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Mastering PostgreSQL 15

Advanced techniques to build and manage scalable, reliable,

and fault-tolerant database applications

Hans-Jürgen Schönig

BIRMINGHAM—MUMBAI
Mastering PostgreSQL 15
Copyright © 2023 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations
embedded in critical articles or reviews.
Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information presented.
However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the
author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged
to have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.
Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and products
mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the
accuracy of this information.

Group Product Manager: Reshma Raman

Publishing Product Manager: Devika Battike
Senior Editor: Nazia Shaikh
Content Development Editor: Priyanka Soam
Technical Editor: Sweety Pagaria
Copy Editor: Safis Editing
Project Coordinator: Farheen Fathima
Proofreader: Safis Editing
Indexer: Sejal Dsilva
Production Designer: Vijay Kamble
Marketing Coordinator: Nivedita Singh

First published: Jan 2018

Second edition: Oct 2018
Third edition: Nov 2019
Fourth edition: Nov 2020
Fifth published: Jan 2023

Production reference: 1270123

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham
B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-80324-834-9
www.packtpub.com
 Contributors

About the author

Hans-Jürgen Schönig has 20 years’ experience with PostgreSQL. He is the CEO of a PostgreSQL
consulting and support company called CYBERTEC PostgreSQL International GmbH. It has successfully
served countless customers around the globe. Before founding CYBERTEC PostgreSQL International
GmbH in 2000, he worked as a database developer at a private research company that focused on the
Austrian labor market, where he primarily worked on data mining and forecast models. He has also
written several books about PostgreSQL.
About the reviewers
Burhan Akbulut is the co-founder of PostgresTech. It is a company that provides PostgreSQL consultancy
and support to start-ups and enterprise companies. Burhan Akbulut started his career as a PostgreSQL
consultant at CookSoft, a well-known PostgreSQL consulting firm founded by Şahap Aşçı, where he
provided consultancy and support to many international customers. Before founding PostgresTech,
he worked at Vodafone as an open source database senior specialist responsible for all PostgreSQL
databases. He has especially focused on database management with IaC, management of cloud databases,
and migration from other databases to PostgreSQL during his career.

I would like to thank my colleague Şeyma Mintaş who helped me review the book.

Marcelo Diaz is a software engineer with more than 15 years of experience, with a special focus on
PostgreSQL. He is passionate about open source software and has promoted its application in critical
and high-demand environments, working as a software developer and consultant for both private and
public companies. He currently works very happily at Cybertec and as a technical reviewer for Packt
Publishing. He enjoys spending his leisure time with his daughter, Malvina, and his wife, Romina.
He also likes playing football.

Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru works as a principal architect (OSS) at Tessell Inc. He has been working
with PostgreSQL since 2011, and he also worked as a consultant at AWS. He is also an author and
contributor to a few popular open source solutions. He co-authored PostgreSQL High Performance
Cookbook 9.6, which was released in 2016. He loves to code in Dart, Go, Angular, and C++ and loves
to deploy them in Kubernetes.

Thanks and love to my wife, Manoja Reddy, and my kids, Yashvi and Isha.
 Table of Contents

Prefacexiii

1
PostgreSQL 15 Overview 1
Making use of DBA-related features 1 Working around NULL and UNIQUE 9
Removing support for old pg_dump 1 Adding the MERGE command
Deprecating Python 2 2 to PostgreSQL 10
Fixing the public schema 2 Using performance-related features 11
Adding pre-defined roles 2 Adding multiple compression algorithms 11
Adding permissions to variables 3 Handling parallel queries more efficiently 12
Improving pg_stat_statements 3 Improved statistics handling 12
New wait events 4 Prefetching during WAL recovery 12
Adding logging functionality 4
Additional replication features 12
Understanding developer-related Two-phase commit for logical decoding 12
features7 Adding row and column filtering 13
Security invoker views 7 Improving ALTER SUBSCRIPTION 13
ICU locales 7 Supporting compressed base backups 14
Better numeric 8 Introducing archiving libraries 15
Handling ON DELETE 9
Summary15

2
Understanding Transactions and Locking 17
Working with PostgreSQL Transactional DDLs 23
transactions17 Understanding basic locking 24
Handling errors inside a transaction 21
Avoiding typical mistakes and explicit locking 26
Making use of SAVEPOINT 22
vi Table of Contents

Making use of FOR SHARE Optimizing storage and

and FOR UPDATE 30 managing cleanup 39
Understanding transaction Configuring VACUUM and autovacuum 41
isolation levels 33 Watching VACUUM at work 43
Considering serializable snapshot isolation Limiting transactions by making
transactions35 use of snapshot too old 47
Making use of more VACUUM features 47
Observing deadlocks and
similar issues 36 Summary48
Utilizing advisory locks 38 Questions48

3
Making Use of Indexes 49
Understanding simple queries Understanding PostgreSQL
and the cost model 50 index types 80
Making use of EXPLAIN 51 Hash indexes 81
Digging into the PostgreSQL cost model 53 GiST indexes 81
Deploying simple indexes 55 GIN indexes 84
Making use of sorted output 56 SP-GiST indexes 85
Using bitmap scans effectively 59 BRINs86
Using indexes in an intelligent way 59 Adding additional indexes 88
Understanding index de-duplication 62
Achieving better answers
Improving speed using with fuzzy searching 90
clustered tables 62 Taking advantage of pg_trgm 90
Clustering tables 66 Speeding up LIKE queries 92
Making use of index-only scans 67 Handling regular expressions 93

Understanding additional Understanding full-text searches 94

B-tree features 68 Comparing strings 95
Combined indexes 68 Defining GIN indexes 95
Adding functional indexes 69 Debugging your search 96
Reducing space consumption 70 Gathering word statistics 98
Adding data while indexing 72 Taking advantage of exclusion operators 98

Introducing operator classes 72 Summary99

Creating an operator class for a B-tree 74 Questions100
 Table of Contents vii

4
Handling Advanced SQL 101
Supporting range types 102 Using sliding windows 121
Querying ranges efficiently 103 Abstracting window clauses 128
Handling multirange types 105 Using on-board windowing functions 129
When to use range types 107 Writing your own aggregates 137
Introducing grouping sets 107 Creating simple aggregates 137
Loading some sample data 108 Adding support for parallel queries 141
Applying grouping sets 109 Improving efficiency 142
Investigating performance 111 Writing hypothetical aggregates 144
Combining grouping sets with Handling recursions 146
the FILTER clause 113
UNION versus UNION ALL 147
Making use of ordered sets 114 Inspecting a practical example 148
Understanding hypothetical Working with JSON and JSONB 150
aggregates116
Displaying and creating JSON documents 150
Utilizing windowing functions Turning JSON documents into rows 152
and analytics 117 Accessing a JSON document 153
Partitioning data 118
Ordering data inside a window 119
Summary157

5
Log Files and System Statistics 159
Gathering runtime statistics 159 Configuring the postgresql.conf file 184
Working with PostgreSQL system views 160 Summary191
Creating log files 184 Questions191

6
Optimizing Queries for Good Performance 193
Learning what the optimizer does 193 Understanding execution plans 209
A practical example – how the query Approaching plans systematically 209
optimizer handles a sample query 194 Spotting problems 211
viii Table of Contents

Understanding and fixing joins 217 Handling partitioning strategies 233

Getting joins right 217 Using range partitioning 234
Processing outer joins 219 Utilizing list partitioning 236
Understanding the join_collapse_limit Handling hash partitions 238
variable220
Adjusting parameters for
Enabling and disabling good query performance 239
optimizer settings 221 Speeding up sorting 243
Understanding genetic query optimization 225 Speeding up administrative tasks 246

Partitioning data 226 Making use of parallel queries 247

Creating inherited tables 226 What is PostgreSQL able to do in parallel? 252
Applying table constraints 229 Parallelism in practice 252
Modifying inherited structures 231
Introducing JIT compilation 253
Moving tables in and out of partitioned
Configuring JIT 254
structures232
Running queries 255
Cleaning up data 232
Understanding PostgreSQL 15.x partitioning 233 Summary257

7
Writing Stored Procedures 259
Understanding stored Introducing PL/Perl 292
procedure languages 259 Introducing PL/Python 300
Understanding the fundamentals of stored Improving functions 304
procedures versus functions 261
Reducing the number of function calls 304
The anatomy of a function 261
Using functions for
Exploring various stored
various purposes 307
procedure languages 265
Summary309
Introducing PL/pgSQL 267
Writing stored procedures in PL/pgSQL 290 Questions309

8
Managing PostgreSQL Security 311
Managing network security 311 Managing the pg_hba.conf file 316
Understanding bind addresses Handling instance-level security 321
and connections 312 Defining database-level security 326
 Table of Contents ix

Adjusting schema-level permissions 328 Inspecting permissions 340

Working with tables 331 Reassigning objects and dropping
Handling column-level security 332 users344
Configuring default privileges 334 Summary345
Digging into row-level security 335 Questions346

9
Handling Backup and Recovery 347
Performing simple dumps 347 Replaying backups 355
Running pg_dump 348 Handling global data 356
Passing passwords and Summary357
connection information 349
Questions357
Extracting subsets of data 352

Handling various formats 352

10
Making Sense of Backups and Replication 359
Understanding the transaction log 360 Performing failovers and
Looking at the transaction log 360 understanding timelines 383
Understanding checkpoints 361 Managing conflicts 385
Optimizing the transaction log 362 Making replication more reliable 387

Transaction log archiving Upgrading to synchronous

and recovery 363 replication388
Configuring for archiving 364 Adjusting durability 389
Using archiving libraries 365 Making use of replication slots 391
Configuring the pg_hba.conf file 365 Handling physical replication slots 392
Creating base backups 366 Handling logical replication slots 394
Replaying the transaction log 371
Cleaning up the transaction log archive 375 Making use of the CREATE
PUBLICATION and CREATE
Setting up asynchronous replication 376 SUBSCRIPTION commands 397
Performing a basic setup 377 Setting up an HA cluster
Halting and resuming replication 379 using Patroni 400
Checking replication to ensure availability 380
Understand how Patroni operates 400
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x Table of Contents

Installing Patroni 401 Summary418

Creating Patroni templates 406 Questions419

11
Deciding on Useful Extensions 421
Understanding how extensions work 421 Encrypting data with pgcrypto 439
Checking for available extensions 423 Prewarming caches with pg_prewarm 439
Inspecting performance with
Making use of contrib modules 426 pg_stat_statements441
Using the adminpack module 426 Inspecting storage with pgstattuple 441
Applying bloom filters 428 Fuzzy searching with pg_trgm 443
Deploying btree_gist and btree_gin 431 Connecting to remote servers
dblink – considering phasing out 432 using postgres_fdw 443
Fetching files with file_fdw 433
Other useful extensions 449
Inspecting storage using pageinspect 435
Investigating caching with pg_buffercache 437 Summary449

12
Troubleshooting PostgreSQL 451
Approaching an unknown database 451 Understanding noteworthy
Inspecting pg_stat_activity 452 error scenarios 462
Querying pg_stat_activity 452 Facing clog corruption 462
Understanding checkpoint messages 463
Checking for slow queries 455 Managing corrupted data pages 464
Inspecting individual queries 456 Careless connection management 465
Digging deeper with perf 457 Fighting table bloat 465
Inspecting the log 458 Summary466
Checking for missing indexes 459 Questions466
Checking for memory and I/O 460
 Table of Contents xi

13
Migrating to PostgreSQL 467
Migrating SQL statements Using the OFFSET clause 475
to PostgreSQL 467 Using temporal tables 475
Using LATERAL joins 468 Matching patterns in time series 476
Using grouping sets 468 Moving from Oracle to PostgreSQL 476
Using the WITH clause – common
Using the oracle_fdw extension to move data 476
table expressions 469
Using ora_migrator for fast migration 479
Using the WITH RECURSIVE clause 470
CYBERTEC Migrator – migration for
Using the FILTER clause 471
the “big boys” 480
Using windowing functions 472
Using Ora2Pg to migrate from Oracle 481
Using ordered sets – the WITHIN
Common pitfalls 483
GROUP clause 472
Using the TABLESAMPLE clause 473 Summary485
Using limit/offset 474

Index487

Other Books You May Enjoy 500

 Preface
Mastering the art of handling data is an ever more important skill that is important to have. In a digital
world, “data” is more or less the “new oil” – an important asset that drives the world. Every sector of
IT is data-driven. It does not matter whether you are at the forefront of machine learning or whether
you are working on bookkeeping software – at the end of the day, IT is all about data.
PostgreSQL has become a hot technology in the area of open source, and it is an excellent technology
to store and process data in the most efficient way possible. This book will teach you how to use
PostgreSQL in the most professional way and explain how to operate, optimize, and monitor this core
technology, which has become so popular over the years.
By the end of the book, you will be able to use PostgreSQL to its utmost capacity by applying advanced
technology and cutting-edge features.

Who this book is for

This book is ideal for PostgreSQL developers and administrators alike who want to familiarize themselves
with the technology. It will provide you with deep insights and explain advanced technologies such
as clustering, modern analytics, and a lot more.
Prior exposure to PostgreSQL and basic SQL knowledge is required to follow along.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, PostgreSQL 15 Overview, guides you through the most important features that have made
it into the new release of PostgreSQL and explains how those features can be used.
Chapter 2, Understanding Transactions and Locking, explains the fundamental concepts of transactions
and locking. Both topics are key requirements to understand storage management in PostgreSQL.
Chapter 3, Making Use of Indexes, introduces the concept of indexes, which are the key ingredient
when dealing with performance in general. You will learn about simple indexes as well as more
sophisticated concepts.
Chapter 4, Handling Advanced SQL, unleashes the full power of SQL and outlines the most advanced
functionality a query language has to offer. You will learn about windowing functions, ordered sets,
hypothetical aggregates, and a lot more. All those techniques will open a totally new world of functionality.
Chapter 5, Log Files and System Statistics, explains how you can use runtime statistics collected by
PostgreSQL to make operations easier and to debug the database. You will be guided through the
internal information-gathering infrastructure.
xiv Preface

Chapter 6, Optimizing Queries for Good Performance, is all about good query performance and
outlines optimization techniques that are essential to bringing your database up to speed to handle
even bigger workloads.
Chapter 7, Writing Stored Procedures, introduces you to the concept of server-side code such as functions,
stored procedures, and a lot more. You will learn how to write triggers and dive into server-side logic.
Chapter 8, Managing PostgreSQL Security, helps you to make your database more secure, and explains
what can be done to ensure safety and data protection at all levels.
Chapter 9, Handling Backup and Recovery, helps you to make copies of your database to protect yourself
against crashes and database failure.
Chapter 10, Making Sense of Backups and Replication, follows up on backups and recovery and explains
additional techniques, such as streaming replication, clustering, and a lot more. It covers the most
advanced topics.
Chapter 11, Deciding on Useful Extensions, explores extensions and additional useful features that can
be added to PostgreSQL.
Chapter 12, Troubleshooting PostgreSQL, completes the circle of topics and explains what can be done
if things don’t work as expected. You will learn how to find the most common issues and understand
how problems can be fixed.
Chapter 13, Migrating to PostgreSQL, teaches you how to move your databases to PostgreSQL efficiently
and quickly. It covers the most common database systems people will migrate from.

To get the most out of this book

This book has been written for a broad audience. However, some basic knowledge of SQL is necessary to
follow along and make full use of the examples presented. In general, it is also a good idea to familiarize
yourself with basic Unix commands as most of the book has been produced on Linux and macOS.

Software/hardware covered in the book Operating system requirements

Pgadmin4 Windows, macOS, or Linux
PostgreSQL 15
SQL Shell (psql)

Note:
Some parts of chapters i.e., 8, 9, 10, 11,12 and 13 are mostly dedicated to unix / linux and mac
users and rest runs fine on windows.
 Preface xv

Download the example code files

You can download the example code files for this book from GitHub at https://github.com/
PacktPublishing/Mastering-PostgreSQL-15-. If there’s an update to the code, it will
be updated in the GitHub repository.
We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at https://
github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!

Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.
Code in text: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file
extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles. Here is an example: “. You
cannot run it inside a SELECT statement. Instead, you have to invoke CALL. The following listing
shows the syntax of the CALL command.”
A block of code is set as follows:

test=# \h CALL
Command:    CALL
Description: invoke a procedure
Syntax:
CALL name ( [ argument ] [, ...] )
URL: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/sql-call.html

When we wish to draw your attention to a particular part of a code block, the relevant lines or items
are set in bold:

openssl req -x509 -in server.req -text

  -key server.key -out server.crt

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

# - Connection Settings –
# listen_addresses = 'localhost'
# what IP address(es) to listen on;
# comma-separated list of addresses;
# defaults to 'localhost'; use '*' for all
# (change requires restart)
xvi Preface

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen. For instance,
words in menus or dialog boxes appear in bold. Here is an example: “Select System info from the
Administration panel.”

Tips or important notes

Appear like this.

Get in touch
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 Preface xvii

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 1
PostgreSQL 15 Overview
A full year has passed and the PostgreSQL community has released version 15 of the database, which
includes various powerful new features that will benefit a large user base. The PostgreSQL project
has also come a long way and improvements are being added constantly at a rapid pace that make
the database more useful, more efficient, and more widely accepted. The times when PostgreSQL was
some unknown obscure thing are long gone. PostgreSQL has reached the data center and has been
widely adopted in many large companies as well as by governments around the world.
In this chapter, you will learn about new features that made it into PostgreSQL 15. Those features add
additional capabilities, more performance, as well as security and enhanced usability.
The following topics are covered in this chapter:

• DBA-related features
• Developer-related features
• Performance-related features
• Additional replication features

Of course, there is always more stuff. However, let us focus on the most important changes affecting
most users.

Making use of DBA-related features

In PostgreSQL 15, a couple of developer-related features were added. Some features were also finally
deprecated and have been removed from the server. In this section, we will go through the most
important major changes.

Removing support for old pg_dump

One of the first things that is worth noting is that support for really old databases has been removed
from pg_dump. PostgreSQL databases that are older than PostgreSQL 9.2 are not supported anymore.
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2 PostgreSQL 15 Overview

Considering that PostgreSQL 9.2.0 was released to the PostgreSQL community FTP server on September
10, 2012, most people should have gotten rid of their PostgreSQL 9.1 (and older) systems by now.
If you have not been able to upgrade since then, we highly recommend doing that. It is still possible
to upgrade from such an old version to PostgreSQL 15. However, you will need an intermediate step
and to use pg_dump twice.

Deprecating Python 2
PostgreSQL allows developers to write stored procedures in various languages. This includes Python
but is not limited to it. The trouble is that Python 2.x has been deprecated for a long time already.
Starting with version 15, the PostgreSQL community has also dropped support for PL/Python2U and
only supports version 3 from now on.
This means that all code that is still in Python 2 should be moved to Python 3 in order to function properly.

Fixing the public schema

Up to PostgreSQL 14, the public schema that exists in every database has been available to every
user. This has caused various security concerns among the user base. Basically it is easy to just use
the following:

REVOKE ALL ON SCHEMA public FROM public;

This was rarely done but caused security leaks people were generally not aware of. With the introduction
of PostgreSQL, the situation has changed. The public schema is, from now on, not available to the
general public and you have to be granted permission to use it like before. The new behavior will make
applications a lot safer and ensure that permissions are not there accidentally.

Adding pre-defined roles

In recent versions of PostgreSQL, more and more pre-defined users have been added. The core idea
is to ensure that people do not have to use their superuser accounts so often. For security reasons, it
is not recommended to use superusers unless explicitly needed. However, with the introduction of
pre-defined roles, it is a lot easier to run things without superusers:

test=# SELECT rolname

FROM pg_authid
WHERE oid < 16384
AND rolname <> CURRENT_USER;
          rolname
 Making use of DBA-related features 3

---------------------------
pg_database_owner
pg_read_all_data
pg_write_all_data
pg_monitor
pg_read_all_settings
pg_read_all_stats
pg_stat_scan_tables
pg_read_server_files
pg_write_server_files
pg_execute_server_program
pg_signal_backend
pg_checkpointer
(12 rows)

With the introduction of PostgreSQL, a new role has been added, pg_checkpointer, which allows
users to manually run checkpoints if needed.

Adding permissions to variables

However, there is more. It is now possible to define permissions on variables. This was not possible
before version 15. Here is an example:

GRANT SET ON PARAMETER track_functions TO hans;

This new feature allows administrators to disable bad behavior and prohibit bad parameter settings
that can compromise the availability of the entire server.

Improving pg_stat_statements
Every version will also provide us with some improvements related to pg_stat_statements,
which in my judgment is the key to good performance. Consider the following code snippet:

test=# \d pg_stat_statements
                      View "public.pg_stat_statements"
         Column         |       Type       | ...
------------------------+------------------+ ...
userid                 | oid              | ...
...
jit_functions          | bigint           | ...
4 PostgreSQL 15 Overview

jit_generation_time    | double precision | ...

jit_inlining_count     | bigint           | ...
jit_inlining_time      | double precision | ...
jit_optimization_count | bigint           | ...
jit_optimization_time  | double precision | ...
jit_emission_count     | bigint           | ...
jit_emission_time      | double precision | ...

The module is now able to display information about the JIT compilation process and helps to detect
JIT-related performance problems. Those problems are not too frequent – however, it can happen that
once in a while, a JIT compilation process takes too long. This is especially true if you are running a
query containing hundreds of columns.

New wait events

What is also new in PostgreSQL is a couple of wait events that give you some insights into where time
is the list. The following events have been added to the system:

• ArchiveCommand
• ArchiveCleanupCommand
• RestoreCommand
• RecoveryEndCommand

Those events complement the existing wait event infrastructure and give some insights into
replication-related issues.

Adding logging functionality

PostgreSQL 15 comes with a spectacular new feature: JSON logging. While JSON is comparatively large
compared to the standard log format, it still comes with a couple of advantages, such as easy parsing.
Let us configure JSON logging in postgresql.conf:

log_destination = 'jsonlog'     # Valid values are combinations

of
                                # stderr, csvlog, jsonlog,
syslog, and
                                # eventlog, depending on
platform.
                                # csvlog and jsonlog require
                                # logging_collector to be on.
 Making use of DBA-related features 5

# This is used when logging to stderr:

logging_collector = on
                                # Enable capturing of stderr,
jsonlog,
                                # and csvlog into log files.
Required
                                # to be on for csvlogs and
jsonlogs.
                                # (change requires restart)

The output might look as follows:

[hs@hansmacbook log]$ head postgresql-Fri.json

{"timestamp":"2022-11-04 08:50:59.000
CET","pid":32183,"session_id":"6364c462.7db7","line_
num":1,"session_start":"2022-11-04 08:50:58
CET","txid":0,"error_severity":"LOG","message":"ending log
output to stderr","hint":"Future log
output will go to log destination \"jsonlog\".","backend_
type":"postmaster","query_id":0}
{"timestamp":"2022-11-04 08:50:59.000
CET","pid":32183,"session_id":"6364c462.7db7","line_
num":2,"session_start":"2022-11-04 08:50:58
CET","txid":0,"error_severity":"LOG","message":"starting
PostgreSQL 15.0 on x86_64-apple-
darwin21.6.0, compiled by Apple clang version 13.1.6
(clang-1316.0.21.2.5), 64-
bit","backend_type":"postmaster","query_id":0}
…

Reading a tightly packed file containing millions of JSON documents is not really user-friendly, so I
recommend using a tool such as jq to make this stream more readable and user-friendly to process:

[hs@hansmacbook log]$ tail -f postgresql-Fri.json | jq

{
  "timestamp": "2022-11-04 08:50:59.000 CET",
  "pid": 32183,
  "session_id": "6364c462.7db7",
  "line_num": 1,
  "session_start": "2022-11-04 08:50:58 CET",
6 PostgreSQL 15 Overview

  "txid": 0,
  "error_severity": "LOG",
  "message": "ending log output to stderr",
  "hint": "Future log output will go to log destination
\"jsonlog\".",
  "backend_type": "postmaster",
  "query_id": 0
}
{
  "timestamp": "2022-11-04 08:50:59.000 CET",
  "pid": 32183,
  "session_id": "6364c462.7db7",
  "line_num": 2,
  "session_start": "2022-11-04 08:50:58 CET",
  "txid": 0,
  "error_severity": "LOG",
  "message": "starting PostgreSQL 15.0 on x86_64-apple-
darwin21.6.0, compiled by Apple clang version
13.1.6 (clang-1316.0.21.2.5), 64-bit",
  "backend_type": "postmaster",
  "query_id": 0
}
{
  "timestamp": "2022-11-04 08:50:59.006 CET",
  "pid": 32183,
  "session_id": "6364c462.7db7",
  "line_num": 3,
  "session_start": "2022-11-04 08:50:58 CET",
  "txid": 0,
  "error_severity": "LOG",
  "message": "listening on IPv6 address \"::1\", port 5432",
  "backend_type": "postmaster",
  "query_id": 0
}
...

In general, it is recommended to not use JSON logs excessively as they occupy a fair amount of space.
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