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Embedded Digital Control with Microcontrollers
Embedded Digital Control with
Microcontrollers

Implementation with C and Python

Cem Ünsalan
Marmara University

Duygun E. Barkana
Yeditepe University

H. Deniz Gürhan
Yeditepe University
Copyright © 2021 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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Engineers, Incorporated (www.ieee.org/).

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Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To our families.
 vii

Contents

Preface xvii
About the Companion Website xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is a System? 1
1.2 What is a Control System? 1
1.3 About the Book 3

2 Hardware to be Used in the Book 5

2.1 The STM32 Board 5
2.1.1 General Information 6
2.1.2 Pin Layout 6
2.1.3 Powering and Programming the Board 8
2.2 The STM32 Microcontroller 8
2.2.1 Central Processing Unit 8
2.2.2 Memory 9
2.2.3 Input and Output Ports 10
2.2.4 Timer Modules 10
2.2.5 ADC and DAC Modules 11
2.2.6 Digital Communication Modules 11
2.3 System and Sensors to be Used Throughout the Book 12
2.3.1 The DC Motor 12
2.3.1.1 Properties of the DC Motor 12
2.3.1.2 Pin Layout 13
2.3.1.3 Power Settings 14
2.3.2 The DC Motor Drive Expansion Board 14
2.3.3 Encoder 15
2.3.4 The FT232 Module 17
viii Contents

2.4 Systems and Sensors to be Used in Advanced Applications 17

2.4.1 Systems 17
2.4.2 Sensors 19
2.5 Summary 19
Problems 20

3 Software to be Used in the Book 23

3.1 Python on PC 24
3.1.1 Basic Operations 24
3.1.2 Array and Matrix Operations 25
3.1.3 Loop Operations 26
3.1.4 Conditional Statements 27
3.1.5 Function Definition and Usage 27
3.1.6 File Operations 28
3.1.7 Python Control Systems Library 28
3.2 MicroPython on the STM32 Microcontroller 29
3.2.1 Setting up MicroPython 29
3.2.2 Running MicroPython 31
3.2.3 Reaching Microcontroller Hardware 34
3.2.3.1 Input and Output Ports 34
3.2.3.2 Timers 35
3.2.3.3 ADC 37
3.2.3.4 DAC 39
3.2.3.5 UART 41
3.2.4 MicroPython Control Systems Library 42
3.3 C on the STM32 Microcontroller 43
3.3.1 Creating a New Project in Mbed Studio 44
3.3.2 Building and Executing the Code 45
3.3.3 Reaching Microcontroller Hardware 45
3.3.3.1 Input and Output Ports 46
3.3.3.2 Timers 47
3.3.3.3 ADC 48
3.3.3.4 DAC 50
3.3.3.5 UART 51
3.3.4 C Control Systems Library 53
3.4 Application: Running the DC Motor 53
3.4.1 Hardware Setup 54
3.4.2 Procedure 54
3.4.3 C Code for the System 54
3.4.4 Python Code for the System 57
3.4.5 Observing Outputs 59
 Contents ix

3.5 Summary 59
Problems 60

4 Fundamentals of Digital Control 63

4.1 Digital Signals 63
4.1.1 Mathematical Definition 64
4.1.2 Representing Digital Signals in Code 64
4.1.2.1 Representation in Python 65
4.1.2.2 Representation in C 65
4.1.3 Standard Digital Signals 65
4.1.3.1 Unit Pulse Signal 66
4.1.3.2 Step Signal 67
4.1.3.3 Ramp Signal 68
4.1.3.4 Parabolic Signal 68
4.1.3.5 Exponential Signal 69
4.1.3.6 Sinusoidal Signal 71
4.1.3.7 Damped Sinusoidal Signal 71
4.1.3.8 Rectangular Signal 72
4.1.3.9 Sum of Sinusoids Signal 73
4.1.3.10 Sweep Signal 75
4.1.3.11 Random Signal 76
4.2 Digital Systems 77
4.2.1 Mathematical Definition 77
4.2.2 Representing Digital Systems in Code 78
4.2.2.1 Representation in Python 78
4.2.2.2 Representation in C 79
4.2.3 Digital System Properties 79
4.2.3.1 Stability 79
4.2.3.2 Linearity 80
4.2.3.3 Time-Invariance 81
4.3 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems 81
4.3.1 Mathematical Definition 81
4.3.2 LTI Systems and Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations 82
4.3.3 Representing LTI Systems in Code 82
4.3.3.1 MicroPython Control Systems Library Usage 83
4.3.3.2 C Control Systems Library Usage 84
4.3.3.3 Python Control Systems Library Usage 85
4.3.4 Connecting LTI Systems 87
4.3.4.1 Series Connection 87
4.3.4.2 Parallel Connection 88
4.3.4.3 Feedback Connection 89
x Contents

4.4 The z-Transform and Its Inverse 90

4.4.1 Definition of the z-Transform 90
4.4.2 Calculating the z-Transform in Python 92
4.4.3 Definition of the Inverse z-Transform 92
4.4.4 Calculating the Inverse z-Transform in Python 92
4.5 The z-Transform and LTI Systems 93
4.5.1 Associating Difference Equation and Impulse Response of an LTI
System 93
4.5.2 Stability Analysis of an LTI System using z-Transform 95
4.5.3 Stability Analysis of an LTI System in Code 95
4.6 Application I: Acquiring Digital Signals from the Microcontroller,
Processing Offline Data 96
4.6.1 Hardware Setup 97
4.6.2 Procedure 97
4.6.3 C Code for the System 97
4.6.4 Python Code for the System 99
4.6.5 Observing Outputs 101
4.7 Application II: Acquiring Digital Signals from the Microcontroller,
Processing Real-Time Data 103
4.7.1 Hardware Setup 103
4.7.2 Procedure 103
4.7.3 C Code for the System 104
4.7.4 Python Code for the System 106
4.7.5 Observing Outputs 109
4.8 Summary 109
Problems 109

5 Conversion Between Analog and Digital Forms 111

5.1 Converting an Analog Signal to Digital Form 112
5.1.1 Mathematical Derivation of ADC 112
5.1.2 ADC in Code 114
5.2 Converting a Digital Signal to Analog Form 117
5.2.1 Mathematical Derivation of DAC 117
5.2.2 DAC in Code 118
5.3 Representing an Analog System in Digital Form 120
5.3.1 Pole-Zero Matching Method 121
5.3.2 Zero-Order Hold Equivalent 122
5.3.3 Bilinear Transformation 123
5.4 Application: Exciting and Simulating the RC Filter 124
5.4.1 Hardware Setup 125
5.4.2 Procedure 125
 Contents xi

5.4.3 C Code for the System 125

5.4.4 Python Code for the System 127
5.4.5 Observing Outputs 129
5.5 Summary 129
Problems 129

6 Constructing Transfer Function of a System 131

6.1 Transfer Function from Mathematical Modeling 131
6.1.1 Fundamental Electrical and Mechanical Components 132
6.1.2 Constructing the Differential Equation Representing the System 133
6.1.3 From Differential Equation to Transfer Function 133
6.2 Transfer Function from System Identification in Time Domain 134
6.2.1 Theoretical Background 135
6.2.2 The Procedure 135
6.2.3 Data Acquisition by the STM32 Microcontroller 136
6.2.4 System Identification in Time Domain by MATLAB 137
6.3 Transfer Function from System Identification in Frequency
Domain 142
6.3.1 Theoretical Background 142
6.3.2 The Procedure 142
6.3.3 System Identification in Frequency Domain by MATLAB 143
6.4 Application: Obtaining Transfer Function of the DC Motor 143
6.4.1 Mathematical Modeling 143
6.4.2 System Identification in Time Domain 146
6.4.3 System Identification in Frequency Domain 147
6.5 Summary 148
Problems 148

7 Transfer Function Based Control System Analysis 151

7.1 Analyzing System Performance 151
7.1.1 Time Domain Analysis 151
7.1.1.1 Transient Response 152
7.1.1.2 Steady-State Error 156
7.1.2 Frequency Domain Analysis 156
7.1.3 Complex Plane Analysis 159
7.1.3.1 Root-Locus Plot 160
7.1.3.2 Nyquist Plot 160
7.2 The Effect of Open-Loop Control on System Performance 163
7.2.1 What is Open-Loop Control? 163
7.2.2 Improving the System Performance by Open-Loop Control 164
7.3 The Effect of Closed-Loop Control on System Performance 167
xii Contents

7.3.1 What is Closed-Loop Control? 167

7.3.2 Improving the System Performance by Closed-Loop Control 170
7.4 Application: Adding Open-Loop Digital Controller to the DC
Motor 174
7.4.1 Hardware Setup 175
7.4.2 Procedure 175
7.4.3 C Code for the System 175
7.4.4 Python Code for the System 177
7.4.5 Observing Outputs 178
7.5 Summary 178
Problems 180

8 Transfer Function Based Controller Design 183

8.1 PID Controller Structure 183
8.1.1 The P Controller 184
8.1.2 The PI Controller 184
8.1.3 The PID Controller 185
8.1.4 Parameter Tuning Methods 185
8.1.4.1 The Ziegler–Nichols Method 186
8.1.4.2 The Cohen–Coon Method 186
8.1.4.3 The Chien–Hrones–Reswick Method 186
8.2 PID Controller Design in Python 187
8.2.1 Parameter Tuning 188
8.2.2 Controller Design 188
8.2.2.1 P Controller 188
8.2.2.2 PI Controller 191
8.2.2.3 PID Controller 194
8.2.3 Comparison of the Designed P, PI, and PID Controllers 197
8.3 Lag–Lead Controller Structure 199
8.3.1 Lag Controller 199
8.3.2 Lead Controller 200
8.3.3 Lag–Lead Controller 200
8.4 Lag–Lead Controller Design in MATLAB 201
8.4.1 Control System Designer Tool 201
8.4.2 Controller Design in Complex Plane 203
8.4.2.1 Lag Controller 204
8.4.2.2 Lead Controller 206
8.4.2.3 Lag–Lead Controller 207
8.4.2.4 Comparison of the Designed Lag, Lead, and Lag–Lead
Controllers 210
8.4.3 Controller Design in Frequency Domain 211
 Contents xiii

8.4.3.1 Lag Controller 211

8.4.3.2 Lead Controller 213
8.4.3.3 Lag–Lead Controller 213
8.4.3.4 Comparison of the Designed Lag, Lead, and Lag–Lead
Controllers 217
8.5 Application: Adding Closed-Loop Digital Controller to the DC
Motor 217
8.5.1 Hardware Setup 217
8.5.2 Procedure 217
8.5.3 C Code for the System 218
8.5.4 Python Code for the System 219
8.5.5 Observing Outputs 220
8.6 Summary 223
Problems 224

9 State-space Based Control System Analysis 227

9.1 State-space Approach 227
9.1.1 Definition of the State 227
9.1.2 Why State-space Representation? 228
9.2 State-space Equations Representing an LTI System 228
9.2.1 Continuous-time State-space Equations 229
9.2.2 Discrete-time State-space Equations 231
9.2.3 Representing Discrete-time State-space Equations in Code Form 231
9.3 Conversion Between State-space and Transfer Function
Representations 233
9.3.1 From Transfer Function to State-space Equations 233
9.3.2 From State-space Equations to Transfer Function 235
9.4 Properties of the System from its State-space Representation 236
9.4.1 Time Domain Analysis 236
9.4.2 Stability 237
9.4.3 Controllability 238
9.4.4 Observability 239
9.5 Application: Observing States of the DC Motor in Time 240
9.5.1 Hardware Setup 240
9.5.2 Procedure 240
9.5.3 C Code for the System 240
9.5.4 Python Code for the System 242
9.5.5 Observing Outputs 243
9.6 Summary 243
Problems 244
Other documents randomly have
different content
Quant he passat pel mitj d'aqueixos réngles de fredas tombas, los
qu'en ellas jauhen, tot mirantme passar, pensant ne deyan: “¿Que
busca aquí un Monteschi?… Via fora! Via fora'l matador! Lluny de
nosaltres! La rassa d'aquets morts no es pas la sua!”

¡Perdó, sagradas ombras! ¡Perdó, oh ánimas, que sota d'eixas voltas

tenebrosas vagau entorn de sendras qu'encarnareu! Dormiu
tranquils en vostres llits de pedra, oh nobles Capulettis! No es
sacrílech aquell que avuy á vostras tombas baixa per restar ab
vosaltres. Só dels vostres, pus ja som tots d'una mateixa mena, y
amors, no malvestats, aqui me portan.

Per ella vinch tant sols. Ne vinch á dirli, com avans cada nit: “Jo
t'am, Julieta!” Des que som morts jo no li he dit encara. A dirli vinch
lo que li he dit en vida. Vinch á esposarla mort, y per ofrena, vida y
amor, y cos y cor li porto.

Ja que aquells de la terra no volgueren, ja que'ls vius á mas bodas se

negaren, ton ara dressa, oh mort, prentne una tomba per pedra del
altar, encen per ciris tas llantias sepulcrals, comensa'l reso, y vingan
tots á mas mortuorias nupcias, tots cuants d'aquest palau, vagadius
hostes, los espays umplan y'ls sepulcres poblan.

¡Eh! deixondaus, vosaltres!… Capulettis, despertau! Enguanyats ab

vos mortallas, veniu tots en aplech, que jo'us convido á mas bodas de
mort ab vostra hereva! (Pausa. Romeu registra la escena.) Mes, ¿hont
pot ser? ¿Hont es ma desposada? Julieta, ¿hont ets?… ¿Hont ets, oh
morta meva? (Repara en lo mausoleu.) ¡Ah! Ja la veig… allí… allí que,
inmoble, sols ab mi pensa y ab sa pensa'm busca, com jo, que ja só
mort, sols penso ab ella. (Avansa fins al peu de las gradas.) Julieta,
¡pobre mártir! de ta vida la casta flor y l'ignoscencia santa, pels aires
jo esbaltí, tot fet á trossos, lo jorn aquell de febre y de follía en que
llas de ton cos foren mos brassos. No debia un mortal, ni en son
desvari, alsarse fins á tú, coloma santa, esbarriada pel mon, del cel
caiguda.

Aquí'm tens ja, Julieta. (Puja al mausoleu, retira la mortalla y apareix

Julieta.) ¡Deu! Qu'hermosa!… ¿Com estás tan hermosa, morta mia?…
Me semblas viva… ¿Ne será que'l Geni d'aquest palau de nit, que n'es
la casa pairal dels morts, te vol per dama sua? Prou que m'ho deya ja
ma gelosia. Per ço só aquí. Per ço he vingut. Ni Genis ni mortals ja
t'arrancan de mos brassos! Una vegada teu, só teu per sempre: una
vegada meva, ets sempre meva en vida com en mort; que com
partirem un jorn lo tálam, partirem la tomba. (Beu lo verí contingut
dins un pom, que tira.) Donada está la sort… Y ara, si'l Geni d'aquest
palau de nit te vol per sua, á tos costats eternament, per guarda, tas
virtuts me tindrán y ta bellesa. (Pren una ma de Julieta, que besa y
guarda entre las suas.) Angel de mon amor, si Deu volia que jo sentís
ta veu, ans que despresa ne sortis de mon cos l'ánima mia; si á ta veu
amorosa repetir, falaguera y carinyosa, aquell Jo t'am! de nostres
nits sentia, l'ánima d'En Romeu, ennuvolada ab ton encens d'amor,
se'n pujaria del cel fins á la volta platejada. (Moments de silenci. De
prompte, sólta la ma de Julieta, qu'ha fet un moviment, y se deixa
cáurer, esbalahit, per las gradas del sepulcre, retrocedint fins á mitja
escena.) ¡Eternitat de Deu!… ¿Es que'l veneno ja torba mos sentits, ó
es que deliro?… ¿Es que no es lo que toco y lo que miro?… Aquella
ma he sentit, estremehida, dins la mia agitarse y conmoguda, com si
fos que la mort ne tingués vida! Visions jo veig per tot, fantasmas
mudas ab sangrentas mortallas rebossadas, y de foch sento ardentas
alenadas y veus estranyas pels espays perdudas.

Julieta: (Que comensa á tornar en sí y lluyta ab sa sopor.) ¡Romeu!

Romeu: (Estremintse, pero sense girarse, com si cregués que la veu

ve del alt.) ¡Sa veu! La veu de ma Julieta!

Julieta: (Incorporantse ja en son llit de pedra.) Romeu, ¿hont ets?

Romeu: ¡Sa veu!

Julieta: Romeu! ma vida!

Romeu: Deu m'ha escoltat. Es l'ánima que'm crida.

(S'agenolla en éxtasis, com esperant tornar á sentir la veu. Julieta,

sentada ja en son sepulcre, comensa á baixar y passeja per la escena
sa mirada, com per donarse compte del lloch hont se trova.)

Julieta: (Parlant ab ella mateixa.) ¡Hont só!… Hont me trovo?… ¡Deu

del cel! ¡Quin somni, quin somni mes estrany!… Deu meu! ¿Qué
miro? Procura recordar ma pensa inquieta… Sepulcres!… Una
antorxa!… ¡Verge pia! Viva m'han enterrat! (Alsant la veu.) ¡Romeu!

Romeu: (Sempre ab creensa de que la veu baixa de l'alt.) Julieta, ja

vaig!… ja vaig!… No só ben mort encara.

(Julieta acaba per distingir á son amant á la llum de l'antorxa, baixa

precipitadament las gradas, y's dirigeix vers ell, que s'alsa retrocedint
com al aspecte d'una visió.)
Julieta: ¡Romeu, Romeu, llum de la vida mia! Fra Llorens m'ho
digué. Ara ho recordo. “Deu tot ho pot. Ell obrirá la tomba hont tots
demá te creguen sepultada, y de ta mort ficticia al rompre'ls llassos,
mes amada que may y enamorada, de ton espós te trovarás en
brassos.”

Romeu: ¡Ay no, no'm desperteu!

Julieta: Ell te diria: “Baixa al sepulcre en busca de ta esposa. Morta la

creuhen tots. Baixa. No tardes. Jo li doní un narcótich.”

Romeu: ¡Deu! Qu'escolto!

(Romeu, desde las darreras paraulas de Julieta, s'ha anat acostant,

casi d'espatllas, al sepulcre, sens pérdrer de vista á sa aymía, que va
seguint sos moviments. Al arrivar al mausoleu, puja las gradas, tira
de la mortalla y la palpa y arruga com per assegurarse, y al
convéncers de que'l sepulcre está desert y que no existeix lo cos,
baixa apresuradament per llansarse als brassos de Julieta.)

Julieta: (Seguintlo.) ¡De mi t'apartas mon amor!

Romeu: (Baixant del mausoleu, ab transport, fora de sí.) ¡Julieta!

¡Julieta, tresor meu! Oh! parla! parla! Qu'escolti jo ta veu! Per Deu
que'm parles!

Julieta: ¡Oh mon Romeu, Romeu! Lo cel encara tresors nos guarda
de delicia pura. Ne tornaran, Romeu, fonts d'alegría, aquells instants
de pler y de ventura ab sas horas de joy y de follía, aquellas nits de
febres xardorosas, nits encesas d'amor, nits embaumadas dels
jardins per las brisas odorosas, y per l'alosa, al apuntar lo dia, ab
goigs d'amor y gratitut cantadas. ¡Qué dolsas han de ser ara y qué
téndres las castas horas dels amors! Unidas las mans per l'ara, com
per Deu las vidas, crusarém lo camí de l'existencia banyats en llum
d'amor, com l'au que vola se banya en llum de sol, y de l'essencia
nudrintnos del amor y sa dolsura, mes felís nostra vida quant mes
pura, llavors cada matí, com obra pía, com vot d'excelsitut y de
ventura, al Deu del cel, confós dins l'armonía que s'alsa en tot lo mon
al naixe'l dia, elevarán en oració amorosa, nos cors sos himnes y son
cant l'alosa.

Romeu: No'm parles pas aixís. Ta veu, Julieta, n'es per mon cor la
mes cruzel punyida. No, no'm parles aixís!

Julieta: Pena secreta jo llegesch en tos ulls… ¿Qué tens, ma vida?…

perque, no'n dubtes, tu ets ma vida!…

Romeu: Tota jo te l'he consagrat, entera y pura. Mes tu no pots

compéndrer… Jo't contava exánim, freda, dins la tomba… En ella
mos ulls, mos ulls t'han vist… Sentí llavoras d'un greu dolor la
esquerpa esgarrapada; creguí acabadas ja per mi las horas de vida,
sensa tu no desitjada; y desvanit, perdut, foll y frenétich, he volgut…

Julieta: (Ab afany.) ¿Que volgueres?

Romeu: (Sentintse defallir, cayent sobre las gradas del mausoleu, y

apartantla.) ¡Vésten!… ¡Vésten! T'aborresch.

Julieta: ¡Oh! Romeu!

Romeu: No, no… ¡Perdona! Jo t'am!… mes… vésten, vésten! (Cau

com mort.)
Julieta: Desvarieja! (Veyentlo inmóvil, com si fos mort, cridant y
trontollantlo.) ¡Romeu! Romeu! Qué tens?… Oh! parla! parlam!

Romeu: (Incorporantse.) ¡Oh! tu no saps… no saps lo que sufria!

¿Qué haurias fet, qué haurias fet, oh dona, si mort m'haguesses vist?

Julieta: A ton sepulcre per compartirlo ab tu, baixat hauria!

Romeu: Pus jo creguí en ta mort.

Julieta: Justicia eterna!

Romeu: (Revolcantse ab las ansias de la mort.) Vaig á morir quant

mes lo cor t'adora.

Julieta: Jo't seguiré.

Romeu: M'abraso viu… M'ofego! Foch n'es d'infern, Senyor, lo que'm

devora!

Julieta: (Corrent desatentada per la escena.) ¡Socós! Socós! Socós!

Romeu: Per Deu, Julieta, per Deu… ta ma!… dónam ta ma! No'm
deixes!

Julieta: (Acudint á Romeu, agenollantse á son costat, alsantli'l cap y

donant crits de socós de quant en quant.) ¡Oh jo no vull!… no vull…
no vull que mores! ¡Socós! Socós!

Romeu: Ja es tart. Tot es inútil. Só mort… Adeu… adeu… Julieta mia!

(Cau mort.)
Julieta: Ingrat! ¿Y'm deixas?… No será. La via jo seguiré que m'ha
ensenyat ta estrella. (Buscant una arma ab que ferirse, veu lo punyal
qu'En Romeu porta á son cinto y lo desenveyna.) ¡Un arma!… ¡Oh,
punyal sant!… Aquí, arma mia, ta veyna tens. ¡Robellat, donchs, en
ella!

(Se clava'l punyal en son pit y cau sobre'l cos d'En Romeu.)
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