and others whom he
conceived to be the foes of the Union, Lincoln became convinced
that the perdurability of laws and other institutions is bound up with
the acceptance of the principle of contradiction. Or, if that seems an
unduly abstract way of putting the matter, let us say that he came to
repudiate, as firmly as anyone in practical politics may do, those
people who try by relativistic interpretations and other sophistries to
evade the force of some basic principles. The heart of Lincoln’s
statesmanship, indeed, lay in his perception that on some matters
one has to say “Yes” or “No,” that one has to accept an alternative to
the total exclusion of the other, and that any weakness in being thus
bold is a betrayal. Let us examine some of the stages by which this
conviction grew upon him.
It seems not generally appreciated that this position comprises the
essence of the celebrated “House Divided” speech, delivered before
the Republican State Convention at Springfield, June 16, 1858.
There he said: “‘A house divided against itself cannot stand.’ I
believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and
half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect
the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will
become all one thing or all the other.”[104] How manifest it is that
Lincoln’s position was not one of “tolerance,” as that word is vulgarly
understood today. It was a definite insistence upon right, with no
regard for latitude and longitude in moral questions. For Lincoln such
questions could neither be relativistically decided nor held in
abeyance. There was no middle ground. In the light of American
political tradition the stand is curiously absolute, but it is there—and
it is genuinely expressive of Lincoln’s matured view.
Douglas had made the fatal mistake of looking for a position in the
excluded middle. He had been trying to get slavery admitted into the
territories by feigning that the institution was morally indifferent. His
platform declaration had been that he did not care “whether it is
voted up or voted down” in the territories. That statement made a
fine opening for Lincoln, which he used as follows in his reply at
Alton:

Any man can say that who does not see anything wrong in
slavery, but no man can logically say it who does see a wrong
in it; because no man can logically say he don’t care whether
a wrong is voted up or down. He may say he don’t care
whether an indifferent thing is voted up or down, but he must
logically have a choice between a right thing and a wrong
thing. He contends that whatever community wants slaves
has a right to have them. So they have if it is not a wrong. But
if it is a wrong, he cannot say people have a right to do a
wrong.[105]
 In a speech at Cincinnati the following year, he used a figure from
the Bible to express his opposition to compromise. “The good old
maxims of the Bible are applicable, and truly applicable, to human
affairs, and in this, as in other things, we may say here that he who
is not for us is against us; he who gathereth not with us
scattereth.”[106] In the Address at Cooper Union Institute, February
27, 1860, Lincoln took long enough to describe the methodology of
this dodge by Douglas and his supporters. It was, as we have
indicated, an attempt to squeeze into the excluded middle. “Let us be
diverted by none of those sophistical contrivances wherewith we are
so industriously plied and belabored—contrivances such as groping
for some middle ground between the right and the wrong: vain as the
search for a man who should be neither a living man nor a dead
man; such as a policy of ‘don’t care’ on a question about which all
true men do care....”[107] Finally, and most eloquently of all, there is
the brief passage from his “Meditation on the Divine Will,” composed
sometime in 1862. “The will of God prevails. In great contests each
party claims to act in accordance with the will of God. Both may be,
and one must be, wrong. God cannot be for and against the same
thing at the same time.”[108] God too is a rational being and will not
be found embracing both sides of a contradictory. Where mutual
negation exists, God must be found on one side, and Lincoln hopes,
though he does not here claim, that God is in the Union’s corner of
this square of opposition.
The fact that Lincoln’s thought became increasingly logical under
the pressure of events is proof of great depths in the man.
Now as we take a general view of Lincoln’s habit of defining in its
relation to his political thought, we see that it gave him one quality in
which he is unrivalled by any other American leader—the quality of
perspective. The connection of the two is a necessary one. To define
is to assume perspective; that is the method of definition. Since
nothing can be defined until it is placed in a category and
distinguished from its near relatives, it is obvious that definition
involves the taking of a general view. Definition must see the thing in
relation to other things, as that relation is expressible through
substance, magnitude, kind, cause, effect, and other particularities. It
is merely different expression to say that this is a view which
transcends: perspective, detachment, and capacity to transcend are
all requisites of him who would define, and we know that Lincoln
evidenced these qualities quite early in life,[109] and that he
employed them with consummate success when the future of the
nation depended on his judgment.
Let us remember that Lincoln was a leader in the most bitter
partisan trial in our history; yet within short decades after his death
he had achieved sanctuary. His name is now immune against
partisan rancor, and he has long ceased to be a mere sectional hero.
The lesson of these facts is that greatness is found out and
appreciated just as littleness is found out and scorned, and Lincoln
proved his greatness through his habit of transcending and defining
his objects. The American scene of his time invites the colloquial
adjective “messy”—with human slavery dividing men geographically
and spiritually, with a fluid frontier, and with the problems of labor
and capital and of immigration already beginning to exert their
pressures—but Lincoln looked at these things in perspective and
refused to look at them in any other way.
For an early example of this characteristic vision of his, we may go
back to the speech delivered before the Young Men’s Lyceum in
1838. The opening is significant. “In the great journal of things
happening under the sun, we the American people, find our account
running under date of the nineteenth century of the Christian era. We
find ourselves in the peaceful possession of the fairest portion of the
earth as regards extent of territory, fertility of soil, and salubrity of
climate.”[110] So Lincoln takes as his point of perspective all time, of
which the Christian era is but a portion; and the entire earth, of which
the United States can be viewed as a specially favored part. This
habit of viewing things from an Olympian height never left him. We
might cite also the opening of the Speech at Peoria, and that of the
Speech at the Cooper Union Institute; but let us pass on twenty-five
years and re-read the first sentence of the Gettysburg Address.
“Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal.” Again tremendous
perspective, suggesting almost that Lincoln was looking at the little
act from some ultimate point in space and time. “Fourscore and
seven years ago” carries the listener back to the beginning of the
nation. “This continent” again takes the whole world into purview.
“Our fathers” is an auxiliary suggestion of the continuum of time. The
phrase following defines American political philosophy in the most
general terms possible. The entire opening sentence, with its
sustained detachment, sounds like an account of the action to be
rendered at Judgment Day. It is not Abe Lincoln who is speaking the
utterance, but the voice of mankind, as it were, to whom the
American Civil War is but the passing vexation of a generation. And
as for the “brave men, living and dead, who struggled here,” it takes
two to make a struggle, and is there anything to indicate that the
men in gray are excluded? There is nothing explicit, and therefore
we may say that Lincoln looked as far ahead as he looked behind in
commemorating the event of Gettysburg.
This habit of perspective led Lincoln at times to take an
extraordinarily objective view of his own actions—more frequently
perhaps as he neared the end of his career. It was as if he projected
a view in which history was the duration, the world the stage, and
himself a transitory actor upon it. Of all his utterances the Second
Inaugural is in this way the most objective and remote. Its tone even
seems that of an actor about to quit the stage. His self-effacement
goes to the extent of impersonal constructions, so that in places
Lincoln appears to be talking about another person. “At this second
appearing to take the oath of the Presidential office, there is less
occasion for an extended address than there was at the first.” “At this
second appearing”! Is there any way of gathering, except from our
knowledge of the total situation, who is thus appearing? Then after a
generalized review of the military situation, he declares: “With high
hope for the future, no prediction in regard to it is ventured.” Why “is
ventured” rather than “I venture”? Lincoln had taught himself to view
the war as one of God’s processes worked out through human
agents, and the impersonality of tone of this last and most deeply
meditative address may arise from that habit. Only once, in the
modest qualifying phrase “I trust,” does the pronoun “I” appear; and
the final classic paragraph is spoken in the name of “us.” There have
been few men whose processes of mind so well deserve the epithet
sub specie aeternitatis as Lincoln’s.
It goes without further demonstration that Lincoln transcended the
passions of the war. How easy it is for a leader whose political and
personal prestige are at stake to be carried along with the tide of
hatred of a people at war, we have, unhappily, seen many times. No
other victor in a civil conflict has conducted himself with more
humanity, and this not in some fine gesture after victory was secured
—although there was that too—but during the struggle, while the
issue was still in doubt and maximum strain was placed upon the
feelings. Without losing sight of his ultimate goal, he treated
everyone with personal kindness, including people who went out of
their way in attempts to wound him. And probably it was his habit of
looking at things through objective definitions which kept him from
confusing being logically right with being personally right. In the
“Meditation on the Divine Will” he wrote, “In the present civil war it is
quite possible that God’s purpose is something different from the
purpose of either party....”[111] That could be written only by one who
has attained the highest level of self-discipline. It explains too why he
should write, in his letter to Cuthbert Bullitt: “I shall do nothing in
malice. What I deal with is too vast for malicious dealing.”[112] Lastly,
there is the extraordinary confession of common guilt in the Second
Inaugural Address, which, if it had been honored by the government
he led, would have constituted a step without precedent in history in
the achievement of reconciliation after war. It is supposable, Lincoln
said, that God has given “to both North and South this terrible war.”
Hardly seventy-five years later we were to see nations falling into the
ancient habit of claiming exclusive right in their quarrels and even of
demanding unconditional surrender. As late as February, 1865,
Lincoln stood ready to negotiate, and his offer, far from requiring
“unconditional surrender,” required but one condition—return of the
seceded states to the Union.
There is, when we reflect upon the matter, a certain morality in
clarity of thought, and the man who had learned to define with Euclid
and who had kept his opponents in argument out of the excluded
middle, could not be pushed into a settlement which satisfied only
passion. The settlement had to be objectively right. Between his
world view and his mode of argument and his response to great
occasions there is a relationship so close that to speak of any one
apart is to leave the exposition incomplete.
With the full career in view, there seems no reason to differ with
Herndon’s judgment that Lincoln displayed a high order of
“conservative statesmanship.”[113] It is true that Lincoln has been
placed in almost every position, from right to left, on the political arc.
Our most radical parties have put forward programs in his name; and
Professor J. G. Randall has written an unconvincing book on
“Lincoln the Liberal Statesman.” Such variety of estimate underlines
the necessity of looking for some more satisfactory criterion by which
to place the man politically. It will not do to look simply at the specific
measures he has supported. If these were the standard, George
Washington would have to be regarded as a great progressive;
Imperial Germany would have to be regarded as liberal, or even as
radical, by the token of its social reforms. It seems right to assume
that a much surer index to a man’s political philosophy is his
characteristic way of thinking, inevitably expressed in the type of
argument he prefers. In reality, the type of argument a man chooses
gives us the profoundest look we get at his principle of integration.
By this method Burke, who was partial to the argument from
circumstance, must be described as a liberal, whose blast against
the French Revolution was, even in his own words, an attack from
center against an extreme. Those who argue from consequence
tend to go all out for action; they are the “radicals.” Those who prefer
the argument from definition, as Lincoln did, are conservatives in the
legitimate sense of the word. It is no accident that Lincoln became
the founder of the greatest American conservative party, even if that
party was debauched soon after his career ended. He did so
because his method was that of the conservative.
The true conservative is one who sees the universe as a paradigm
of essences, of which the phenomenology of the world is a sort of
continuing approximation. Or, to put this in another way, he sees it as
a set of definitions which are struggling to get themselves defined in
the real world. As Lincoln remarked of the Framers of the
Declaration of Independence: “They meant to set up a standard
maxim for free society, which should be familiar to all, and revered
by all; constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even though
never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby
constantly spreading and deepening its influence and augmenting
the happiness and value of life to all people of all colors
everywhere.”[114] This paradigm acts both as an inspiration to action
and as a constraint upon over-action, since there is always a
possibility of going beyond the schemata into an excess. Lincoln
opposed both slavery and the Abolitionists (the Abolitionists
constituted a kind of “action” party); yet he was not a middle-of-the-
roader. Indeed, for one who grew up a Whig, he is astonishingly free
from tendency to assume that “the truth lies somewhere in between.”
The truth lay where intellect and logic found it, and he was not
abashed by clearness of outline.
This type of conservative is sometimes found fighting quite briskly
for change; but if there is one thing by which he is distinguished, it is
a trust in the methods of law. For him law is the embodiment of
abstract justice; it is not “what the courts will decide tomorrow,” or a
calculation of the forces at work in society. A sentence from the First
Inaugural Address will give us the conservative’s view of pragmatic
jurisprudence: “I do suggest that it will be much safer for all, both in
official and private stations, to conform to and abide by all those acts
which stand unrepealed, than to violate any of them, trusting to find
impunity in having them held to be unconstitutional.”[115] The
essence of Lincoln’s doctrine was not the seeking of a middle, but
reform according to law; that is, reform according to definition. True
conservatism can be intellectual in the same way as true classicism.
It is one of the polar positions; and it deserves an able exponent as
well as does its vivifying opposite, true radicalism.
After Lincoln had left the scene, the Republican Party, as we have
noted, was unable to meet the test of victory. It turned quickly to the
worship of Mammon, and with the exception of the ambiguous
Theodore Roosevelt, it never found another leader. No one
understood better than Lincoln that the party would have to succeed
upon principle. He told his followers during the campaign of 1858:
“nobody has ever expected me to be President. In my poor, lean,
lank face nobody has even seen that any cabbages were sprouting
out. These are disadvantages all, taken together, that the
Republicans labor under. We have to fight this battle upon principle
and upon principle alone.”[116] For two generations this party lived
upon the moral capital amassed during the anti-slavery campaign,
but after that had been expended, and terrible issues had to be
faced, it possessed nothing. It was less successful than the British
Tories because it was either ignorant or ashamed of the good things
it had to offer. Today it shows in advanced form that affliction which
has overcome the “good elements” in all modern nations in the face
of the bold and enterprising bad ones.
Let it be offered as a parting counsel that parties bethink
themselves of how their chieftains speak. This is a world in which
one often gets what one asks for more directly or more literally than
one expects. If a leader asks only consequences, he will find himself
involved in naked competition of forces. If he asks only
circumstance, he will find himself intimidated against all vision. But if
he asks for principle, he may get that, all tied up and complete, and
though purchased at a price, paid for. Therefore it is of first
importance whether a leader has the courage to define. Nowhere
does a man’s rhetoric catch up with him more completely than in the
topics he chooses to win other men’s assent.
 Chapter V
SOME RHETORICAL ASPECTS OF
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
In an earlier part of this work we defined rhetoric as something
which creates an informed appetition for the good. Such definition
must recognize the rhetorical force of things existing outside the
realm of speech; but since our concern is primarily with spoken
rhetoric, which cannot be disengaged from certain patterns or
regularities of language, we now turn our attention to the pressure of
these formal patterns.
All students of language concede to it a certain public character.
Insofar as it serves in communication, it is a publicly-agreed-upon
thing; and when one passes the outer limits of the agreement, one
abandons comprehensibility. Now rhetoric affects us primarily by
setting forth images which inform and attract. Yet because this
setting forth is accomplished through a public instrumentality, it is not
free; it is tied more or less closely to the formalizations of usage. The
more general and rigid of these formalizations we recognize as
grammar, and we shall here speak of grammar as a system of forms
of public speech. In the larger aspect, discourse is at once bound
and free, and we are here interested to discover how the bound
character affects our ability to teach and to persuade.
We soon realize that different ways of saying a thing denote
different interests in saying it, or to take this in reverse as we do
when we become conscious users of language, different interests in
a matter will dictate different patterns of expression. Rhetoric in its
practice is a matter of selection and arrangement, but conventional
grammar imposes restraints upon both of these. All this amounts to
saying what every sensitive user of language has sometimes felt;
namely, that language is not a purely passive instrument, but that,
owing to this public acceptance, while you are doing something with
it, it is doing something with you, or with your intention.[117] It does
not exactly fight back; rather it has a set of postures and balances
which somehow modify your thrusts and holds. The sentence form is
certainly one of these. You pour into it your meaning, and it deflects,
and molds into certain shapes. The user of language must know how
this counterpressure can be turned to the advantage of his general
purpose. The failure of those who are careless, or insensitive, to the
rhetoric of grammar is that they allow the counter force to impede
their design, whereas a perspicacious use of it will forward the
design. One cannot, for example, employ just any modifier to stand
for a substantive or just any substantive to express a quality, or
change a stabilized pattern of arrangement without a change in net
effect, although some of these changes register but faintly. But style
shows through an accumulation of small particulars, and the artist in
language may ponder a long while, as Conrad is said to have done,
over whether to describe a character as “penniless” or “without a
penny.”
In this approach, then, we are regarding language as a standard
objective reality, analyzable into categories which have inherent
potentialities. A knowledge of these objective potentialities can
prevent a loss of force through friction. The friction we refer to occurs
whenever a given unit of the system of grammar is tending to say
one thing while the semantic meaning and the general organization
are tending to say another. A language has certain abilities or even
inclinations which the wise user can draw into the service of his own
rhetorical effort. Using a language may be compared to riding a
horse; much of one’s success depends upon an understanding of
what it can and will do. Or to employ a different figure in illustration,
there is a kind of use of language which goes against the grain as
that grain is constituted by the categories, and there is a kind which
facilitates the speaker’s projection by going with it. Our task is an
exploration of the congruence between well understood rhetorical
objectives and the inherent character of major elements in modern
English.
 The problem of which category to begin with raises some
questions. It is arguable that the rhetoric of any piece is dependent
upon its total intention, and that consequently no single sentence
can be appraised apart from the tendency of the whole discourse.
Our position does not deny that, since we are assuming merely that
within the greater effect there are lesser effects, cooperating well or
ill. Having accepted that limitation, it seems permissible for us to
begin with the largest unit of grammar, which is the sentence. We
shall take up first the sentence as such and then discriminate
between formal types of sentences.
Because a sentence form exists in most if not all languages, there
is some ground to suppose that it reflects a necessary operation of
the mind, and this means not simply of the mind as psychologically
constituted but also as logically constrained.
It is evident that when the mind frames a sentence, it performs the
basic intellectual operation of analysis and re-synthesis. In this
complete operation the mind is taking two or more classes and
uniting them at least to the extent at which they share in a formal
unity. The unity itself, built up through many such associations,
comes to have an existence all its own, as we shall see. It is the
repeated congruence in experience or in the imagination of such
classes as “sun-heat,” “snow-cold,” which establishes the pattern,
but our point is that the pattern once established can become
disciplinary in itself and compel us to look for meaning within the
formal unity it imposes. So it is natural for us to perceive through a
primitive analysis the compresence of sun and hot weather, and to
combine these into the unity “the sun is hot”; but the articulation
represented by this joining now becomes a thing in itself, which can
be grasped before the meaning of its component parts is evident.
Accordingly, although sentences are supposed to grow out of
meanings, we can have sentences before meanings are apparent,
and this is indeed the central point of our rhetoric of grammar. When
we thus grasp the scope of the pattern before we interpret the
meaning of the components, we are being affected by grammatical
system.
 I should like to put this principle to a supreme sort of test by using
a few lines of highly modern verse. In Allen Tate’s poem “The
Subway” we find the following:

I am become geometries, and glut

Expansions like a blind astronomer
Dazed, while the wordless heavens bulge and reel
In the cold reverie of an idiot.

I do not propose to interpret this further than to say that the features
present of word classification and word position cause us to look for
meaning along certain lines. It seems highly probable that we shall
have to exercise much imagination to fit our classes together with
meaning as they are fitted by formal classification and sentence
order (“I am become geometries”); yet it remains true that we take in
the first line as a formal predication; and I do not think that this
formal character could ever be separated entirely from the substance
in an interpretation. Once we gain admission of that point with regard
to a sentence, some rhetorical status for grammar has been
definitely secured.
In total rhetorical effect the sentence seems to be peculiarly “the
thing said,” whereas all other elements are “the things named.” And
accordingly the right to utter a sentence is one of the very greatest
liberties; and we are entitled to little wonder that freedom of
utterance should be, in every society, one of the most contentious
and ill-defined rights. The liberty to impose this formal unity is a
liberty to handle the world, to remake it, if only a little, and to hand it
to others in a shape which may influence their actions. It is
interesting to speculate whether the Greeks did not, for this very
reason, describe the man clever at speech as δεινός, an epithet
meaning, in addition to “clever,” “fearful” and “terrible.” The sentence
through its office of assertion is a force adding itself to the forces of
the world, and therefore the man clever with his sentences—which is
to say with his combinations—was regarded with that uneasiness
which we feel in the presence of power. The changes wrought by
sentences are changes in the world rather than in the physical earth,
but it is to be remembered that changes in the world bring about
changes in the earth. Thus this practice of yoking together classes of
the world, of saying “Charles is King” or “My country is God’s
country” is a unique rhetorical fact which we have to take into
account, although it stands somewhat prior to our main discussion.
As we turn now to the different formal types of sentences, we shall
follow the traditional grammatical classification and discuss the
rhetorical inclination of each in turn.
Through its form, the simple sentence tends to emphasize the
discreteness of phenomena within the structural unity. To be more
specific, its pattern of subject-verb-object or complement, without
major competing elements, leaves our attention fixed upon the
classes involved: “Charles is King.” The effect remains when the
simple sentence compounds its subject and predicate: “Peaches and
cantaloupes grew in abundance”; “Men and boys hunted and fished.”
The single subject-predicate frame has the broad sense of listing or
itemizing, and the list becomes what the sentence is about
semantically.
Sentences of this kind are often the unconscious style of one who
sees the world as a conglomerate of things, like the child; sometimes
they are the conscious style of one who seeks to present certain
things as eminent against a background of matter uniform or flat.
One can imagine, for example, the simple sentence “He never
worked” coming after a long and tedious recital which it is supposed
to highlight. Or one can imagine the sentence “The world is round”
leaping out of a context with which it contrasts in meaning, in brevity,
or in sententiousness.
There is some descriptive value in saying that the simple sentence
is the most “logical” type of sentence because, like the simple
categorical proposition, it has this function of relating two classes.
This fact, combined with its usual brevity and its structural simplicity,
makes it a useful sentence for beginnings and endings (of important
meaning-groups, not so much of formal introductions and
conclusions). It is a sentence of unclouded perspective, so to speak.
Nothing could be more beautifully anticipatory than Burke’s “The
proposition is peace.”
 At the very minimum, we can affirm that the simple sentence tends
to throw subject and predicate classes into relief by the structure it
presents them in; that the two-part categorical form of its copulation
indicates a positive mood on the part of the user, and that its brevity
often induces a generality of approach, which is an aid to
perspicuous style. These opportunities are found out by the speaker
or writer who senses the need for some synoptic or dramatic spot in
his discourse. Thus when he selects the simple sentence, he is
going “with the grain”; he is putting the objective form to work for
him.
The complex sentence has a different potentiality. Whereas the
simple sentence emphasizes through its form the co-existence of
classes (and it must be already apparent that we regard “things
existing or occurring” as a class where the predicate consists only of
a verb), the complex sentence emphasizes a more complex
relationship; that is to say, it reflects another kind of discriminating
activity, which does not stop with seeing discrete classes as co-
existing, but distinguishes them according to rank or value, or places
them in an order of cause and effect. “Rome fell because valor
declined” is the utterance of a reflective mind because the
conjunction of parts depends on something ascertainable by the
intellect but not by simple perception. This is evidence that the
complex sentence does not appear until experience has undergone
some refinement by the mind. Then, because it goes beyond simple
observation and begins to perceive things like causal principle, or
begins to grade things according to a standard of interest, it brings in
the notion of dependence to supplement that of simple togetherness.
And consequently the complex sentence will be found nearly always
to express some sort of hierarchy, whether spatial, moral, or causal,
with its subordinate members describing the lower orders. In simple-
sentence style we would write: “Tragedy began in Greece. It is the
highest form of literary art.” There is no disputing that these
sentences, in this sequence, could have a place in mature
expression. But they do not have the same effect as “Tragedy, which
is the highest form of literary art, began in Greece” or “Tragedy,
which began in Greece, is the highest form of literary art.” What has
occurred is the critical process of subordination. The two ideas have
been transferred from a conglomerate to an articulated unity, and the
very fact of subordination makes inevitable the emergence of a focus
of interest. Is our passage about the highest form of literary art or
about the cultural history of Greece? The form of the complex
sentence makes it unnecessary to waste any words in explicit
assertion of that. Here it is plain that grammatical form is capital
upon which we can draw, provided that other necessities have been
taken care of.
To see how a writer of consummate sensibility toward expression-
forms proceeded, let us take a fairly typical sentence from Henry
James:

Merton Densher, who passed the best hours of each night

at the office of his newspaper, had at times, during the day, a
sense, or at least an appearance, of leisure, in accordance
with which he was not infrequently to be met, in different parts
of the town, at moments when men of business were hidden
from the public eye.[118]

Leaving aside the phrases, which are employed by James in

extension and refinement of the same effect, we see here three
dependent clauses used to explain the contingencies of “Merton
Densher had an appearance of leisure.” These clauses have the
function of surrounding the central statement in such a fashion that
we have an intricate design of thought characterized by involution, or
the emergence of one detail out of another. James’ famous practice
of using the dependent clause not only for qualification, but for the
qualification of qualification, and in some cases for the qualification
of qualification of qualification, indicates a persistent sorting out of
experience expressive of the highly civilized mind. Perhaps the
leading quality of the civilized mind is that it is sophisticated as to
causes and effects (also as to other contiguities); and the complex
sentence, required to give these a scrupulous ordering, is its natural
vehicle.
 At the same time the spatial form of ordering to which the complex
sentence lends itself makes it a useful tool in scientific analysis, and
one can find brilliant examples of it in the work of scientists who have
been skillful in communication. When T. H. Huxley, for instance,
explains a piece of anatomy, the complex sentence is the frame of
explanation. In almost every sentence it will be observed that he is
focussing interest upon one part while keeping its relationship—
spatial or causal—clear with reference to surrounding parts. In
Huxley’s expository prose, therefore, one finds the dominant
sentence type to consist of a main clause at the beginning followed
by a series of dependent clauses which fill in these facts of
relationship. We may follow the pattern of the sentences in his
account of the protoplasm of the common nettle:

Each stinging-needle tapers from a broad base to a slender

summit, which, though rounded at the end, is of such
microscopic fineness that it readily penetrates, and breaks off
in, the skin. The whole hair consists of a very delicate outer
case of wood, closely applied to the inner surface of which is
a layer of semi-fluid matter full of innumerable granules of
extreme minuteness. This semi-fluid lining is protoplasm,
which thus constitutes a kind of bag, full of limpid liquid, and
roughly corresponding in form with the interior of the hair
which it fills.[119]

This is, of course, the “loose” sentence of traditional rhetorical

analysis, and it has no dramatic force; yet it is for this very reason
adapted to the scientist’s purpose.[120] The rhetorical adaptation
shows in the accommodation of a little hierarchy of details.
This appears to be the sentence of a developed mentality also,
because it is created through a patient, disciplined observation, and
not through impression, as the simple sentence can be. To the
infant’s mind, as William James observed in a now famous passage,
the world is a “buzzing, blooming confusion,” and to the immature
mind much older it often appears something done in broad, uniform
strokes. But to the mind of a trained scientist it has to appear a
cosmos—else, no science. So in Huxley the objective world is
presented as a series of details, each of which has its own cluster of
satellites in the form of minor clauses. This is the way the world has
to be reported when our objective is maximum perception and
minimum desire to obtrude or influence.
Henry James was explaining with a somewhat comparable interest
a different kind of world, in which all sorts of human and non-material
forces are at work, and he tried with extreme conscientiousness to
measure them. In that process of quantification and qualification the
complex sentence was often brought by him to an extraordinary
height of ramification.
In summation, then, the complex sentence is the branching
sentence, or the sentence with parts growing off other parts. Those
who have used it most properly have performed a second act of
analysis, in which the objects of perception, after being seen
discretely, are put into a ranked structure. This type of sentence
imposes the greatest demand upon the reader because it carries him
farthest into the reality existing outside self. This point will take on
importance as we turn to the compound sentence.
The structure of the compound sentence often reflects a simple
artlessness—the uncritical pouring together of simple sentences, as
in the speech of Huckleberry Finn. The child who is relating an
adventure is likely to make it a flat recital of conjoined simple
predications, because to him the important fact is that the things
were, not that they can be read to signify this or that. His even
juxtapositions are therefore sometimes amusing, for now and then
he will produce a coordination that unintentionally illuminates. This
would, of course, be a result of lack of control over the rhetoric of
grammar.
On the other hand, the compound sentence can be a very
“mature” sentence when its structure conforms with a settled view of
the world. The latter possibility will be seen as we think of the
balance it presents. When a sentence consists of two main clauses
we have two predications of similar structure bidding for our
attention. Our first supposal is that this produces a sentence of
unusual tension, with two equal parts (and of course sometimes
more than two equal parts) in a sort of competition. Yet it appears on
fuller acquaintance that this tension is a tension of stasis, and that
the compound sentence has, in practice, been markedly favored by
periods of repose like that of the Eighteenth century. There is
congeniality between its internal balance and a concept of the world
as an equilibrium of forces. As a general rule, it appears that
whereas the complex sentence favors the presentation of the world
as a system of facts or as a dynamism, the compound sentence
favors the presentation of it in a more or less philosophical picture.
This world as a philosophical cosmos will have to be a sort of
compensatory system. We know from other evidences that the
Eighteenth century loved to see things in balance; in fact, it required
the idea of balance as a foundation for its institutions. Quite naturally
then, since motives of this kind reach into expression-forms, this was
the age of masters of the balanced sentence—Dryden, Johnson,
Gibbon, and others, the genre of whose style derives largely from
this practice of compounding. Often the balance which they achieved
was more intricate than simple conjunction of main clauses because
they balanced lesser elements too, but the informing impulse was
the same. That impulse was the desire for counterpoise, which was
one of the powerful motives of their culture.
In this pattern of balance, various elements are used in the
offsettings. Thus when one attends closely to the meanings of the
balanced parts, one finds these compounds recurring: an abstract
statement is balanced (in a second independent clause) by a more
concrete expression of the same thing; a fact is balanced by its
causal explanation; a statement of positive mode is balanced by one
of negative mode; a clause of praise is balanced by a clause of
qualified censure; a description of one part is balanced by a
description of a contrasting part, and so on through a good many
conventional pairings. Now in these collocations cause and effect
and other relationships are presented, yet the attempt seems not so
much to explore reality as to clothe it in decent form. Culture is a
delicate reconciliation of opposites, and consequently a man who
sees the world through the eyes of a culture makes effort in this
direction. We know that the world of Eighteenth century culture was
a rationalist world, and in a rationalist world everything must be
“accounted for.” The virtue of the compound sentence is that its
second part gives “the other half,” so to speak. As the pattern works
out, every fact has its cause; every virtue is compensated for by a
vice; every excursion into generality must be made up for by
attention to concrete circumstances and vice versa. The perfection of
this art form is found in Johnson and Gibbon, where such pairings
occur with a frequency which has given rise to the phrase “the
balanced style.” When Gibbon, for example, writes of religion in the
Age of the Antonines: “The superstition of the people was not
embittered by any mixture of theological rancour; nor was it confined
by the chains of any speculative system,”[121] we have almost the
feeling that the case of religion has been settled by this neat artifice
of expression. This is a “just” view of affairs, which sees both sides
and leaves a kind of balanced account. It looks somewhat
subjective, or at least humanized; it gives us the gross world a little
tidied up by thought. Often, moreover, this balance of structure
together with the act of saying a thing equivocally—in the narrower
etymological sense of that word—suggests the finality of art. This will
be found true of many of the poetical passages of the King James
Bible, although these come from an earlier date. “The heavens
declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handiwork”;
“Man cometh forth as a flower and is cut down; he fleeth also as a
shadow and continueth not.” By thus stating the matter in two ways,
through balanced clauses, the sentence achieves a degree of formal
completeness missing in sentences where the interest is in mere
assertion. Generally speaking the balanced compound sentence, by
the very contrivedness of its structure, suggests something formed
above the welter of experience, and this form, as we have by now
substantially said, transfers something of itself to the meaning. In
declaring that the compound sentence may seem subjective, we are
not saying that it is arbitrary, its correspondence being with the
philosophical interpretation rather than with the factual reality. Thus if
the complex sentence is about the world, the compound sentence is
about our idea about the world, into which some notion of
compensation forces itself. One notices that even Huxley, when he
draws away from his simple expositions of fact and seeks play for his