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Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 1

Chapter 8—Arrays; Introduction to Exception Handling

Test Item File

8.1 Introduction
1. Arrays may have dimensions.
a) one
b) two
c) more than two
d) All of the above.
Answer: d

2. Arrays are data structures.

a) constant
b) dynamic
c) static
d) None of the above.
Answer: c

3. (True/False) Arrays are data structures that may consist of data items of different types.
Answer: False. Arrays are data structures consisting of data items of the same type.

4. (True/False) Arrays remain the same size once they're created.

Answer: True.

8.2 Arrays
1. The number in square brackets after an array name is the of an item.
a) value
b) position
c) size
d) None of the above.
Answer: b

2. Which of the following correctly accesses element 13 of array Book?

a) Book[0] + 13
b) Book[13]
c) Book[12]
d) None of the above.
Answer: b

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 2

3. Which of the following statements about arrays are true?

A. An array is a group of variables that all have the same type.
B. Elements are located by index or subscript.
C. The length of an array c is determined by the expression c.Length.
D. The zeroth element of array c is specified by c[0].

a) A, C, D.
b) A, B, D.
c) C, D.
d) A, B, C, D.
Answer: d

4. Consider the array:

s[0] = 7
s[1] = 0
s[2] = -12
s[3] = 9
s[4] = 10
s[5] = 3
s[6] = 6
The value of s[s[6] - s[5]] is:
a) 0
b) 3
c) 9
d) 0
Answer: c

5. (True/False) The first element in every array is the 0th element.

Answer: True.

6. (True/False) The index of an array must be an integer; it cannot include variables or

expressions.
Answer: False. The index of an array can be an integer, or any integer expression.

7. (True/False) The position number in parentheses is formally called an index.

Answer: False. The position number must be in square brackets.

8.3 Declaring and Creating Arrays

1. Arrays are allocated with the keyword .
a) new
b) array
c) table
d) None of the above.
Answer: a

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 3

2. Which of the following correctly declares and allocates an array of double values?
a) double A[15];
b) double() A = new double[15];
c) double[] A = new double[25];
d) All of the above.
Answer: c

3. Consider the code segment below. Which of the following statements is false?
int[] g;
g = new int[23];
a) The first statement declares an array reference.
b) The second statement creates the array.
c) g is a reference to an array of integers.
d) The value of g[3] is -1.
Answer: d

4. (True/False) An array must be declared and allocated in the same statement.

Answer: False. An array can be declared and allocated in separate statements.

5. (True/False) The number of elements in an array must be specified in brackets after the
array name in the declaration.
Answer: False. The number is never specified in the brackets after the array name in
C#.

6. (True/False) In an array of reference types, each element may be a reference to a

different type.
Answer: False. In an array of reference types, each element is a reference to an
object of the same type.

7. (True/False) Each reference in an array of references is set to null by default when

the array is allocated.
Answer: True.

8. (True/False) Arrays can be declared to hold only non-class data types.

Answer: False. An array can be declared to hold any data type, including class types.

8.4 Examples Using Arrays

1. An array can be supplied values in its declaration by providing an .
a) initializer list
b) index
c) array allocation
d) None of the above.
Answer: a

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 4

2. Constants are declared using keyword .

a) static
b) const
c) fixed
d) None of the above.
Answer: b

3.Which of the following statements about creating arrays and initializing their elements
is false?
a) The new keyword should be used to create an array.
b) When an array is created, the number of elements must be placed in square brackets
following the type of element being stored.
c) The elements of an array of integers have a value of null before they are initialized.
d) A for loop is an excellent way to initialize the elements of an array.
Answer: c

4.What do the following statements do?

double[] array;
array = new double[14];
a) Creates a double array containing 13 elements.
b) Creates a double array containing 14 elements.
c) Creates a double array containing 15 elements.
d) Declares but does not create a double array.
Answer: b

5. Which of the following initializer lists would correctly set the elements of array n?
a) int[] n = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
b) array n[int] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
c) int n[5] = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5};
d) int n = new int(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
Answer: a

6. Constant variables also are called .

a) write-only variables
b) finals
c) named constants
d) All of the above
Answer: c

7. Which of the following will not produce a compiler error?

a) Changing the value of a constant after it is declared.
b) Changing the value at a given index of an array after it’s created.
c) Using a final variable before it is initialized.
d) All of the above will produce compiler errors.
Answer: b

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 5

8. Consider the class below:

class Test
{
static void Main()
{
int[] a = new int[10];
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; ++i)
{
a[i] = i + 1 * 2;
}

int result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; ++i)
{
result += a[i];
}

Console.WriteLine($"Result is: {result}");

}
}
The output of this C# program will be:
a) Result is: 62
b) Result is: 64
c) Result is: 65
d) Result is: 67
Answer: c

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 6

9. Consider the class below:

class Test
{
static void Main()
{
int[] a = {99, 22, 11, 3, 11, 55, 44, 88, 2, -3};
int result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < a.Length; ++i)
{
if (a[i] > 30)
{
result += a[i];
}
}

Console.WriteLine($"Result is: {result}");

}
}
The output of this C# program will be:
a) Result is: 280
b) Result is: 154
c) Result is: 286
d) Result is: 332
Answer: c

10. Invalid possibilities for array indices include .

a) positive integers
b) negative integers
c) non-consecutive integers
d) zero
Answer: b

11.Which expression adds 1 to the element of array arrayName at index i, assuming

the array is of type int?
a) ++arrayName[i]
b) arrayName++[i]
c) arrayName[i++]
d) None of the above.
Answer: a

12. Attempting to access an array element out of the bounds of an array causes a(n)
________.
a) ArrayOutOfBoundsException.
b) ArrayElementOutOfBoundsException.
c) IndexOutOfRangeException.
d) ArrayException.
Answer: c.

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 7

13. What can foreach statements iterate through?

a) arrays
b) collections
c) databases
d) a and b
Answer: d

14. What is the proper foreach header format?

a) (foreach type_identifer in arrayName)
b) foreach (arrayName)
c) foreach (type_identifer in arrayName)
d) None of the above.
Answer: c

15. The foreach repetition statement requires that you provide an array and a variable
for the purpose of:
a) preventing the structure from going past the end of the array
b) storing the value of each element that is traversed
c) acting as a counter to traverse the array
d) None of the above.
Answer: b

16. (True/False) When values are provided upon declaration of an array, the new
keyword is not required.
Answer: True.

17. (True/False) A constant must be initialized in the same statement where it is declared
and cannot be modified.
Answer: True.

18. (True/False) Values in an array can be totaled by using the ArrayTotal method.
Answer: False. If the values of an array need to be totaled, a repetition statement
may be used to traverse the array and add up each element.

19. (True/False) C# automatically performs bounds checking to ensure the program

doesn’t access data outside the bounds of an array.
Answer: True.

20. (True/False) The foreach statement is preferred over the for statement when the
indices of the elements in an array will be used in the body of the repetition statement.
Answer: False. The foreach statement cannot access the indices of the elements.

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 8

Section 8.5 Using Arrays to Analyze Survey Results; Intro

to Exception Handling

1. When a C# program executes, the runtime checks array element indices for validity—
all indices must be greater than or equal to 0 and less than the length of the array. Any
attempt to access an element outside that range of indices results in a runtime error
known as a(n) ________.
a) IndexRangeError
b) SubscriptException
c) IndexOutOfRangeException
d) SubscriptRangeError
Answer: c) IndexOutOfRangeException

2. Which of the following statements is false?

a) An exception indicates a problem that occurs while a program executes.
b) Exception handling helps you create fault-tolerant programs.
c) When an exception is handled, the program continues executing as if no problem was
encountered.
d) The compiler does not detect exceptions.
Answer: c) When an exception is handled, the program continues executing as if no
problem was encountered. Actually, more severe problems might prevent a
program from continuing normal execution, instead causing the program to
terminate.

3. Which of the following statements is false?

a) When the runtime or a method detects a problem, such as an invalid array index or an
invalid method argument, it throws an exception—that is, an exception occurs.
b) Exceptions are always thrown by the runtime.
c) To handle an exception, place any code that might throw an exception in a try
statement.
d) The try block contains the code that might throw an exception, and the catch block
contains the code that handles the exception if one occurs.
Answer: b) Exceptions are always thrown by the runtime. Actually, you also can
throw your own exceptions.

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 9

4. Which of the following statements is false?

a) You can have many catch blocks to handle different types of exceptions that might
be thrown in the corresponding try block.
b) The runtime performs array bounds checking.
c) When an exception is thrown, the try block in which it occurs terminates and a
corresponding catch block, if there is one, begins executing—if you declared any
variables in the try block, they are accessible in the catch block.
d) The catch block declares an exception parameter’s type and name. The catch block
can handle exceptions of the specified type.
Answer: c) When an exception is thrown, the try block in which it occurs
terminates and a corresponding catch block, if there is one, begins executing—if
you declared any variables in the try block, they are accessible in the catch block.
Actually, if you declared any variables in the try block, they no longer exist, so
they’re not accessible in the catch block.

5. When an exception is caught, the program can access the exception object’s built-in
________ property to get the error message and display it.
a) Error
b) Fault
c) Message
d) Note
Answer: c) Message

8.6 Case Study: Card Shuffling and Dealing Simulation

1. The keyword _______ overrides an existing method with the same signature.
a) replace
b) override
c) overrule
d) supersede
Answer: b

2. Which function is called when an object is used where a string should be?
a) TranslateToString()
b) String()
c) ConvertToString()
d) ToString()
Answer: d

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 10

3. Consider integer array values, which contains 5 elements. Which statements

successfully swap the contents of the array at index 3 and index 4?
a)
values[3] = values[4];
values[4] = values[3];
b)
values[4] = values[3];
values[3] = values[4];
c)
int temp = values[3];
values[3] = values[4];
values[4] = temp;
d)
int temp = values[3];
values[3] = values[4];
values[4] = values[3];
Answer: c

4. Suppose that class Book has been defined. Which of the following creates an array of
Book objects?
a)
Book[] books = new Book[numberElements];
b)
Book[] books = new Book()[numberElements];
c)
new Book() books[];
books = new Book[numberElements];
d) All of the above.
Answer: a

5. [C#6] Which of the following statements is false?

a. Prior to C# 6, auto-implemented properties required both a get and a set accessor.
b. Client code can use C# 6 getter-only auto-implemented properties only to get each
property’s value.
c. C#6 getter-only auto-implemented properties are read only.
d. C#6 getter-only auto-implemented properties can be initialized only in their
declarations.
Answer: d. Getter-only auto-implemented properties can be initialized only in their
declarations. Actually these properties can also be initialized in all of the type's
constructors.

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 11

6.[C#6] Initializing an auto-implemented property in its declaration is a C# 6 feature

known as auto-property initializers. Which of the following is the general syntax for a
read-write auto-implemented property with an initializer?
a. Type PropertyName {get, set;} = initializer;
b. Type PropertyName {get | set} = initializer;
c. Type PropertyName {get; set} = initializer;
d. Type PropertyName {get; set;} = initializer;
Answer: d. Type PropertyName {get; set;} = initializer;

7. (True/False) When accessing an element of an array, operations (calculations) are not

allowed inside the brackets of an array.
Answer: False. Assuming example is an array defined with 10 elements,
example[1+3] is allowed.

8. (True/False) Arrays can hold simple types and reference types.

Answer: True.

8.7 Passing Arrays and Array Elements to Methods

1. If you want to pass an array element into a method by reference, what will you need to
do?
a) It always passes the element as a reference automatically.
b) Use the keyword ref and/or out.
c) All of the above.
d) None of the above, passing in by reference of an array element is only possible if the
array type is a reference type.
Answer: b

2. Which method call does the method header void ModifyArray(double[] b)

represent? Assume that the array being passed in is already defined and is called list.
a) ModifyArray(double[] list)
b) ModifyArray(double[] : list)
c) ModifyArray(double list[])
d) ModifyArray(list)
Answer: d

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 12

3. Consider array items, which contains the values 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8. If method

changeArray is called with changeArray(items, items[2]), what values are
stored in items after the method has finished executing?
public static void ChangeArray(int[] passedArray, int value)
{
passedArray[value] = 12;
value = 5;
}
a) 0, 2, 5, 6, 12
b) 0, 2, 12, 6, 8
c) 0, 2, 4, 6, 5
d) 0, 2, 4, 6, 12
Answer: d

4. (True/False) To pass an array argument to a method, specify the name of the array
followed by empty brackets.
Answer: False. To pass an array argument to a method, specify the name of the
array without using brackets.

5. (True/False) Individual elements of arrays are passed to methods by value.

Answer: True.

6. (True/False) Changes made to an entire array that has been passed to a method will not
affect the original values of the array.
Answer: False. Arrays are passed to methods by reference; therefore, changes made
within the method are direct changes to the array itself.

8.8 Case Study: Class GradeBook Using an Array to Store

Grades
1. Which foreach header represents iterating through an array of int named numbers?
a) foreach (numbers)
b) foreach (number in numbers)
c) foreach (int number in numbers)
d) foreach (int number in int[] numbers)
Answer: c

8.9 Multidimensional Arrays

1. There are two types of multidimensional arrays:
a) quadrangular and rectangular
b) rectangular and jagged
c) quadrangular and jagged
d) None of the above
Answer: b

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 13

2. Rectangular arrays are often used to represent tables of values consisting of

information arranged in:
a) rows
b) columns
c) both a and b
d) None of the above
Answer: c

3. Which of the following correctly declares and initializes a two-dimensional rectangular

array of integers?
a) int[,] sum = new int[3, 4];
b) int[] sum = new int[2, 4];
c) int sum[] = new int[2, 2];
d) None of the above.
Answer: a

4. In rectangular array items, which expression below retrieve the value at row 3 and
column 5?
a) items[3. 4]
b) items[3][4]
c) items[3, 4]
c) None of the above.
Answer: c

5. An array with m rows and n columns is not:

A. An m-by-n array.
B. An n-by-m array.
C. A two-dimensional array.
D. An n times m dimensional array.
a) A and C
b) A and D
c) B and D
d) B and C
Answer: c

6. Which statement below initializes array items to contain 3 rows and 2 columns?
a) int[,] items = {{2, 4}, {6, 8}, {10, 12}};
b) int[,] items = {{2, 6, 10}, {4, 8, 12}};
c) int[,] items = {2, 4}, {6, 8}, {10, 12};
d) int[,] items = {2, 6, 10}, {4, 8, 12};
Answer: a

7. For the array in the previous question, what is the value returned by items[1, 0].
a) 4
b) 8
c) 12
d) 6
Answer: d

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 14

8. Which of the following statements creates a multidimensional array with 3 rows,

where the first row contains 1 item, the second row contains 4 items and the final row
contains 2 items?
a)
int[][] items = {new int {1, null, null, null},
new int {2, 3, 4, 5},
new int {6, 7, null, null}};

b)
int[][] items = {new int {1},
new int {2, 3, 4, 5},
new int {6, 7}};

c)
int[][] items = {new int {1},
new int {2, 3, 4, 5},
new int {6, 7},
new int {});

d)
int[][] items = {new int {1},
new int {4},
new int {2}};
Answer: b

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 15

9. Which of the following sets of statements creates a multidimensional array with 3

rows, where the first row contains 1 value, the second row contains 4 items and the final
row contains 2 items?

a)
int[][] items;
items = new int[3][?];
items[0] = new int[1];
items[1] = new int[4];
items[2] = new int[2];

b)
int[][] items;
items = new int[3][];
items[0] = new int[1];
items[1] = new int[4];
items[2] = new int[2];

c)
int[][] items;
items = new int[?][?];
items[0] = new int[1];
items[1] = new int[4];
items[2] = new int[2];

d)
int[][] items;
items[0] = new int[1];
items[1] = new int[4];
items[2] = new int[2];
Answer: b

10. is (are) typically used to traverse a two-dimensional array.

a) A do while statement
b) A for statement
c) Two nested for statements
d) Three nested for statements
Answer: c

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 16

11. Which set of statements totals the items in each row of two-dimensional array items,
and displays each total?
a)
int total = 0;

for (int row = 0; row < items.Length; ++row)

{
total = 0;

for (int column = 0; column < a[row].Length; ++column)

{
total += a[row][column];
}
}

b)
int total = 0;

for (int row = 0; row < items. Length; ++row)

{
for (int column = 0; column < a[row]. Length; ++column)
{
total += a[row][column];
}
}

c)
int total = 0;

for (int row = 0; row < items. Length; ++row)

{
for (int column = 0; column < a[column].length; ++column)
{
total += a[row][column];
}
}

d)
int total = 0;
for (int row = 0; row < items. Length; ++row)
{
total = 0;

for (int column = 0; column < a[column].length; ++column)

{
total += a[row][column];
}
}

Answer: a

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 17

12. (True/False) Multi-dimensional arrays require two or more indices to identify

particular elements.
Answer: True.

13. (True/False) When dealing with multi-dimensional arrays, each “row” must be the
same size.
Answer: False. Each “row” in a multi-dimensional array does not have to be the
same; this functionality is described in the definition of a jagged array.

14. (True/False) Tables are often represented with rectangular arrays.

Answer: True.

15. (True/False) By convention, the first set of brackets of a two-dimensional array

identifies an element’s column and the second identifies the row.
Answer: False. By convention, the first set of brackets identifies the row and the
second set of brackets identifies the column.

16. (True/False) Jagged arrays are maintained as arrays of arrays.

Answer: True.

8.10 Case Study: Class GradeBook Using a Rectangular

Array
1. (True/False) The foreach statement can be used only with one-dimensional arrays.
Answer: False. The foreach statement can be used with multiple-dimension arrays.

2. (True/False) One could iterate through multi-dimensional arrays by using nested for
loops.
Answer: True.

8.11 Variable-Length Argument Lists

1. What is the keyword associated with variable-length argument lists?
a) arg
b) params
c) var
d) vla
Answer: b

2. What kinds of arrays can variable-length argument lists work with?

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 18

a) one-dimensional arrays
b) multi-dimensional arrays
c) All of the above
d) None of the above
Answer: a

3. (True/False) Variable-length argument lists allow you to create methods that receive an
arbitrary number of arguments.
Answer: True.

4. (True/False) The params modifier can be used anywhere in the method’s header.
Answer: False. The params modifier can occur only in the last entry of the parameter
list.

8.12 Using Command-Line Arguments

1. What is the naming convention for the parameter in the Main header?
a) par
b) prm
c) args
d) str
Answer: c

2. The parameter in the Main header allows for ________?

a) the use of strings
b) command-line arguments
c) input and output capacity
d) All of the above
Answer: b

3. (True/False) When an app is executed from the Command Prompt, the execution
environment passes the command-line arguments to the Main method as a string.
Answer: False. The command-line arguments are passes as a one-dimensional array
of strings.

4. (True/False) Command-line arguments allow the user to pass information into an app
as it begins executing.
Answer: True.

8.13 (Optional) Passing Arrays by Value and by Reference

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Visual C# How to Program, Sixth Edition 19

1. Passing a reference type by value is done to protect:

a) the original object from being modified
b) the reference itself from being modified
c) data outside the bounds of an array
d) All of the above.
Answer: b

2. What is the method header for passing in the variable that holds a reference to an array
of Strings?
a) method_name(ref String[] array)
b) method_name(String[] ref array)
c) method_name(String[])
d) None of the above.
Answer: a

3. (True/False) Passing a reference with keyword ref gives the called method control
over the passed reference itself.
Answer: True.

4. (True/False) When a method receives a reference-type object parameter by value, the

object is actually passed by value.
Answer: False. The object is passed by reference; it is the reference itself that is
passed by value.

5. (True/False) To protect the reference of an array, it should be passed to methods with

keyword val.
Answer: False. Arrays are by default passed by reference, however it’s the objects
that can be modified by the method, not the reference itself.

© Copyright 1992-2017 by Deitel & Associates, Inc. and Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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 Great care should be taken to draw such wines from the
fermenting vat, as soon as the active fermentation is finished, for a
long sojourn in the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the
defect.
The Treatment of wines so affected differs according to their
origin, their nature, and their promise of the future; but the
condition necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defecation
or clarification, and never to allow them to remain on the lees. They
should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear, and frequently
racked to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits.
Red wines, which in spite of this defect, have a future, and may
acquire quality with age, should be racked at the beginning of
winter, again in the beginning of March, and after the second racking
should be fined with the whites of 12 eggs to 100 gallons of wine;
they are then racked again two weeks after fining.
Common red wines, without a future, dull and poor in color, and
weak in spirit, are treated in the same manner, but before fining, a
little more than a quart of alcohol of 60 to 90 per cent. is added to
facilitate the coagulation of the albumen.
In treating wines which are firm, full-bodied, and charged with
color, after the two rackings, an excellent result is obtained by an
energetic fining with about three ounces of gelatine.
Earthy white wines should be racked after completing their
fermentation, and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin
dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified white wine. After
racking, they should be fined with about three ounces of gelatine.
These rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters, and
part of the coloring matter, which is strongly impregnated with the
earthy taste, and the result is a sensible diminution of the flavor.
When not very pronounced, it is removed little by little at each
racking. But if it is very marked, the wine after the first racking
should have a little less than a quart of olive oil thoroughly stirred
into it. After a thorough agitation, the oil should be removed by
filling the cask. The oil removes with it a portion of those matters in
the wine which cause the bad flavor. The wine is afterwards fined as
above.
Some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor
should be mixed with wine of a better taste, as the best method of
correcting the defect; but from what has been said in the preceding
part of this chapter, it would seem to be an unsafe practice.
The Wild Taste and Grassy Flavor are due to the same
causes, and are removed in the same way.
Greenness—Its Causes.—This is due to the presence of
tartaric acid, which it contains in excess. It gives a sour, austere
taste to the wine, which also contains malic acid, but in a less
quantity. When tasted, it produces the disagreeable sensation of
unripe fruit to the palate, sets the teeth on edge, and contracts the
nervous expansions of the mouth.
Greenness, as the term imports, is caused by want of maturity of
the grapes. We all know that acids abound in unripe fruit, and it is
only at the time of maturity, and under the influence of the heat of
the sun, that they disappear and are changed into glucose or grape
sugar.
A green wine, then, is an imperfect wine, which, besides this
defect, generally lacks alcohol, body, mellowness, firmness, bouquet,
and color, because the incompletely matured grapes contain much
tartaric and malic acid, and but little grape sugar and other
mucilaginous matter, and because the matters destined to give color
to the skins, as well as the aromatic principles, are not completely
elaborated.
The only way to Prevent this Defect is to resort to means
necessary to increase the maturity of the grape, or to add sugar to
the must, neither of which will scarcely ever be found necessary in
California, where the defect is not likely to exist, if the grapes are
not picked too green.
 Treatment.—Where the sourness is not insupportable, the wine
may be ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy for each
100 gallons.
The wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free
tartaric acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in the
cask, because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the wine
and forms the bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, which is
deposited with the lees, or attaches itself to the sides of the cask. It
follows that the wine will be less green after insensible fermentation,
at the first racking, than when it was new; but if the greenness is
excessive after the insensible fermentation, the wine still contains
much free acid. The excess of acid may be neutralized in wines
which are very green by adding the proper amount of tartrate of
potash, which combines with a part of the tartaric acid to form the
bitartrate, which after a few days falls to the bottom, or adheres to
the cask. The dose varies from 10 to 24 ounces per 100 gallons of
wine. Five or six gallons of wine are drawn out of the cask, and the
tartrate of potash is thrown in by the handful, stirring the while as in
the case of fining. This treatment does not always succeed; hence,
the necessity of preventing the defect when possible.
When the greenness is not very marked, the wine may also be
mixed with an older wine, which contains but little acid and plenty of
spirit.
Lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the acid,
but they injure the wine and render it unhealthy, and should never
be used.
Machard lays great stress upon the addition of brandy to such
wines, because, he says, the alcohol will precipitate the excess of
acids, and will also combine with them to form ethers which give a
delicate, balsamic odor to the wine, which is most agreeable. (See
Ethers, Bouquet.)
Roughness is due to the astringency given to the wine by the
tannin when in excess. Tannin is useful for the preservation and the
clarification of wines, and those which contain much, with an equal
amount of alcohol, keep much longer than those which contain less,
and undergo transportation better, and are considered more
healthful.
Roughness is Not a Fault, it is rather an excess of good
quality, if the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems,
bitterness, earthy flavor, acrity, and possess a high degree of spirit, a
fruity flavor, and a good color. Such wines are precious for fortifying,
and to assist in aging those which are too feeble to keep a long time
without degenerating. When kept without cutting, they last a long
time, and end well. But they are long in developing.
The Roughness Disappears in Time, because the tannin is
transformed into gallic acid, and besides is precipitated by other
principles contained in the wine, and by finings.
An Excess of Tannin is Avoided in strong, dark-colored, full-
bodied wines by removing all the stems, and by early drawing from
the tank. If the wines are inclined to be soft, weak, and with but
little spirit, no attempt should be made to avoid roughness.
When wines are put into new casks, their roughness is increased
by the tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are made;
but during insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is
thrown down with the vegetable albumen contained in the new
wine.
How Removed.—If the wines are of good body and color, the
roughness may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of
gelatine, two or three ounces to 100 gallons. As this removes a
portion of the color, it should only be resorted to in the case of
rough and dark-colored wines, to hasten their maturity.
Bitterness and Taste of the Stems—Causes.—Bitterness is a
disagreeable taste which, in new wines attacked by it, comes from
the dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems, a
principle entirely different from tannin. Sometimes it is
communicated by the skins of certain varieties of grapes.
 This is Prevented by allowing the grapes to reach complete
maturity, and above all by stemming them all, and by not leaving the
wine too long in the fermenting vat.
The Treatment is the same as for the earthy flavor, and also
afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy.
The bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new
wines, and its cause is entirely different from that found in old
wines, which is described further on.
The Taste of the Stems, which often accompanies bitterness,
is due to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine. It is
supposed that this defect, which gives the wine a wild and common
flavor, comes from an aromatic principle contained in the stems. It is
prevented by stemming, and like natural bitterness, diminishes with
time. The treatment is the same.
An unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of
bitterness and stem flavor.
Sourness—Its Causes.—Sourness, or heated flavor, as it is also
called, is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine. All wines,
even the mellowest, the best made, and the best cared for, contain
some acetic acid, but in so small a quantity as to be inappreciable to
the taste. Acetic acid is produced in wines during their fermentation
in open tanks, and is due to the contact of the air with the crust of
the pomace. This crust or cap, formed of skins and stems, brought
to the surface by bubbles of carbonic acid rising from the liquid, is
exposed directly to the air, and the alcoholic fermentation of the
liquid part is soon completed, and under the influence of the air and
ferments, the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. This
transformation is so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged,
and the temperature is high, the exterior crust rapidly passes from
acetic to putrid fermentation.
As long as the tumultuous fermentation continues, the crust is
kept up above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas, but when it
ceases, the cap falls, and settles down into the liquid, and the wine
becomes impregnated with the acetic acid. The wine also, by simple
contact with the crust, acquires a vinegar smell and taste.
Wines which become pricked by contact with the air after
fermentation are treated further on under the head of Pricked
Wines.
How Prevented.—The formation of acetic acid during
fermentation is prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or
partly closed vats, by avoiding contact of the air, by keeping the
pomace submerged, and by confining the carbonic acid in the vat. If
open vats are used, they should be only three-fourths full, so that a
layer of gas may rest upon the pomace and protect it from the
atmosphere; or the cap may be covered with a bed of straw as soon
as formed. Care should be taken to draw off as soon as fermentation
is complete.
Treatment.—Wines affected in this manner cannot be expected
to acquire good qualities with age. They may be rendered potable,
but their future is destroyed. Therefore, every precaution should be
taken to guard against the defect. They should be separated from
their first lees as soon as possible; consequently, they should be
drawn off as soon as the gas ceases to rise. If they are still turbid,
they should be clarified by an energetic fining, and they should be
racked from the finings the very moment they are clear. They should
be afterwards racked to further free them from ferments. If the
wines are only heated, the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly
diminished by the above operation; but if they are decidedly pricked,
the means to neutralize their acid when drawn from the vat, as
indicated for Pricked Wines, should be resorted to.
Alcoholic Weakness is due to a want of sufficient spirit, caused
by an excess of water of vegetation, and the consequent lack of
sugar in the grapes. In France this defect is generally found in wines
coming from young vines planted in very fertile soils, or from the
common varieties, pruned with long canes, and producing a great
quantity of large, watery grapes. When wines weak in alcohol
contain but little tannin and color, they rapidly degenerate, often
commencing their decline during their first year, and before their
clarification is completed.
How Avoided.—This defect can be corrected by planting the
proper varieties of vines, and by avoiding rich soils; but in the
climate of California there is but little danger of the wines being too
weak, unless the grapes are late varieties, and grown in very
unfavorable situations.
The Treatment of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments
as soon as possible, in order to avoid acid and putrid degeneration,
to which they are quite subject. This result is obtained by drawing
them off as soon as the lees are deposited. If they remain turbid
after the second racking, they should be gently fined with the whites
of nine or ten eggs to 100 gallons. The coagulation of the albumen
will be facilitated by adding one or more quarts of strong alcohol to
the wine before fining, and by adding to the eggs a handful of
common salt dissolved in a little water. But as these wines, by
themselves, are short lived, it is necessary, in order to prolong their
existence, to mix them with firm wines, strong in body and rich in
color. By adding alcohol, they are still left dry and without fruity
flavor, while if mixed with a wine of a flavor as nearly like their own
as possible, and having a fruity flavor, and being firm and full-
bodied, but not fortified, they will acquire mellowness as well as
strength.
Want of Color—Causes.—As coloring matter is not found in the
skins of grapes till they are ripe, green wines produced in years
when the grapes do not ripen well, lack color.
The amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity
the skins of the grapes decay.
The method of fermentation also influences more or less the
richness of the color. Those wines, in the fermentation of which the
pomace is kept constantly immersed in the liquid, dissolve out more
coloring matter than those fermented in open vats in which the crust
is raised above the surface of the must.
 Some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than others.
How Guarded Against.—It is therefore obvious, that the lack
of color may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when they
are just ripe, planting the proper varieties, and keeping the pomace
submerged during fermentation, stirring it up, if necessary.
The Treatment should be such as to avoid as much as possible
the precipitation of the coloring matter. They should, therefore, be
fined as little as possible, and gelatine should be carefully avoided. If
they must be fined, use the whites of eggs and in the quantity
mentioned for weak wines—10 to 100 gallons.
Of course, their color may be increased by mixing them with
darker colored wines, but in order not to affect their natural flavor,
they should be mixed only with wines of the same nature and of the
same growth.
It is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial
coloring of any kind.
Dull, Bluish, Lead-colored Wine, and Flavor of the Lees—
Causes.—Certain wines remain turbid, and preserve a dull, leaden
color, even after insensible fermentation. This state may be due to
several causes. Oftentimes young wines remain turbid because, for
want of racking at proper times, and for want of storing in proper
places, secondary fermentation has set in, which has stirred up the
lees which had been deposited at the bottom of the cask. This also
takes place when new wines are moved before racking.
Treatment.—In these cases, put them into a cellar of a constant
temperature, leave them quiet for a couple of weeks, and see if they
settle naturally. If not, clarify them by using the finings appropriate
to their nature.
If they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation,
the first thing to do is to stop the working by racking, sulphuring,
etc. When, in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed upon
them, they still remain dull and difficult to clarify, while undergoing
no fermentation, the cause must be sought in the want of tannin or
alcohol.
If the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit, the treatment
consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each 100
gallons, mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bodied
wine of like natural flavor, and then by fining it with eggs as
mentioned for weak wines.
If the dull wine has sufficient alcohol, as shown by a pronounced
color, add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in alcohol, or the
equivalent of tannified wine, and fine it with one to two ounces of
gelatine.
Bluish or violet color, accompanied by a flavor of the lees, often
occurs in wines of southern countries, and is due to an abundance of
coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid. When the violet-colored
wine has a good deal of color, and more than nine per cent. of
alcohol, the color may be changed to red by mixing with it from one-
sixth to one-fourth of green wine, which contains an excess of
tartaric acid, the natural blue color of the grape being changed to
red by the action of the acid; then about an ounce of tannin, or the
equivalent of tannified wine, should be added, that the color may
become fixed, and that clarification may subsequently take place in a
proper manner. In default of green wine, crystalized tartaric acid
may be used, which is very soluble in wine. A small amount should
be first experimented with, in order to learn just how much to use to
change the blue of the wine to red, for we must not forget that this
acid gives greenness to the wine and thereby renders it less
healthful.
If the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little color,
and that is blue and dull, they have a tendency to putridity. In this
case, the blue color is in fact only a commencement of
decomposition. It is due to an internal reaction which transforms a
part of the tartrate of potash into carbonate of potash. Such wines
have a slightly alkaline flavor, and left to themselves in contact with
the air, they become rapidly corrupt, without completely acidifying.
These wines are of the poorest quality. This disease, which is very
rare, may be prevented by using the proper methods of vinification,
and by rendering them firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good
varieties of vines. In the treatment of such wines, some propose the
use of tartaric acid to restore them. This will turn the blue color to
red, but will not prevent the threatened decomposition. Mr. Boireau
prefers the use of about one-sixth of green wine, which contains an
abundance of the acid, and the subsequent mixing with a strong,
full-bodied wine.
Putrid Decomposition—Causes.—Wines are decomposed and
become putrid, on account of little spirituous strength and lack of
tannin. The weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient sugar in
the grapes—to the excess of water of vegetation. We see, then, that
wine is predisposed to putridity when it is wanting in these two
conservative principles, alcohol and tannin. Such wine quickly loses
its color; it never becomes brilliant and limpid; it remains turbid, and
never clears completely, but continues to deposit. The tendency to
decomposition is announced by a change of color, which becomes
tawny and dull, which gives it, though young, an appearance of
worn out, turbid, old wine. Its red color is in great part deposited,
and it retains only the yellow. If the defect is not promptly remedied
by fortifying, it acquires a nauseous, putrid flavor of stagnant water;
and it continues turbid, and is decomposed, without going squarely
into acetous fermentation.
How Avoided.—To avoid this tendency, which is rare, means
should be employed to increase the natural sugar in the must, and
by planting proper varieties of grapes, which will produce good, firm
wines, and by choosing proper situations for the vineyard, and
employing the best methods of vinification.
Treatment.—Decomposition may be retarded in several ways:
First, by fortifying the wines, by adding tannin to them, and by
adding a sufficient quantity of rough, firm, alcoholic wine; second, in
default of a strong, full-bodied wine, brandy may be added, or
better, the tannin prepared with alcohol, so as to give them a
strength of at least ten per cent.; third, fining should be avoided as
much as possible, especially the use of finings which precipitate the
coloring matter, such as gelatine; albumen should be used in
preference, as for weak wines; fourth, the movements of long
journeys, and drawing off by the use of pumps, should be avoided,
for they are apt to increase the deposition of the coloring matter.
The treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition, but will
not arrest it, and such wines can never endure a long voyage unless
heavily brandied.
Several Different Natural Vices and Defects may attack the
same wine, when it should be treated for that which is most
prominent.

ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Flat Wine—Flowers—Causes.—Flowers of wine are nothing
but a kind of mould, in the form of a whitish scum or film, composed
of microscopic fungi, the mycoderma vini and mycoderma aceti,
already mentioned under the head of Fermentation, and which
develop on the surface of wine left in contact with the air. This
mould, or mother, communicates to the wine a disagreeable odor
and flavor, and also a slight acidity, which the French call évent odor,
or flavor éventé, and which may be called flatness. The development
of these organisms is due principally to the direct exposure of the
wine to the air, which favors their growth by the evaporation of a
portion of the alcohol which exists at the surface of the liquid which
is exposed, and a commencement of oxidation of that which
remains. The result is that the surface of the wine becomes very
weak in alcohol, and having lost its conservative principle, it moulds.
This mould consists, as before remarked, of a vast number of small
fungi. They have a bad flavor, and are impregnated with an acidity
which comes from the action of the oxygen of the air upon the
alcohol, converting it into acetic acid.
 This disease develops more or less rapidly, according to the
alcoholic strength of the wine and the temperature of the place
where it is kept. Those common, weak wines, which have only from
7 to 8½ per cent. of alcohol, are the first attacked; on them flowers
are developed in three or four days. Stronger wines, which contain
from 10 to 11 per cent. of spirit, resist twice as long as the weaker
ones. Fine wines of an equal strength resist better than the common
kinds; and wines which contain more than 15 per cent. are not
affected. During summer they are much sooner affected.
Machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the
commencement of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the
wine, which, as they begin to putrify, give off ammoniacal
emanations. Maumené says that it is due to the loss of carbonic
acid.
To Prevent Flatness, all agree that wines should be protected
from the air; for this purpose they should be kept in casks constantly
full, or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal position. When it is
necessary to leave ullage in the cask, a sulphur match must be
burned, and the cask tightly bunged. (See General Treatment, Wine
in Bottles, Sulphuring, etc.)
In frequently drawing from the cask, the deterioration is retarded
by taking care to admit the least possible amount of air, just enough
to let the wine run, but the evil cannot be entirely prevented in this
way; and by frequent sulphuring the wine will acquire a disagreeable
sulphur flavor; therefore, ullage should never be left when it is
possible to avoid it.
Treatment.—When the wines show flowers, but have not yet
become flat, as in the case of new wines which have been
neglected, and have not been filled up for a week or more, and are
only affected at the surface, by filling up, the flowers may be caused
to flow out at the bung. The cask must then be well bunged. It must
afterwards be kept well filled, for besides the flat flavor that the
flowers may give the wine, they will render it turbid on account of
the acid ferments introduced, and cause it to become pricked in the
end.
Wine badly flowered, and which has acquired a decided flavor of
flatness, without being actually sour, should be filled up, and the
flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung; it should then be
racked into a well sulphured cask, which must be completely filled.
The flowers must not be allowed to become mixed with the wine.
After racking, two or three quarts of old brandy to each 100 gallons
should be added, or a few gallons of firm, full-bodied wine, as near
as possible of the same natural flavor. It should then be well fined,
using in preference the whites of eggs (one dozen for 100 gallons,
and a handful of salt dissolved in a little water), and then it must be
racked again as soon as clear.
The object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by
racking the mould which causes the bad taste; to replace by
fortifying, the alcohol lost by evaporation; and finally, by fining, to
remove in the lees the acid ferments, which have developed in the
form of flowers.
Yet those wines which have become badly affected through
negligence are never completely restored, and if they are fine,
delicate wines, they lose a large part of their value. Therefore, great
care should be taken to prevent this disease, which in the end
produces acidity, for, often, neglected wines are at the same time
flat and pricked.
Some authors recommend that such a wine should be again
mixed with a good, sound, fresh pomace, which has not been long in
the vat, and allowed to ferment a second time; this is called passing
it over the marc. Of course, this can only be done in the wine
making season, and cannot be resorted to by those who do not
make wine themselves, or who are at a distance from a wine maker.
When all else fails, they recommend that several large pieces of
dry, fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine, attached to cords to
draw them out by, Maigne says, for forty-eight hours, and Machard
says, one or two weeks, renewing the charcoal from time to time till
the taste is removed.
If the wine has already become acid, charcoal will not remove
the flavor.
Sourness, Acidity, Pricked Wine—Causes.—Acidity is a sour
taste caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to
acetic acid by the oxygen of the air. It is due to long contact with the
air, and it is the oxygen which produces the change, as described
under the head of Acetic Fermentation, and it is the more rapid,
according as the temperature is more elevated, and the wine
contains more ferments.
What Wines Liable to.—All wines whose fermentation is
completed, and which have been fermented under ordinary
circumstances—that is, those which have received no addition of
alcohol, and no longer contain saccharine matter, are subject to this
affection when left exposed to the air.
When they have been fortified up to 18 per cent. of alcohol,
whether sweet or not, they do not sour until the alcohol has been
enfeebled by evaporation.
If they contain sugar, although not fortified, a new fermentation
takes place, and they do not acidify until the greater part of the
sugar has been transformed into alcohol. Machard, however, says
that wines which contain a good deal of sugar do often acidify, and
in the experience of others, there is a continuous fermentation,
which renders them very liable to become pricked.
As the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, the
more the wine contains of the former the less will it have of the
latter.
Acidity is Prevented by giving wines proper care and attention,
and by keeping them in suitable places, and by using the
precautions indicated for flat or flowered wines, i.e., by avoiding
long contact with the air. Flowers are the forerunners of acidity; yet
they do not always appear before the wine is pricked, especially if
the temperature is elevated, and the alcoholic strength considerable.
In general, wines become pricked without producing flowers when
they are exposed to the air at a temperature of 77° to 100° F.;
acidity is produced under these conditions in a very rapid manner;
and this is why extra precautions should be taken during hot
weather. It should also be remembered that this vice comes either
from the negligence of the cellar-man to guard the wines from
contact with the air, or from the bad state of the casks, and storing
in unsuitable places.
Treatment.—Acetic acid in wine may be in great part
neutralized by several alkaline substances; but, if used, there remain
in solution in the wine certain salts (acetates and tartrates) formed
by the combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alkaline
bases introduced. These alkaline substances not only neutralize the
acetic acid, but also the vegetable acids contained in the wine.
These neutral salts are not perfectly wholesome, being generally
laxative in their nature. Moreover, the acetic acid cannot be
completely neutralized by the employment of caustic alkalies
(potash, soda, quicklime), and these bases decompose the wine and
cause the dissolution and precipitation of the coloring matter, and
render it unfit to drink by reason of the bitterness which they
communicate. It is necessary, therefore, to choose for the treatment
of pricked wines, those alkaline matters which are the most likely to
neutralize the excess of acetic acid without altering the constitution
of the wine, without precipitating their color, and which produce by
combination the least soluble and least unwholesome salts.
Those which should be employed in preference to others are,
carbonate of magnesium, tartrate of potassium, and lime water.
The following substances should only be employed when it is
impossible to obtain those last mentioned, for the reason that the
salts remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color, and
even decomposition, if used in large doses, i. e., wood ashes (ashes
from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much of the salts of
potash); powdered chalk and marble (composed of the sub-
carbonates of lime, marble dust being the purer); solutions of the
sub-carbonates of potash, and of the sub-carbonates of soda, and
plaster.
In Using the Substances, it is always best to experiment with
a small quantity of wine, being careful to employ a dose
proportioned to the extent of the degree of acidity. Thus, to a quart
of wine add 15 or 20 grains of carbonate of magnesia (1 or 2
grammes per litre), little by little, shaking the bottle the while; again,
but only when the wine is badly pricked, slack a suitable quantity of
quicklime in water, and let it settle till the surface water becomes
clear. Then add to the wine which has already received the
carbonate of magnesia, 5 or 6 fluidrams of the lime water (2
centilitres), and shake the mixture; then pour in 2 or 3 fluidrams of
alcohol (1 centilitre), and finally clarify it with albumen, using fresh
milk in preference, from 1½ to 3 fluidrams to a quart (½ to 1
centilitre to a litre); cork the bottle, shake it well, and let it rest for
three or four days, when by comparing the sample treated with the
pricked wine, the effect will be seen.
This treatment varies according to the nature of the wine. If it is
green and pricked, add 15 grains (1 gramme per litre) of tartrate of
potassium to the magnesia; and if the wine has a dull color, after
having added the milk, put in about 3 grains (22 centigrammes) of
gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram (½ centilitre) of water; if the
wine is turbid and hard to clarify, add a little more than a grain (8
centigrammes) of tannin in powder, before putting in the milk and
gelatine.
Of course, the same proportion should be used in operating upon
a larger quantity of wine.
If carbonate of magnesium, which is preferable to all others,
cannot be obtained, the dose of lime water may be doubled, and in
default of lime, powdered chalk, or marble and vine ash may be
used, but with great prudence, and in smaller proportions, or
solutions of the sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Great care
should be exercised as to the quantity of the latter used, and they
should not be employed in treating wine slightly attacked.
Mr. Boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other
alkaline substance, because it affects the color less, and does not
give bitterness to the pricked wines, nor render them unwholesome,
as do the salts formed by alkalies with a potash, lime, or soda base.
In medicine, carbonate of magnesium is used to correct sourness of
the stomach (so also, we might add, is carbonate of sodium). For
the same reason, decanted lime water is preferred to the sub-
carbonate of lime, employed in the form of marble dust and
powdered chalk; nevertheless, lime water in large doses makes a
wine weak and bitter.
Brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol
lost in the production of acetic acid. The preference given to milk for
fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline, and therefore
assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while clarifying it. It is
alkaline, however, only when it is fresh; skim-milk a day old is acid,
and should not be used. Finally, the tartrate and carbonate of
potassium employed to treat green and pricked wines, are used to
neutralize the tartaric acid, and gelatine and tannin to facilitate the
clarification and the precipitation of acid ferments.
Wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified, and
then racked as soon as perfectly clear, according to the methods
pointed out.
The acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol, the more
acid the less alcohol, and hence the necessity of adding spirit, or, if
the acidity is not too pronounced, of mixing with a full-bodied but
ordinary wine; but those wines should not be kept, as they always
retain acid principles, become dry, and turn again at the least
contact with the air. If they are very bad, and their alcoholic strength
much enfeebled, they had better be made into vinegar.
Machard’s Treatment.—Machard says that the most successful
treatment for sour wine employed by him, is that founded upon the
affinity of vegetable substances for acids, and that he has succeeded
beyond his hopes in completely removing the acid from a wine which
was so sour that it could not be drank without seriously disagreeing
with the person drinking it. This is his method of proceeding.
He formed a long chaplet, six feet or so in length, by cutting
carrots into short, thin pieces, and stringing them on a cord. This he
suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks, and at the
end of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic acid, thereby
accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain attempted. He
says that this is the only treatment that succeeded with him, and he
confidently recommends it to others. But he advises that the carrots
be left in the wine at least a month and a half, protecting the wine
from the air. And he says that there is no danger of injuring the wine
by long contact with the carrots, or by using a large quantity of
them.
Other Methods.—Maigne says that if the wine is only affected
at the surface from leaving ullage in the cask, the bad air should be
expelled by using a hand-bellows; when a piece of sulphur match
will burn in the cask, the air has been purified. Then take a loaf of
bread, warm as it comes from the oven, and place it upon the bung
in such a way as to close it. When the loaf has become cold, remove
it, rack the wine into a well sulphured cask, being careful to provide
the faucet with a strainer of crape or similar fabric, so as to keep the
flowers from becoming mixed with the wine. It will be observed that
the bread absorbs a good deal of the acid, and the operation should
be repeated as often as necessary.
Another plan is to take the meats of 60 walnuts for 100 gallons
of wine, break each into four pieces, and roast them as you would
coffee; throw them, still hot, into the cask, after having drawn out a
few quarts of wine. Fine the wine, and rack when clear, and if the
acidity is very bad, repeat the operation.
A half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect.
He also gives the following method for using marble dust.
 Take of
White marble, 12 lbs.
Sugar, 18 lbs.
Animal charcoal, washed with boiling water, 6 ozs.
Take of this from 3 to 6 lbs. to 100 gallons of wine, according to
the degree of acidity; dissolve it in two or three gallons of the wine
and pour into the cask. Shake it well, and continue the agitation
from time to time, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, till the wine
has lost its acidity, taking care to leave the bung open to allow the
escape of the carbonic acid which is generated. At the end of the
time, add of cream of tartar one-half as much as the dose
employed; shake again, from time to time, and at the end of five or
six hours, draw the wine off and fine it. If, at the end of the first
twenty-four hours, the wine is still acid, add a little more of the
powder before putting in the cream of tartar.
In answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color
and bouquet of the wine, and that the acetate of potassium formed
injures the wine, he says that the charcoal would not hurt a white
wine, and would have but little effect upon a red wine; and as to the
bouquet, that wines which have become sour have none, and that
the acetate of potassium has no perceptible effect upon the health.
Instead of the preceding powder, the following may be
employed:
White marble, in fine powder, 12 lbs.
for ordinary wine, 4 ozs.
Animal charcoal
for fine wine, 2 ozs.
Sugar, 1 lb.
From 5 to 7 lbs. of this are used for 100 gallons of wine, and
one-half the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then
added, in the manner above mentioned.
Cask Flavor, or Barrel Flavor—Causes.—This, says Mr.
Boireau, should not be confounded with the wood flavor derived
from oak wood, and which wines habitually contract when stored in
new casks, and which comes from aromatic principles contained in
the oak. This barrel flavor is a bad taste, which appears to come
from an essence of a disagreeable taste and smell, and which is the
result of a special decay of the wood of the cask. This vice is rare. It
is impossible for the cooper to prevent it, for he cannot recognize
the staves so affected, so as to reject them. For those pieces of
wood which have a disagreeable smell when worked, or show
reddish veins, blotched with white, often produce casks which give
no bad taste to the wine, while other staves selected with the
utmost care, sometimes produce that effect, and even in the latter
case it is impossible to point out the staves which cause the trouble.
When such a cask is found, the only way is to draw off the wine, and
not use the cask a second time.
The Treatment for wines which have contracted a bad taste of
the cask, is to rack them into a sweet cask, previously sulphured, to
remove them from contact with the wood which has caused the
trouble. The bad taste may be lessened by mixing in the wine a
quart or two of sweet oil, and thoroughly stirring it for five minutes,
first removing a few quarts of wine from the cask to permit of the
agitation. The oil is removed from the surface by means of a taster,
or pipette, as the cask is filled up. The wine should then be
thoroughly fined, either with whites of eggs or gelatine, according to
its nature, and racked at the end of one or two weeks.
The reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the
volatile essential oil, which apparently produces the bad flavor. The
olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask.
This treatment diminishes the cask flavor, but rarely entirely
removes it.
Maigne says that to succeed well by this process, the oil should
be frequently mixed with the wine, by stirring it often for two or
three minutes at a time, during a period of eight days. It is also
necessary that the oil be fresh, inodorous, and of good quality, and
of the last crop.
 The same author gives another process, that of mixing with the
wine sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation. After the
fermentation has ceased, fine and rack.
This author also mentions other methods of treatment, but as
olive oil is the remedy more generally used, it is not worth while to
give them at length; suffice it to say, that the substances
recommended are, a roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a
week; a couple of pounds of roasted wheat suspended in the wine
for six or eight hours in a small sack; the use of roasted walnuts, as
mentioned for sourness; and two or three ounces of bruised peach
pits, soaked two weeks in the wine.
Mouldy Flavor—Bad Taste Produced by Foreign Matters.—
Wine contracts a musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks
which have become mouldy inside, on account of negligence and
want of proper care, as by leaving them empty without sulphuring
and bunging. (See Casks.) The mould in empty casks is whitish, and
consists of microscopic fungi, which are developed under the
influence of humidity and darkness. The bad flavor appears to be
due to the presence of an essential oil of a disagreeable taste and
smell.
Prevention and Treatment.—It is prevented by carefully
examining the casks before filling them, and by avoiding the use of
those which have a mouldy smell. Wines affected by this flavor
require the same treatment as those affected with cask flavor.
Maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying a
loaf of warm bread to the open bung, or by suspending in the wine
a half-baked loaf of milk bread. The operation should be repeated in
three or four days.
Foreign Flavors.—Wines which have contracted foreign flavors,
either by being kept in casks which have been used for liquors of
decided flavors and odors, such as anisette, absinthe, rum, etc., or
from contact with substances having good or bad odors, owe their
taste to the dissolution in them of a part of the essential oil which
those substances contain, and should be treated in the same
manner. The chief thing is to remove the cause, by changing the
cask, for if the foreign taste and smell become very marked, they
cannot be completely destroyed; they can only be rendered tolerable
by mixing them with sound wines.
Ropiness is the name applied to a viscous fermentation which
takes place in wine, making it slimy in appearance. It is met with
more particularly in white wines, which contain albuminous matters
in suspension, and but little tannin. It is not a very serious difficulty,
for it can be easily corrected. It is only necessary to tannify the wine
by adding 12 or 15 quarts of tannified wine, well stirred in with a
whip as in fining, or an ounce or two of tannin dissolved in alcohol
for each 100 gallons. The tannin combines with the viscous matter
and precipitates it, so that in removing the ropiness the wine is fined
at the same time. It should be racked from the finings after about
two weeks’ repose.
And we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed
to ropiness ought not to be stemmed, or the must should be
fermented with at least a portion of the stems.
Mr. Machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to lack
of tartaric acid, and that it may be cured by supplying this
substance, and setting up fermentation again. For 100 gallons of
wine, about a pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in hot water,
to which the same quantity of sugar is added, and when dissolved,
the whole is poured warm into the cask containing the ropy wine.
Then replace the bung, and give the cask a thorough rolling for six
or eight minutes. A small hole is previously bored near the bung and
closed with a spigot, which is removed after rolling the cask, to allow
the gas to escape. After resting two or three days, the wine, which
we suppose to be a white wine, should be fined with isinglass.
Ropy Wines in Bottles generally cure themselves, but they
must not be disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes a
brownish tinge. Then is the time to decant them for drinking.
 Ropiness may also be Cured by passing the wine over the
marc again. But only good, fresh pomace should be used, which is
but a few days old. This is done by mixing the wine with the marc of
three times the quantity of wine, and stirring from time to time till
fermentation is established. After the fermentation, the press wine
may be mixed with the rest.
The author does not state whether this is to be done in the case
of white wine or red wine, or both, but it is apparent that it would be
subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation. Fresh lees may
also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc. Sometimes it is
only necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel from another at a
little height, several times, or to give it a thorough agitation by
stirring it, or by driving it about for a few hours in a vehicle over a
rough road.
Alum has been sometimes recommended, but it is now
condemned as unwholesome.
Other means have been suggested, but these will suffice; and it
is agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy.
It is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines, for
fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked.
Acrity.—An acrid taste, with which certain wines are affected as
they grow old, is a sign of degeneration. Mr. Boireau says that he
has reason to believe that this disease is due to the presence of
acetic acid, coupled with the precipitation of the mucilages which
give the mellow flavor to wine. It is more often observed in old, dry
wine, improperly cared for, and consequently deprived of its fruity
flavor.
The Proper Treatment is to remove the acetic acid by using a
gramme or two per litre (60 to 120 grains to a gallon) of carbonate
of magnesium. (See Sourness, Pricked Wines.) If the acrity is not too
great, wines may be fortified, or mixed with a strong, young, clean-
tasting wine of the same nature, after which they should be fined.
 Bitterness, which is often a natural defect (which has already
been considered), becomes an accidental defect when developed in
old wines which were previously sound. It is almost always a
commencement of degeneration. This bitter taste comes principally
from those combinations which are formed by the dissolution of the
coloring matter, and by the precipitation of the mucilaginous
substances, the pectines, which give the wine unctuosity and its
fruity flavor.
Treatment.—The way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify and
regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline, by
mixing it with wine of the same nature, but young, stout, and full-
bodied, and which have not yet reached maturity. The mixture
should be fined with albumen, and racked after resting a fortnight.
The wine may be improved in this way, but the bitterness will
reappear in a few months. It should, therefore, be used as soon as
possible.
Machard recommends the following: Fine the wine with eggs,
and let it rest till clear. Burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half of a
sulphur match (for 60 gallons), and pour in the bitter wine at once
with the smoke in the cask, after having added to each litre of the
wine about one gramme of tartaric acid (say 60 grains to the
gallon), dissolved in warm water. It must then be mixed with from a
fourth to a half of old wine, firm and well preserved. He says that a
new wine to mix with it is not suitable, not having sufficient affinity
for the old.
Where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between
these two authors, one recommending the mixture of new wine, and
the other forbidding it, every one had better experiment for himself
with a small quantity, and after the cut wines have become
thoroughly amalgamated, a choice can be made.
And yet, Mr. Machard says that if the bitterness is not very great,
it is better to give them no other treatment than simply mixing them
with younger ones, but which have a tendency to become sour, or
are already slightly pricked.
 Mr. Maumene Distinguishes Two Kinds of Bitterness: 1.
The nitrogenous matters, under certain circumstances not well
understood, appear to be changed into a bitter product, and entirely
spoil the best wine. This effect depends especially upon the
elevation of the temperature and the old age of the wine. He says
that he knows of but one way to remove this bitterness, and that is
to add a small quantity of lime. For example, 25 to 50 centigrammes
per litre (say 15 to 30 grains per gallon). The lime should be
perfectly new and fresh. It is slacked in a little water or wine, and
poured into the cask; after stirring well, it is left to rest for two or
three days, and then racked and fined. Probably the lime combines
with the nitrogenous matters, gives an insoluble compound, which
separates from the wine, and restores to it its former flavor. The
wine ought to remain acid after this treatment. He says that it has
succeeded with him a great number of times. 2. Another cause of
bitterness appears to him to be the formation of the brown resin of
ammoniacal aldehyde, under the influence of oxygen. The ferment
which adheres to the inside of the cask gives a little ammonia by
decomposition.
We see how the wine, under the influence of the air, produces a
little aldehyde, the ammoniacal aldehyde, and finally the very bitter
brown resin, whose formation was made known by Liebig. It is
under these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed as a
remedy. The sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter in taking
its oxygen to become sulphuric. There is then made sulphate of
ammonia and pure aldehyde. These two substances by no means
communicate to the wine the disagreeable flavor of the brown resin
from which they are derived.
Another origin of bitterness is given, that of the oxidation of the
coloring matter, but there is no positive proof of this any more than
there is of the two causes mentioned by him. Unfortunately, the
whole matter is hypothetical.
Fermentation and Taste of the Lees—Yeasty Flavor.—By
the term fermentation in this connection we mean the malady which
is known in different parts of France by various names, such as la
pousse, vins montés, tournés, tarés, à l’échaud. It generally attacks
those wines which are grown in low places, which come from poor
varieties of grapes, or are produced in bad seasons, are weak, full of
ferments, and thereby liable to work.
Mr. Boireau gives it the name of goût de travail, working taste, or
fermentation flavor. He says that the taste is due to the presence of
carbonic acid, disengaged during secondary alcoholic fermentation,
by reason of saccharine matter contained in the wine, or of
mucilaginous matters which give them their mellowness. The
principal cause of fermentation is the presence of these matters
joined with ferments, and takes place in an elevated temperature.
The yeasty flavor comes from the mixture in the wine of the lees
and deposits already precipitated, and which are again brought into
suspension by the movement of fermentation.
How Prevented.—Fermentation and the consequent taste of
the lees are prevented by making and fermenting the wines under
proper conditions, keeping them in an even temperature, and by
separating them from their lees by well-timed rackings, as detailed in
the chapters on General Treatment, Racking, etc.
Treatment.—The working is stopped by racking the wines into
sulphured casks, and placing them in cellars of a cool and even
temperature. (See Sulphuring, etc.) If they have become turbid, they
must be fined, and they must be left on the finings only as long as is
strictly necessary for their clarification.
Machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for 100
gallons of wine, or its equivalent of old brandy, be introduced into
the sulphured cask before drawing the wine into it, and that it be
fined in all cases.
Degeneration—Putrid Fermentation.—We are warned of
degeneration in wines a long time in advance, in divers manners: by
the loss of their fruity flavor, by bitterness, acrity, etc.; but the true
symptoms in old wine are, the more abundant precipitation of their
blue coloring matter, a heavy and tawny aspect, with a slightly putrid
flavor. The principal causes are the same as those mentioned in
speaking of the putrid decomposition in new wines, that is,
feebleness in alcohol, and lack of tannin.
We know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic
acid, the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation, and it follows
that wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles
which give them their keeping qualities, alcohol and tannin.
The Duration of Different Wines is exceedingly unequal, and,
like animate beings, they display marked differences in constitution.
There are very feeble wines, as we have already seen, which are in
the way of degeneration the first year, while others, firm and full-
bodied, gain in quality for four, six, ten, and more years. As soon as
it is seen that a wine, by its taste and appearance, has commenced
to degenerate, it is important to arrest the degeneration at once.
Treatment.—Degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin,
but it is preferable, in most cases, to mix the wine with younger
wines of the same nature, firm, full-bodied, which are improving,
and consequently possess an excess of those qualities which are
wanting in the degenerating wine. (See Wine in Bottles.)
 CHAPTER XVI.
WINE IN BOTTLES.

When Ready for Bottling.—Wines should not be bottled till

their insensible fermentation is entirely completed, have become
entirely freed from deposits, excess of color, salts, and ferments, and
have become perfectly bright. If they are bottled before these
conditions are fulfilled, deposits are made in the bottles, the wines
may contract bitterness and a taste of the lees, and if fermentation
is violent, the bottles may burst. When they are bottled too young
they are sure to deposit, and then they must be decanted.
The Length of Time that They Require to Remain in Wood
before being ready for bottling, depends upon the strength and
quality of the wines, and the conditions under which they are kept.
Weak wines, feeble in color and spirit, mature rapidly, while firm,
full-bodied wines, rich in color and alcohol, require a longer time to
become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling.
The older writers say that wines should not be put into glass until
they have become fully ripe, and have become tawny (if red), and
have developed a bouquet. But Boireau says that this is not the
proper practice. He says that wine is fit for bottling when freed from
its sediment, and when there is hardly any deposit formed in the
cask at the semi-annual racking—when its color is bright, and it has
lost its roughness or harshness, which it possesses while young, and
at the same time preserves its mellowness. If left in the cask till a
bouquet is developed, wines will often be found to be in a decline by
the time they are bottled, and will not keep as long as those bottled
previous to the development of their bouquet, and while they still
possess their fruity flavor. But greater precautions must be taken to
insure their limpidity, or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the
bottle. And Machard, who indicates aroma and color as signs of
proper maturity, though laying more stress upon the taste, says that
it is always better to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine
passes the point.
Some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old, others require
to be kept from two to six years, and some even ten years, or
longer, in wood. White wine, generally speaking, matures earlier
than red.
How Prepared for Bottling.—Although a wine may appear
perfectly limpid to the eye, yet, when bottled, it may make a
considerable deposit, and therefore, the only safety is to carefully
rack and fine it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension. If it
is not clear after one fining, it must be drawn off and the process
repeated. When fined and cleared, it is better to rack again into a
cask slightly sulphured, and allow it to rest for three or four weeks
before drawing into the bottles; for if drawn from a cask still
containing the finings, the sediment is liable to be stirred up by the
movement of the liquid. If this is not done, the faucet should be
fixed in place at the time of fining and before the wine has settled,
and at the same time the cask should be slightly inclined forward
and blocked in that position, and other precautions must be taken
not to disturb the cask after the wine has cleared. If the wine is too
feeble to allow of fining without injury, and one is sure of its perfect
limpidity, the fining had better be dispensed with. Very young wines
may be bottled after subjecting them to repeated finings, but it will
deprive them of some of their good qualities. (See Fining.) It often
happens that a well-covered, or dark-colored wine will deposit
considerable color in the bottle after one fining; such wine should be
twice fined, and twice racked before fining, say, once in December or
January, and again in March.
The Most Favorable Time for Bottling is during cool, dry
weather, but in cellars of uniform temperature, it may be done at
any time. It is better, if possible, to avoid warm or stormy weather,
and those critical periods in the growth of the vine referred to in the
chapter on Racking. Of course, the wine should not be bottled if it
shows signs of fermentation.

Fig. 27.

Bottle Washer.