Read Anytime Anywhere Easy Ebook Downloads at ebookmeta.

com

Embedded Digital Control with Microcontrollers:

Implementation with C and Python (IEEE Press) 1st
Edition Cem Unsalan

https://ebookmeta.com/product/embedded-digital-control-with-
microcontrollers-implementation-with-c-and-python-ieee-
press-1st-edition-cem-unsalan/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Visit and Get More Ebook Downloads Instantly at https://ebookmeta.com

Embedded Digital Control with Microcontrollers
Embedded Digital Control with
Microcontrollers

Implementation with C and Python

Cem Ünsalan
Marmara University

Duygun E. Barkana
Yeditepe University

H. Deniz Gürhan
Yeditepe University
Copyright © 2021 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

IEEE Standards designations are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated (www.ieee.org/).

Non-IEEE trademarks are the respective property of their owners.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved.
Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise,
except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the
appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to
the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at
http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best
efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or
extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained
herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where
appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other
commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other
damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please
contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the
United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in
print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products,
visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

ISBN: 9781119576525

Cover design by Wiley

Cover image: businessman/depositphotos

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To our families.
 vii

Contents

Preface xvii
About the Companion Website xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is a System? 1
1.2 What is a Control System? 1
1.3 About the Book 3

2 Hardware to be Used in the Book 5

2.1 The STM32 Board 5
2.1.1 General Information 6
2.1.2 Pin Layout 6
2.1.3 Powering and Programming the Board 8
2.2 The STM32 Microcontroller 8
2.2.1 Central Processing Unit 8
2.2.2 Memory 9
2.2.3 Input and Output Ports 10
2.2.4 Timer Modules 10
2.2.5 ADC and DAC Modules 11
2.2.6 Digital Communication Modules 11
2.3 System and Sensors to be Used Throughout the Book 12
2.3.1 The DC Motor 12
2.3.1.1 Properties of the DC Motor 12
2.3.1.2 Pin Layout 13
2.3.1.3 Power Settings 14
2.3.2 The DC Motor Drive Expansion Board 14
2.3.3 Encoder 15
2.3.4 The FT232 Module 17
viii Contents

2.4 Systems and Sensors to be Used in Advanced Applications 17

2.4.1 Systems 17
2.4.2 Sensors 19
2.5 Summary 19
Problems 20

3 Software to be Used in the Book 23

3.1 Python on PC 24
3.1.1 Basic Operations 24
3.1.2 Array and Matrix Operations 25
3.1.3 Loop Operations 26
3.1.4 Conditional Statements 27
3.1.5 Function Definition and Usage 27
3.1.6 File Operations 28
3.1.7 Python Control Systems Library 28
3.2 MicroPython on the STM32 Microcontroller 29
3.2.1 Setting up MicroPython 29
3.2.2 Running MicroPython 31
3.2.3 Reaching Microcontroller Hardware 34
3.2.3.1 Input and Output Ports 34
3.2.3.2 Timers 35
3.2.3.3 ADC 37
3.2.3.4 DAC 39
3.2.3.5 UART 41
3.2.4 MicroPython Control Systems Library 42
3.3 C on the STM32 Microcontroller 43
3.3.1 Creating a New Project in Mbed Studio 44
3.3.2 Building and Executing the Code 45
3.3.3 Reaching Microcontroller Hardware 45
3.3.3.1 Input and Output Ports 46
3.3.3.2 Timers 47
3.3.3.3 ADC 48
3.3.3.4 DAC 50
3.3.3.5 UART 51
3.3.4 C Control Systems Library 53
3.4 Application: Running the DC Motor 53
3.4.1 Hardware Setup 54
3.4.2 Procedure 54
3.4.3 C Code for the System 54
3.4.4 Python Code for the System 57
3.4.5 Observing Outputs 59
 Contents ix

3.5 Summary 59
Problems 60

4 Fundamentals of Digital Control 63

4.1 Digital Signals 63
4.1.1 Mathematical Definition 64
4.1.2 Representing Digital Signals in Code 64
4.1.2.1 Representation in Python 65
4.1.2.2 Representation in C 65
4.1.3 Standard Digital Signals 65
4.1.3.1 Unit Pulse Signal 66
4.1.3.2 Step Signal 67
4.1.3.3 Ramp Signal 68
4.1.3.4 Parabolic Signal 68
4.1.3.5 Exponential Signal 69
4.1.3.6 Sinusoidal Signal 71
4.1.3.7 Damped Sinusoidal Signal 71
4.1.3.8 Rectangular Signal 72
4.1.3.9 Sum of Sinusoids Signal 73
4.1.3.10 Sweep Signal 75
4.1.3.11 Random Signal 76
4.2 Digital Systems 77
4.2.1 Mathematical Definition 77
4.2.2 Representing Digital Systems in Code 78
4.2.2.1 Representation in Python 78
4.2.2.2 Representation in C 79
4.2.3 Digital System Properties 79
4.2.3.1 Stability 79
4.2.3.2 Linearity 80
4.2.3.3 Time-Invariance 81
4.3 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems 81
4.3.1 Mathematical Definition 81
4.3.2 LTI Systems and Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations 82
4.3.3 Representing LTI Systems in Code 82
4.3.3.1 MicroPython Control Systems Library Usage 83
4.3.3.2 C Control Systems Library Usage 84
4.3.3.3 Python Control Systems Library Usage 85
4.3.4 Connecting LTI Systems 87
4.3.4.1 Series Connection 87
4.3.4.2 Parallel Connection 88
4.3.4.3 Feedback Connection 89
x Contents

4.4 The z-Transform and Its Inverse 90

4.4.1 Definition of the z-Transform 90
4.4.2 Calculating the z-Transform in Python 92
4.4.3 Definition of the Inverse z-Transform 92
4.4.4 Calculating the Inverse z-Transform in Python 92
4.5 The z-Transform and LTI Systems 93
4.5.1 Associating Difference Equation and Impulse Response of an LTI
System 93
4.5.2 Stability Analysis of an LTI System using z-Transform 95
4.5.3 Stability Analysis of an LTI System in Code 95
4.6 Application I: Acquiring Digital Signals from the Microcontroller,
Processing Offline Data 96
4.6.1 Hardware Setup 97
4.6.2 Procedure 97
4.6.3 C Code for the System 97
4.6.4 Python Code for the System 99
4.6.5 Observing Outputs 101
4.7 Application II: Acquiring Digital Signals from the Microcontroller,
Processing Real-Time Data 103
4.7.1 Hardware Setup 103
4.7.2 Procedure 103
4.7.3 C Code for the System 104
4.7.4 Python Code for the System 106
4.7.5 Observing Outputs 109
4.8 Summary 109
Problems 109

5 Conversion Between Analog and Digital Forms 111

5.1 Converting an Analog Signal to Digital Form 112
5.1.1 Mathematical Derivation of ADC 112
5.1.2 ADC in Code 114
5.2 Converting a Digital Signal to Analog Form 117
5.2.1 Mathematical Derivation of DAC 117
5.2.2 DAC in Code 118
5.3 Representing an Analog System in Digital Form 120
5.3.1 Pole-Zero Matching Method 121
5.3.2 Zero-Order Hold Equivalent 122
5.3.3 Bilinear Transformation 123
5.4 Application: Exciting and Simulating the RC Filter 124
5.4.1 Hardware Setup 125
5.4.2 Procedure 125
 Contents xi

5.4.3 C Code for the System 125

5.4.4 Python Code for the System 127
5.4.5 Observing Outputs 129
5.5 Summary 129
Problems 129

6 Constructing Transfer Function of a System 131

6.1 Transfer Function from Mathematical Modeling 131
6.1.1 Fundamental Electrical and Mechanical Components 132
6.1.2 Constructing the Differential Equation Representing the System 133
6.1.3 From Differential Equation to Transfer Function 133
6.2 Transfer Function from System Identification in Time Domain 134
6.2.1 Theoretical Background 135
6.2.2 The Procedure 135
6.2.3 Data Acquisition by the STM32 Microcontroller 136
6.2.4 System Identification in Time Domain by MATLAB 137
6.3 Transfer Function from System Identification in Frequency
Domain 142
6.3.1 Theoretical Background 142
6.3.2 The Procedure 142
6.3.3 System Identification in Frequency Domain by MATLAB 143
6.4 Application: Obtaining Transfer Function of the DC Motor 143
6.4.1 Mathematical Modeling 143
6.4.2 System Identification in Time Domain 146
6.4.3 System Identification in Frequency Domain 147
6.5 Summary 148
Problems 148

7 Transfer Function Based Control System Analysis 151

7.1 Analyzing System Performance 151
7.1.1 Time Domain Analysis 151
7.1.1.1 Transient Response 152
7.1.1.2 Steady-State Error 156
7.1.2 Frequency Domain Analysis 156
7.1.3 Complex Plane Analysis 159
7.1.3.1 Root-Locus Plot 160
7.1.3.2 Nyquist Plot 160
7.2 The Effect of Open-Loop Control on System Performance 163
7.2.1 What is Open-Loop Control? 163
7.2.2 Improving the System Performance by Open-Loop Control 164
7.3 The Effect of Closed-Loop Control on System Performance 167
xii Contents

7.3.1 What is Closed-Loop Control? 167

7.3.2 Improving the System Performance by Closed-Loop Control 170
7.4 Application: Adding Open-Loop Digital Controller to the DC
Motor 174
7.4.1 Hardware Setup 175
7.4.2 Procedure 175
7.4.3 C Code for the System 175
7.4.4 Python Code for the System 177
7.4.5 Observing Outputs 178
7.5 Summary 178
Problems 180

8 Transfer Function Based Controller Design 183

8.1 PID Controller Structure 183
8.1.1 The P Controller 184
8.1.2 The PI Controller 184
8.1.3 The PID Controller 185
8.1.4 Parameter Tuning Methods 185
8.1.4.1 The Ziegler–Nichols Method 186
8.1.4.2 The Cohen–Coon Method 186
8.1.4.3 The Chien–Hrones–Reswick Method 186
8.2 PID Controller Design in Python 187
8.2.1 Parameter Tuning 188
8.2.2 Controller Design 188
8.2.2.1 P Controller 188
8.2.2.2 PI Controller 191
8.2.2.3 PID Controller 194
8.2.3 Comparison of the Designed P, PI, and PID Controllers 197
8.3 Lag–Lead Controller Structure 199
8.3.1 Lag Controller 199
8.3.2 Lead Controller 200
8.3.3 Lag–Lead Controller 200
8.4 Lag–Lead Controller Design in MATLAB 201
8.4.1 Control System Designer Tool 201
8.4.2 Controller Design in Complex Plane 203
8.4.2.1 Lag Controller 204
8.4.2.2 Lead Controller 206
8.4.2.3 Lag–Lead Controller 207
8.4.2.4 Comparison of the Designed Lag, Lead, and Lag–Lead
Controllers 210
8.4.3 Controller Design in Frequency Domain 211
 Contents xiii

8.4.3.1 Lag Controller 211

8.4.3.2 Lead Controller 213
8.4.3.3 Lag–Lead Controller 213
8.4.3.4 Comparison of the Designed Lag, Lead, and Lag–Lead
Controllers 217
8.5 Application: Adding Closed-Loop Digital Controller to the DC
Motor 217
8.5.1 Hardware Setup 217
8.5.2 Procedure 217
8.5.3 C Code for the System 218
8.5.4 Python Code for the System 219
8.5.5 Observing Outputs 220
8.6 Summary 223
Problems 224

9 State-space Based Control System Analysis 227

9.1 State-space Approach 227
9.1.1 Definition of the State 227
9.1.2 Why State-space Representation? 228
9.2 State-space Equations Representing an LTI System 228
9.2.1 Continuous-time State-space Equations 229
9.2.2 Discrete-time State-space Equations 231
9.2.3 Representing Discrete-time State-space Equations in Code Form 231
9.3 Conversion Between State-space and Transfer Function
Representations 233
9.3.1 From Transfer Function to State-space Equations 233
9.3.2 From State-space Equations to Transfer Function 235
9.4 Properties of the System from its State-space Representation 236
9.4.1 Time Domain Analysis 236
9.4.2 Stability 237
9.4.3 Controllability 238
9.4.4 Observability 239
9.5 Application: Observing States of the DC Motor in Time 240
9.5.1 Hardware Setup 240
9.5.2 Procedure 240
9.5.3 C Code for the System 240
9.5.4 Python Code for the System 242
9.5.5 Observing Outputs 243
9.6 Summary 243
Problems 244
xiv Contents

10 State-space Based Controller Design 247

10.1 General Layout 247
10.1.1 Control Based on State Values 248
10.1.2 Regulator Structure 249
10.1.3 Controller Structure 249
10.1.4 What if States Cannot be Measured Directly? 250
10.2 Regulator and Controller Design via Pole Placement 250
10.2.1 Pole Placement 251
10.2.2 Regulator Design 251
10.2.3 Ackermann’s Formula for the Regulator Gain 251
10.2.4 Controller Design 252
10.2.5 Ackermann’s Formula for the Controller Gain 253
10.3 Regulator and Controller Design in Python 253
10.3.1 Regulator Design 253
10.3.2 Controller Design 256
10.4 State Observer Design 260
10.4.1 Mathematical Derivation 261
10.4.2 Ackermann’s Formula for the Observer Gain 262
10.5 Regulator and Controller Design in Python using Observers 263
10.5.1 Observer Design 263
10.5.2 Observer-Based Regulator Design 264
10.5.3 Observer-Based Controller Design 266
10.6 Application: State-space based Control of the DC Motor 270
10.6.1 Hardware Setup 270
10.6.2 Procedure 271
10.6.3 C Code for the System 271
10.6.4 Python Code for the System 273
10.6.5 Observing Outputs 274
10.7 Summary 275
Problems 275

11 Adaptive Control 279

11.1 What is Adaptive Control? 279
11.2 Parameter Estimation 280
11.3 Indirect Self-Tuning Regulator 283
11.3.1 Feedback ISTR Design 283
11.3.2 Feedback and Feedforward ISTR Design 287
11.4 Model-Reference Adaptive Control 288
11.5 Application: Real-Time Parameter Estimation of the DC Motor 290
11.5.1 Hardware Setup 290
11.5.2 Procedure 291
 Contents xv

11.5.3 C Code for the System 291

11.5.4 Observing Outputs 293
11.6 Summary 297
Problems 297

12 Advanced Applications 299

12.1 Nonlinear Control 299
12.1.1 Nonlinear System Identification by MATLAB 299
12.1.2 Nonlinear System Input–Output Example 301
12.1.3 Gain Scheduling Example 302
12.1.4 Flat Systems Example 302
12.1.5 Phase Portraits Example 302
12.2 Optimal Control 302
12.2.1 The Linear Quadratic Regulator 303
12.2.2 Continuous-Time LQR Example 304
12.2.3 LQR for the DC Motor 304
12.3 Robust Control 305
12.4 Distributed Control 306
12.4.1 Hardware and Software Setup 306
12.4.2 Procedure 307
12.5 Auto Dimmer 308
12.5.1 Hardware Setup 308
12.5.2 Procedure 309
12.6 Constructing a Servo Motor from DC Motor 309
12.6.1 Hardware Setup 309
12.6.2 Procedure 310
12.7 Visual Servoing 311
12.7.1 Hardware Setup 312
12.7.2 Procedure 312
12.8 Smart Balance Hoverboard 313
12.8.1 Hardware Setup 313
12.8.2 Procedure 314
12.9 Line Following Robot 314
12.9.1 Hardware Setup 314
12.9.2 Procedure 314
12.10 Active Noise Cancellation 315
12.10.1 Hardware Setup 315
12.10.2 Procedure 316
12.11 Sun Tracking Solar Panel 317
12.11.1 Hardware Setup 317
12.11.2 Procedure 317
xvi Contents

12.12 System Identification of a Speaker 318

12.12.1 Hardware Setup 319
12.12.2 Procedure 319
12.13 Peltier Based Water Cooler 321
12.13.1 Hardware Setup 321
12.13.2 Procedure 322
12.14 Controlling a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor 322
12.14.1 Hardware Setup 322
12.14.2 Procedure 323

Appendix A STM32 Board Pin Usage Tables 329

Bibliography 335
Index 339
 xvii

Preface

We are surrounded by systems performing specific tasks for us. There are also con-
trol systems designed to improve existing system characteristics. To do so, an input
signal (possibly originating from a sensor) is acquired. The control system gener-
ates a control signal for this input. Hence, the desired system output is obtained.
The designed control system can be either in analog or digital form. Analog con-
trol systems are constructed by either electrical or mechanical elements. With the
arrival of embedded systems, digital control became the new standard. Recent
microcontrollers provide a cheap and powerful platform for this purpose. This
book aims to introduce implementation methods and theory of digital control sys-
tems on microcontrollers via focusing on real-life issues.
Python, MicroPython (the modified form of Python to be used in embedded
systems), and C will serve as the programming languages throughout the book.
Python will be extensively used in explaining theoretical digital control concepts.
MicroPython and C languages will be the main mediums for microcontroller based
implementation. Hence, the reader will develop and implement a digital controller
for a given problem.
We took an undergraduate engineering student and hobbyist as benchmark in
explaining digital control concepts. Therefore, a professional engineer may also
benefit from the book. We pick the STM32 board with an Arm Cortex-M microcon-
troller on it. Hence, the reader may find a wide variety of applications besides the
ones considered in this book. As a result, we expect the reader to become familiar
with the basic and advanced digital control concepts in action.

Istanbul, Turkey Cem Ünsalan

June 2020 Duygun E. Barkana
H. Deniz Gürhan
 xix

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/Unsalan/Embedded_Digital_Control_with_
Microcontrollers
The website includes:
1. C and Python codes and libraries used in the book.
2. C and Python codes and supplementary material for the end of chapter
applications.
3. Images used in the book.
4. PowerPoint slides for the instructors.
5. Solution manual for the end of chapter questions (only to the instructors
who adopted the book).
 1

Introduction

This book aims to introduce digital control systems via practical applications.
Therefore, we will briefly introduce the system and control theory concepts in
this chapter. Then, we will emphasize how this book differs from the ones in
literature. Besides, we will summarize the concepts to be explored in the book.
Hence, the reader will have necessary background for the following chapters.

1.1 What is a System?

A system can be defined as the combination of parts to carry out a specific task.
Let us pick the Pololu Zumo robot (https://www.pololu.com/product/2510/) in
Figure 1.1. This is a system composed of four main parts as chassis, motors, tracks
with sprockets, and battery. When energy is fed to the motors, they move the chas-
sis via rotating sprockets.
We can add two more modules to the Zumo robot as a control unit (such as
microcontroller) and reflectance sensor. These modules can be used to add auton-
omy to the robot such that it can follow a line drawn on ground. To do so, we will
need a “control” action. Let us introduce it next.

1.2 What is a Control System?

Control is the act of producing a desired output for a given input. The control sys-
tem is used for this purpose. For our Zumo robot, our aim is following the line.
Hence, the robot system should be guided by a control system to follow the line.
To be more specific, the control system should get the reference input signal (as
position of the line) and current position of the robot from the reflectance sen-
sor; form an error signal by their difference; generate necessary control signals to

Embedded Digital Control with Microcontrollers: Implementation with C and Python,

First Edition. Cem Ünsalan, Duygun E. Barkana, and H. Deniz Gürhan.
© 2021 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Unsalan/Embedded_Digital_Control_with_Microcontrollers
2 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1 PololuZumo

robot. (Source: Pololu
Robotics & Electronics,
pololu.com.)

the motors (on the chassis); and guide the robot (system) accordingly. Yet another
example is controlling temperature inside the refrigerator. Here, refrigerator is the
system. The desired temperature value is set by the user as the reference signal.
The actual temperature value inside the refrigerator is measured by a sensor. The
control system sets the internal temperature to the desired value by using a cooler.
As can be seen in both examples, the control system is used to generate a desired
output for a given input.
The control system may be classified either as analog or digital depending on its
construction. If the system is only formed by analog components, then it is ana-
log. Early control systems were of this type. As the microcontroller and embedded
systems are introduced, digital controllers became dominant. The main reason for
this shift is that the control system developed in digital systems is a code snippet
which can be modified easily. Therefore, this book aims to introduce digital con-
trol methods implemented on microcontrollers. We will form a general setup for
this purpose as in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 General setup for a

PC
digital control system.

xʹ [n] System System System yʹ [n]

input general output

Microcontroller

x[n] y[n]
Amplifier System Amplifier
 1.3 About the Book 3

There is a system to be controlled in Figure 1.2. The microcontroller is the

medium digital control algorithms are implemented on. The generated control
signal, x[n], is fed to the system as input by an amplifier. Likewise, system output
signal, y[n], is fed to the microcontroller for further processing. We can also
connect the microcontroller to PC to send or receive data. We will use the setup
in Figure 1.2 for almost all control operations throughout the book.

1.3 About the Book

There are several good books on digital control. We can group them into two cate-
gories. The first category consists of books on theoretical concepts in discrete-time
control systems (Xue et al. 2007; Dorf and Bishop 2010; Burns 2001; Chen 2006;
Corke 2017; Franklin et al. 2006; Ghosh 2004; Gopal 2003; Golnaraghi and Kuo
2010; Mandal 2010; Moudgalya 2008; Goodwin et al. 2000; Tewari 2002; Ogata
1995; Phillips et al. 2015; Starr 2006; Wescott 2006). These are useful in under-
standing theoretical foundations of digital control. Some books in this category
also provide MATLAB-based implementation (Xue et al. 2007; Dorf and Bishop
2010; Chen 2006; Corke 2017; Mandal 2010; Tewari 2002). The reader can consult
these in case theory is not sufficient.
The second category consists of books on practical aspects and implementa-
tion details of digital control systems on microcontrollers. Unfortunately, there are
few books in this category (Braunl 2006; Forrai 2013; Ibrahim 2006; Ledin 2004;
Hristu-Varsakelis and Levine 2005). Besides, there is no book on digital control
applications with the Python programming language. This book aims to fill these
gaps. Hence, it handles theoretical digital control concepts by Python. Besides, we
benefit from MATLAB in controller design and system identification steps. Then,
digital control concepts are implemented and realized on a low-level microcon-
troller using MicroPython and C languages. Via this approach, we aim to bridge
the gap between theory and practice.
The book is composed of 12 chapters. We devote Chapter 2 to introduce
hardware to be used in the book. Details of software platforms to be used are given
in Chapter 3. Basic digital signal processing and control concepts are provided
in Chapter 4. We lay the framework for modeling the continuous-time system
to be controlled in Chapters 5 and 6. We devote Chapters 7 and 8 to transfer
function-based control system analysis and design techniques. We introduce
state-space analysis and design in Chapters 9 and 10. We provide adaptive control
methods in Chapter 11. Finally, Chapter 12 introduces advanced methods and
practical digital control applications. Therefore, this final chapter aims to show
the reader how the concepts introduced in the book can be implemented to solve
actual real-life problems.
4 1 Introduction

The reader can reach all C and Python codes introduced throughout the book in
the accompanying book website. The complete project setup for the end of chapter
applications is also available in the same website. The instructors adopting the
book for their course can reach the solution manual for the end of chapter prob-
lems and projects introduced in Chapter 12 from the publisher.
 5

Hardware to be Used in the Book

Throughout the book, we will not only introduce digital control concepts from
a theoretical perspective, we will also implement them on embedded hardware
using C and Python languages. Therefore, the reader should become familiar with
the hardware to be used. This chapter aims to introduce these concepts. To do so,
we will assume a novice user as our target. Besides, we will cover all hardware top-
ics as abstract as possible. Hence, they can give insight on similar platforms. As
for embedded hardware, we will pick the STMicroelectronics NUCLEO-F767ZI
development board (STM32 board) and STM32F767ZI microcontroller (STM32
microcontroller) on it. These are the mediums our C and Python codes for digital
control will be implemented on. Afterward, we will introduce the DC motor, its
driver, and related hardware to be used in examples throughout the book. Finally,
we will introduce other systems and sensors which can be used in advanced appli-
cations. As all the hardware is introduced, we will be ready to use them in practical
digital control applications in solving real-life problems.

2.1 The STM32 Board

Our C and Python codes for digital control will run on the STM32F767ZI micro-
controller. However, we cannot use this microcontroller alone since it needs extra
hardware to operate. There should be programming and debugging circuitry
accompanying the microcontroller. Hence, it can be programmed easily. For these
reasons, development boards emerged. These have all the necessary circuitry on
them. Therefore, they provide a complete environment to use the microcontroller.
In this book, we pick the STMicroelectronics NUCLEO-F767ZI development
board for this purpose. For the sake of brevity, we will call it as the STM32 board
from this point on. In this section, we will provide general information about the
board. We will also provide the pin layout. This will be mandatory to interface the

Embedded Digital Control with Microcontrollers: Implementation with C and Python,

First Edition. Cem Ünsalan, Duygun E. Barkana, and H. Deniz Gürhan.
© 2021 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Unsalan/Embedded_Digital_Control_with_Microcontrollers
6 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

microcontroller with outside world. We will also evaluate methods to program

and power the board.

2.1.1 General Information

The STM32 board is as in Figure 2.1. This board has an STM32F767ZI microcon-
troller on it. Besides, it has three user LEDs, one user push button and one reset
push button. It has a 32768 kHz crystal oscillator on it. Board connectors, which
lead to access to all microcontroller input and output pins, are compatible with
Arduino. The STM32 board has an on-board ST-LINK debugger/programmer with
USB connectivity. For more information on the development board, please see
https://www.st.com/en/evaluation-tools/nucleo-f767zi.html.

2.1.2 Pin Layout

Pin layout of the STM32 board is as in Figure 2.2. As can be seen in this figure,
pins are gathered under four connectors as CN7, CN8, CN9, and CN10. Within
each connector, there are input and output pins labeled as PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF,
PG, and PH. The STM32 board also has two unmounted connecters called CN11
and CN12. We will not explain them here.
Pins on the STM32 board can be used for various purposes. Usage areas of each
pin are summarized in Appendix A from this book’s perspective. We will explore
each property separately in the following sections.
We should also mention the pin connection of onboard green, blue, red LEDs,
and push button on the STM32 board. The onboard green LED is connected to

Figure 2.1 The STM32 board. (Source: STMicroelectronics. Used with permission.)
 2.1 The STM32 Board 7

Figure 2.2 Pin layout of the STM32 board. (Source: Nucleo-F767ZI Zio Header, used
with permission of STMicroelectronics.)
8 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

pin PB0. The onboard blue LED is connected to pin PB7. The onboard red LED is
connected to pin PB14. The onboard user push button is connected to pin PC13.
The reader should use the mentioned pins to reach the onboard LEDs and push
button in the following chapters.

2.1.3 Powering and Programming the Board

The microcontroller on the STM32 board can be programmed easily by the
on-board ST-LINK debugger/programmer. To do so, we should connect the
board to PC via USB connection. We will introduce methods to program
the microcontroller using this connection in Chapter 3.
The USB connection for debugging/programming purposes can also be used to
power the board. Hence, whenever the board is connected to PC, it runs by the
provided power. Likewise, we can use a USB battery pack to power the board in
the same setup. We can also use an external power supply to power the board. To
do so, we should use the relevant pins on the board. These will be sufficient to use
the board in stand-alone applications.
The STM32 microcontroller operates within the voltage range of 1.71–3.6 V. We
call this value as supply voltage (VDD ) throughout the book. Let us explain the
voltage range in detail. The actual working voltage level for the microcontroller is
3.6 V. This supply voltage may be decreased till 1.7 V for some low power opera-
tions. To note here, some peripheral modules will not work at this voltage level.

2.2 The STM32 Microcontroller

As mentioned earlier, the STM32 board is equipped with the STM32F767ZI micro-
controller. For the sake of brevity, we will call it as the STM32 microcontroller from
this point on. We will evaluate the properties of this microcontroller in this section.
Let us start with the functional block diagram of the STM32 microcontroller given
in Figure 2.3. As can be seen in this figure, there are several modules in the micro-
controller. Besides, interconnection of these modules is complex. However, we will
only cover the relevant modules to be used throughout the book here. For more
information on other modules of the STM32 microcontroller, please see https://
www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f767zi.html.

2.2.1 Central Processing Unit

Central processing unit (CPU) is the main module responsible for organizing all
operations within the microcontroller. This is done by executing the code fed to
it. The code can be written in C or MicroPython languages (for this book) with
 2.2 The STM32 Microcontroller 9

Arm CPU
cortex-M7 Flash RAM GPIOs Timers

Bus matrix

I2Cs SPIs UARTs DACs ADCs

Figure 2.3 Functional block diagram of the STM32 microcontroller.

different execution phases. For more information on this topic, please consult a
microcontroller book such as (Yiu 2013).
The CPU in the STM32 microcontroller is based on the Arm Cortex-M7 archi-
tecture. Let us explain this in more detail. Arm produces CPU cores in soft form
(called as IPs). Microcontroller vendors, such as ST Microelectronics, purchase the
right to use these IPs and develop microcontroller hardware. The advantage of this
model is as follows. When different vendors use the same CPU core by Arm, they
will have the same instruction set and properties. Therefore, the code developed
for one microcontroller can be ported to another microcontroller from a different
vendor. There is one important issue here. The microcontroller is not only com-
posed of CPU. It also has peripheral units (to be explained next). These may differ
for different vendors. Therefore, it may not be possible to directly port the code gen-
erated for one microcontroller to another (produced by a different vendor) when
peripheral units are used.
Operations within the CPU are done in clock cycles. Before going further, let
us first explain what the clock signal means. Clock is a periodic square wave gen-
erated by an oscillator. Frequency of the clock signal is measured in Hertz (Hz)
which indicates how many periodic pulses occur in one second. The CPU depends
on the clock signal. For the STM32 microcontroller, this clock frequency is maxi-
mum 216 MHz. The processor performs an action corresponding to an instruction
execution phase with each clock cycle. Assuming that an instruction requires four
clock cycles to execute, the CPU can process 54000000 instructions per second.
Hence, higher the frequency of clock signal, the faster operations are performed
within the CPU.

2.2.2 Memory
The microcontroller needs a medium to keep the code to be executed and variables
to be operated on. The relevant medium in the microcontroller is called memory.
10 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

Unless the microcontroller is using an additional external memory, the core mem-
ory is always on the microcontroller chip.
There are two memory regions on the microcontroller as flash and RAM. Codes
to be executed are kept in the flash. As power of the microcontroller is turned
down, codes remain there. Therefore, flash resembles the solid-state drive (SSD)
on PC. Although the recent SSD storage size for a PC is reasonable, memory space
in flash of a microcontroller is very limited. For the STM32 microcontroller, this is
2 MB. Therefore, the user should prepare his or her digital control code such that
it does not exceed this limit. Fortunately, most digital control algorithms fit into
this space.
The medium for temporary storage in the microcontroller is called RAM. Hence,
variables to be executed in the code are kept there. This is similar to the RAM on
PC with one difference. The RAM on the microcontroller is very limited in storage
size. For the STM32 microcontroller, the RAM size is 512 kB. Therefore, the reader
should use this space with care.

2.2.3 Input and Output Ports

A port in the microcontroller mean is a group of pins (or wires). These are used to
input data to the microcontroller or output data from the microcontroller. Hence,
the microcontroller can interact with the outside world through its input and out-
put ports. Here, the processed data can be analog or digital. The STM32 microcon-
troller has 114 pins (arranged in eight ports called A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H). All
these pins can be used as input or output. They can also be used for other opera-
tions as well. Therefore, they are called general purpose input and output (GPIO).
We summarized the usage area of each pin in Appendix A.
Digital input and output values are processed in voltage levels as 0 V and VDD
(supply voltage). Within the microcontroller code, these correspond to logic level
zero and one, respectively. Therefore, the reader should always remember that
when the logic level one is fed to output from a pin of the microcontroller, the
voltage there is VDD . Similarly, when the logic level zero is fed to output from a pin
of the microcontroller, the voltage there is 0 V.

2.2.4 Timer Modules

The timer module is responsible for all time-based operations within the micro-
controller. The timer can be taken as a simple counter fed by a clock signal. Based
on frequency of the used clock signal and the maximum (or minimum) count
value, actual time-based operations can be done within the microcontroller. Since
these operations are important, the STM32 microcontroller has 18 timer modules.
Ten of these modules are for general purpose; two of them are for advanced
 2.2 The STM32 Microcontroller 11

control operations; two of them are basic timers; one of them is low power
timer; one of them is the Systick timer; and two of them are watchdog timers.
Although the microcontroller has such a diverse set of timer modules, we will use
general purpose timer modules most of the times. For more detail on the usage
of other timer modules, please see https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-
microprocessors/stm32f767zi.html.

2.2.5 ADC and DAC Modules

The STM32 microcontroller can process analog voltages besides digital ones. To do
so, there are specific pins which can accept analog voltage as input. Likewise, there
are specific pins which can feed analog voltage to output. These pins are tabulated
in Appendix A.
If the user wants to input analog voltage, analog to digital converter (ADC)
module of the microcontroller should be used. This module converts a given ana-
log voltage to digital form. We will provide the theory behind this operation in
Chapter 5. We will use the ADC module when a sensor with analog input is con-
nected to the microcontroller. The STM32 microcontroller has three ADC modules
with 12-bit output. Each module converts a given analog voltage to 12 bits in digital
form. Hence, the converted value can be processed within the microcontroller.
Digital data within the microcontroller can be fed to output from an appropriate
pin by the digital to analog converter (DAC) module of the microcontroller. We
can think of this module as the complement of ADC. We will provide the theory
behind the DAC operation in Chapter 5. The STM32 microcontroller has two 12-bit
DAC modules which convert a given 12 bit digital data to analog voltage. Although
the STM32 microcontroller has a dedicated DAC module, some microcontrollers
lack it. They benefit from the pulse width modulation (PWM) method to generate
approximate analog voltage by varying width of a square wave. For more informa-
tion on how PWM can be generated within the STM32 microcontroller, please see
Chapter 3.

2.2.6 Digital Communication Modules

The microcontroller may need to communicate with external devices such
as sensor modules or other microcontrollers for some applications. There are
dedicated digital communication modules within the microcontroller for this
purpose. These have specific communication modes such as universal asyn-
chronous receiver/transmitter (UART), universal synchronous/asynchronous
receiver/transmitter (USART), serial peripheral interface (SPI), inter integrated
circuit (I2 C), and controller area network (CAN).
12 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

The STM32 microcontroller has four UART, four USART, six SPI, four I2 C,
and three CAN modules. These modules have dedicated pins as explained in
Appendix A. We will explain the usage of these modules in the following chapters
whenever needed. For more detail on these modules, please see https://www.st
.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f767zi.html.

2.3 System and Sensors to be Used Throughout

the Book
Besides the STM32 board, we will be using actual system and sensors to explain
digital control concepts throughout the book. Therefore, we pick the Pololu
75:1 metal gearmotor with encoder as the actual system to be controlled. In
order to use this motor, we need a motor driver module. Therefore, we pick
the X-NUCLEO-IHM04A1 dual brush DC motor drive expansion board from
STMicroelectronics. We also pick the encoder of the motor as the sensor module.
Finally, we pick the FT232 UART to USB converter module to send data from the
STM32 microcontroller to PC.

2.3.1 The DC Motor

The DC motor is extensively used in digital control applications. Therefore, we
pick it as an actual system to be controlled throughout the examples in the book.
There are several motors having different properties in the market. We specifically
selected the Pololu metal gearmotor with encoder having the exact name “Pololu
75:1 metal gearmotor 25D × 69L mm HP 12 V with 48 CPR encoder.” This motor
is well documented and the reader can purchase it easily. In this section, we will
explain its properties.

2.3.1.1 Properties of the DC Motor

The Pololu gearmotor is cylindrical with diameter around 25 mm. It has a brushed
DC motor combined with a 74.83:1 gearbox. This gearbox decreases the rotation
speed meanwhile increasing torque. The motor also has an integrated encoder
which can be used as a sensor (to be explained in Section 2.3.3). Image of the motor
is given in Figure 2.4.
The brushed DC motor requires 12 V to operate. Its maximum speed is 130 rpm.
The motor requires 0.3 A current when idle and 5.6 A (maximum) when loaded.
More information on the brushed DC motor can be found in https://www.pololu
.com/product/4846. For the sake of brevity, we will call it as DC motor from this
point on.
 2.3 System and Sensors to be Used Throughout the Book 13

Figure 2.4 Pololu DC

motor. (Source: Pololu
Robotics & Electronics,
pololu.com.)

2.3.1.2 Pin Layout

The DC motor has six color-coded pins to power the motor/encoder and feed
encoder output. These pins and their functions are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Pin usage table for the DC motor.

Pin Color Function

1 Red Motor power supply

2 Black Motor power supply

3 Green Encoder ground

4 Blue Encoder supply voltage, VCC , (3.5–20 V)

5 Yellow Encoder A output

6 White Encoder B output

14 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

2.3.1.3 Power Settings

We know that the DC motor requires 5.6 A current when fully loaded. However,
supplying this current constantly damages motor windings and brushes thermally.
Therefore, it is recommended to operate the DC motor with one fourth of 5.6 A.
Hence, a 12 V–2 A DC power supply is adequate to feed the DC motor under rec-
ommended operation range.
There are three options to satisfy the power settings of the DC motor. The first
one is picking a 12 V–2 A adaptor and adjusting its cables to be safely used in oper-
ation. The second option is using an available power source such as https://www
.sparkfun.com/products/15701. The third option is using an adjustable power sup-
ply such as https://www.digikey.com/product-detail/en/global-specialties/1325/
GS1325-ND/7606532. The reader can select one of these three options, or a differ-
ent one, suitable for his or her needs.

2.3.2 The DC Motor Drive Expansion Board

We need specific circuitry to drive the DC motor introduced in previous section.
Therefore, we pick the X-NUCLEO-IHM04A1 DC motor drive expansion board
developed by STMicroelectronics. Although there are similar boards in the market,
we specifically picked this board since it is compatible with our STM32 board.
Besides, it is also compatible with Arduino as well.
The DC motor drive expansion board is as in Figure 2.5. It has a voltage range
of 8–50 V (maximum) with DC load current 2.8 A. This means if the motor is
driven by a constant DC voltage or PWM signal, maximum load current is 2.8 A DC

Figure 2.5 DC motor

drive expansion board.
(Source:
STMicroelectronics. Used
with permission.)
 2.3 System and Sensors to be Used Throughout the Book 15

CN10 GSPG2007150930SG
ST Morpho connector

CN5 CN9
Arduino UNO R3 Arduino UNO R3
connector connector

CN1
Motor phases connector
J1, J2, J3, J4
Mode selection jumpers

U1 CN1
CN6 Power supply connector
L6206 driver
Arduino UNO R3 50 V maximum
connector
D2, D3, D4, D5
Power output
CN7 operation LEDs (yellow)
ST Morpho connector CN8
Arduino UNO R3
connector

Figure 2.6 General settings of the DC motor drive expansion board. (Source: (STM
2015). Used with permission of STMicroelectronics.)

or rms, respectively. More information on the board can be found in http://www

.st.com/en/ecosystems/x-nucleo-ihm04a1.html. In order to use this motor drive
expansion board with our STM32 board, the second upper pin of the connector
CN9 must be connected to the fourth upper pin of the connector CN9 after driver
board is placed on the STM32 board.
The DC motor drive expansion board can be used in different settings, such
as driving up to two bidirectional motors, up to four unidirectional motors, one
high-power bidirectional motor or two high power unidirectional motors. This is
done by appropriate connections and making jumper settings which can be found
in STM (2015). We provide general layout of the board in Figure 2.6.
As our DC motor will operate under one fourth of 5.6 A, we will use the connec-
tion diagram in Figure 2.7 throughout the book. Here, jumpers J1–J4 on the DC
motor drive expansion board must be disconnected.

2.3.3 Encoder
The selected DC motor has an integrated encoder as mentioned in the previous
section. This is used to measure speed of the motor. The encoder we are using is
of type quadrature encoder with 48 counts per revolution (cpr).
16 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

GSPG2007151015SG

Figure 2.7 Connection between the DC motor drive expansion board and DC motor.
(Source: (STM, 2015). Used with permission of STMicroelectronics.)

Output A Figure 2.8 Quadrature encoder outputs.

Output B
Clockwise
operation

The quadrature encoder is based on the magnetic two-channel hall effect sensor.
This sensor detects the magnetic field of a magnetic disk placed on the motor shaft
as it rotates. This creates two square waves as in Figure 2.8.
The hall effect sensor requires an input voltage, VCC , between 3.5 and 20 V and
it draws a maximum 10 mA current. The A and B outputs are square waves from
0 V to VCC and they are approximately 90 ∘ out of phase. Speed of the motor can be
calculated using the frequency of output signals. Direction of the motor can also
be obtained from the order of these signals. If both the rising and falling edges
of output signals are counted, the sensor provides the resolution of 48 cpr. If the
single edge of one output signal is counted, the sensor provides the resolution of
12 cpr. To find the resolution at the output of the gearbox shaft, the sensor cpr must
be multiplied by gear ratio which is 48 × 74.83 = 3591.84 cpr.
 2.4 Systems and Sensors to be Used in Advanced Applications 17

Figure 2.9 FT232 UART to USB converter module. (Source: https://www.hobbypcb.com/

index.php/products/accessories/ftdi232.)

2.3.4 The FT232 Module

We will be using the FT232 UART to USB module to send data from the STM32
microcontroller to PC. This module is shown in Figure 2.9. To use it, the reader
should connect the PD5 pin of microcontroller to RX pin of FT232, PD6 pin of the
microcontroller to TX pin of FT232, and any ground pin of the microcontroller to
ground pin of FT232.
As the connection between the microcontroller and the FT232 module is
established, the user should open “Device Manager → Ports (COM & LPT) on
the PC side. Then, he or she should right click on related COM port shown as
“STMicroelectronics STLink Virtual COM Port” and select “Properties.” In the
opening window, the reader should open “Port Settings” and change “Bits per
second” to 921600 as in Figure 2.10. Now, the FT232 module is ready for operation.

2.4 Systems and Sensors to be Used in Advanced

Applications
The aim of this book is applying digital control methods to solve real-life prob-
lems. In solving these problems, we can benefit from actual systems and sensors
which can be purchased from an electronic supplier website. Here, we summarize
possible systems and sensors. Hence, the reader will have a general knowledge
on them.

2.4.1 Systems
There are wide variety of modules which can be used as a system. We tabulate
the most suitable ones for digital control applications in Table 2.2. In the same
18 2 Hardware to be Used in the Book

Figure 2.10 Baud rate setting

of the FT232 module. (Source:
Used with permission from
Microsoft.)

Table 2.2 Systems to be used in advanced applications.

System name Sample usage area

Buzzer Sound generation

DC motor without encoder Line following robot
Heater table 3D printer
Linear actuator Generating linear motion
Peltier Cooling nearby objects
Servo motor Position control
Solenoid On–off control
Step motor Robot position control
Three-phase motor Drones
Vibration motor Generating vibration
Voice coil Vibration cancellation
Water pump Irrigation
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
her stable. An oppression as of an imminent hurricane weighed upon
the country.
Then one heard feminine cries in the direction of the square, cries of
the mother, that seemed even louder in the midst of the sudden
silence of the others. An enormous woman, almost suffocated by her
flesh, passed through the crowd, and arrived crying at the cart. As
she was so heavy as to be unable to climb into the cart, she grasped
the feet of her son, with words of love interspersed among her
tears, given in a broken voice, so sharp, and with an expression of
grief so terribly beast like, that a shiver ran through all of the
bystanders and all turned their faces aside.
“Zaccheo! Zaccheo! my heart! my joy!”—the widow cried, over and
over again, while kissing the feet of the wounded one, and drawing
him to her toward the ground. The wounded man stirred, twisted his
mouth in a spasm, opened his eyes wide, but he really could not
see, because a kind of humid film covered his sight. Great tears
began to flow from the corners of his eyelids and to run down upon
his cheeks and neck, his mouth remained twisted, and in the thick
hissing of his throat one perceived a vain effort to speak. They
crowded around him. “Speak, Pallura! Who has wounded you? Who
has wounded you? Speak! Speak!”
And beneath the question their wrath raged; their violent desires
intensified, a dull craving for vengeance shook them and that
hereditary hatred boiled up again in the souls of all.
“Speak! Who has wounded you? Tell us about it! Tell us about it!”
The dying man opened his eyes a second time, and as they clasped
both of his hands, perhaps through the warmth of that living contact
the spirit in him revived and his face lighted up. He had upon his lips
a vague murmur, betwixt the foam that rose, suddenly more
abundant and bloody. They did not as yet understand his words.
One could hear in the silence the breathing of the breathless
multitude, and all eyes held within their depths a single flame
because all minds awaited a single word.
“Ma—Ma—Ma—scalico.”
“Mascalico! Mascalico!” howled Giacobbe, who was bending, with
strained ear, to grasp the weak syllables from that dying mouth. An
immense cry greeted this explanation. There was at first a confused
rising and falling as of a tempest in the multitude. Then when one
voice raised above the tumult gave the signal, the multitude
disbanded in mad haste.
One single thought pursued those men, one thought that seemed to
have flashed instantaneously into the minds of all: to arm
themselves with something in order to wound. A species of
sanguinary fatality settled upon all consciences beneath the surly
splendour of the twilight, in the midst of the electrifying odours
emanating from the panting country.

IV

Then the phalanxes, armed with scythes, with sickles, with hatchets,
with hoes and with muskets, reunited on the square before the
church.
And the idolaters shouted, “Saint Pantaleone!”
Don Consolo, terrified by the turmoil, had fled to the depths of a
stall behind the altar. A handful of fanatics, conducted by Giacobbe,
penetrated the large chapel, forced its gratings of bronze, and
arrived at length in the underground passage where the bust of the
Saint was kept. Three lamps fed with olive oil burned gently in the
sacristy behind a crystal; the Christian idol sparkled with its white
head surrounded by a large solar disc, and the walls were covered
over with the rich gifts.
When the idol, borne upon the shoulders of four Hercules, appeared
presently between the pilasters of the vestibule, and shed rays from
its aureole, a long, breathless passion passed over the expectant
crowd, a noise like a joyous wind beat upon all foreheads. The
column moved. And the enormous head of the Saint oscillated on
high, gazing before it with two empty eyes.
In the heavens now passed at intervals meteors which seemed alive,
while groups of thin clouds seemed to detach themselves from the
heavens, and, while dissolving, floated slowly away. The entire
country of Radusa appeared in the background like a mountain of
ashes that might be concealing a fire, and in front of it the contour
of the country lost itself with an indistinct flash. A great chorus of
frogs disturbed the harmony of the solitude.
On the road by the river Pallura’s cart obstructed progress. It was
empty now, but bore traces of blood in many places. Irate
imprecations exploded suddenly in the silence.
Giacobbe cried, “Let us put the Saint in it!”
The bust was placed on the boards and dragged by human strength
to the ford. The procession, ready for battle, thus crossed the
boundary. Along the files metal lamps were carried, the invaded
waters broke in luminous sprays, and everywhere a red light flamed
from the young poplars in the distance, toward the quadrangular
towers. Mascalico appeared upon a little elevation, asleep in the
centre of an olive orchard.
The dogs barked here and there, with a furious persistency. The
column having issued from the ford, on abandoning the common
road, advanced with rapid steps by a direct path that cut through
the fields. The bust of silver borne anew on rugged shoulders,
towered above the heads of the men amongst the high grain,
odorous and starred with living fireflies.
Suddenly, a shepherd, who rested under a straw shed to guard the
grain, seized by a mad terror at the sight of so many armed men,
began to flee up the coast, screaming as loud as he could, “Help!
Help!”
His cries echoed through the olive orchards.
Then it was that the Radusani increased their speed. Among the
trunks of trees, amid the dried reeds, the Saint of silver tottered,
gave back sonorous tinklings at the blows of the trees, became
illuminated with vivid flashes at every hint of a fall. Ten, twelve,
twenty shots rained down in a vibrating flash, one after another
upon the group of houses. One heard creaks, then cries followed by
a great clamorous commotion; several doors opened while others
closed, windows fell in fragments and vases of basil fell shivered on
the road. A white smoke rose placidly in the air, behind the path of
the assailants, up to the celestial incandescence. All blinded, in a
belligerent rage, shouted, “To death! To death!”
A group of idolaters maintained their positions around Saint
Pantaleone. Atrocious vituperations against Saint Gonselvo burst out
amongst the brandished scythes and sickles.
“Thief! Thief! Loafer! The candles!... The candles!”
Other groups besieged the doors of the houses with blows of
hatchets. And, as the doors unhinged shattered and fell, the howling
Pantaleonites burst inside, ready to kill. Half nude women fled to the
corners, imploring pity and, trying to defend themselves from the
blows by grasping the weapons and cutting their fingers, they rolled
extended on the pavement in the midst of heaps of coverings and
sheets from which oozed their flaccid turnip-fed flesh.
Giacobbe, tall, slender, flushed, a bundle of dried bones rendered
formidable by passion, director of the slaughter, stopped everywhere
in order to make a broad, commanding gesture above all heads with
his huge scythe. He walked in the front ranks, fearless, without a
hat, in the name of Saint Pantaleone. More than thirty men followed
him. And all had the confused and stupid sensation of walking in the
midst of fire, upon an oscillating earth, beneath a burning vault that
was about to shake down upon them.
But from all sides defenders began to assemble; the Mascalicesi,
strong and dark as mulattoes, sanguinary, who struck with long
unyielding knives, and tore the stomach and throat, accompanying
each blow with guttural cries. The fray drew little by little toward the
church, from the roofs of two or three houses burst flames, a horde
of women and children escaped precipitately among the olives,
seized with panic and no longer with light in their eyes.
Then among the men, without the handicap of the women’s tears
and laments, the hand-to-hand struggle grew more ferocious.
Beneath the rust-coloured sky the earth was covered with corpses.
Vituperations, choked within the teeth of the slain, resounded, and
ever above the clamour continued the shout of the Radusani, “The
candles! The candles!”
But the entrance of the church was barred by an enormous door of
oak studded with nails. The Mascalicesi defended it from the blows
and hatchets. The Saint of silver, impassive and white, oscillated in
the thick of the fray, still sustained upon the shoulders of the four
Hercules, who, although bleeding from head to foot, refused to give
up. The supreme vow of the attackers was to place the idol on the
altar of the enemy.
Now while the Mascalicesi raged like prodigious lions on the stone
steps, Giacobbe disappeared suddenly and skirted the rear of the
edifice for an undefended opening by which he could penetrate the
sacristy. Finally he discovered an aperture at a slight distance from
the ground, clambered up, remained fixed there, held fast at the
hips by its narrowness, twisted and turned, until at length he
succeeded in forcing his long body through the opening.
The welcome aroma of incense was vanishing in the nocturnal frost
of the house of God. Groping in the dark, guided by the crashing of
the external blows, the man walked toward the door, stumbling over
the chain, and falling on his face and hands.
Radusanian hatchets already resounded upon the hardness of the
oak doors, when he began to force the lock with an iron, breathless,
suffocated by the violent palpitation of anxiety that sapped his
strength, with his eyes blurred by indistinct flashes, with his wounds
aching and emitting a tepid stream which flowed down over his skin.
“Saint Pantaleone! Saint Pantaleone!” shouted outside the hoarse
voices of those who felt the door yielding slowly, while they
redoubled their shouts and the blows of their hatchets. From the
other side of the wood resounded the heavy thud of bodies of those
that had been murdered and the sharp blow of a knife that had
pinioned some one against the door, nailed through the back. And it
seemed to Giacobbe that the whole nave throbbed with the beating
of his wild heart.
After a final effort, the door swung open. The Radusani rushed in
headlong with an immense shout of victory, passing over the bodies
of the dead, dragging the Saint of silver to the altar.
An animated oscillation of reflections suddenly illuminated the
obscurity of the nave and made the gold of the candelabra glitter.
And in that glaring splendour, which now and again was intensified
by the burning of the adjacent houses, a second struggle took place.
The entangled bodies rolled upon the bricks, remained in a death
grip, balanced together here and there in their wrathful struggles,
howled and rolled beneath the benches, upon the steps of the
chapels and against the corners of the confessionals. In the
symmetrical concave of this house of God arose that icy sound of
the steel that penetrates the flesh or that grinds through the bones,
that single broken groan of a man wounded in a vital part, that rattle
that the framework of the skull gives forth when crushed with a
blow, that roar of him who dreads to die, that atrocious hilarity of
him who has reached the point of exulting in killing, all of these
sounds echoed through this house of God. And the calm odour of
incense arose above the conflict.
The silver idol had not yet reached the glory of the altar, because the
hostile forces, encircling the altar, had prevented it. Giacobbe,
wounded in many places, struck with his scythe, never yielding a
palm’s breadth of the steps which he had been the first to conquer.
There remained but two to support the Saint. The enormous white
head rolled as if drunk over the wrathful pool of blood. The
Mascalicesi raged.
Then Saint Pantaleone fell to the pavement, giving a sharp rattle
that stabbed the heart of Giacobbe deeper than any sword could
have done. As the ruddy mower darted over to lift it, a huge demon
of a man with a blow from a sickle stretched the enemy on his spine.
Twice he arose, and two other blows hurled him down again. The
blood inundated his entire face, breast and hands, while on his
shoulders and arms the bones, laid bare by deep wounds, shone
out, but still he persisted in recovering. Maddened by his fierce
tenacity of life, three, four, five ploughmen together struck him
furiously in the stomach, thus disgorging his entrails. The fanatic fell
backwards, struck his neck on the bust of the silver Saint, turned
suddenly upon his stomach with his face pressed against the metal
and with his arms extended before him and his legs contracted
under him.
Thus was Saint Pantaleone lost.
 VIII
MUNGIA

Through all the country of Pescara, San Silvestro, Fontanella, San

Rocco, even as far as Spoltore, and through all the farms of
Vallelonga beyond Allento and particularly in the little boroughs
where sailors meet near the mouth of the river,—through all this
country, where the houses are built of clay and of reeds, and the fire
material is supplied by drift wood from the sea, for many years a
Catholic rhapsodist with a barbarian and piratical name, who is as
blind as the ancient Homer, has been famous.
Mungia begins his peregrinations at the beginning of spring, and
ends them with the first frosts of October. He goes about the
country, conducted by a woman and a child. Into the peaceful
gardens and the serenity of the fields he brings his lamenting
religious songs, antiphonies, preludes and responses of the offices of
the dead. His figure is so familiar to all, that even the dogs in the
backyards do not bark at his approach. He announces his advent
with a trill from his clarionet, and at the well-known signal, the old
wives come out upon the thresholds to welcome him, place his chair
under the shade of a tree in the yard, and make inquiries as to his
health. All the peasants come from their work, and form a subdued
and awed circle about him, while with their hard hands they wipe
the perspiration of toil from their foreheads, and, still holding their
implements, assume a reverent attitude. Their bare arms and legs
are knotted and misshapen from the severe toil of the fields; their
twisted bodies have taken on the hue of the earth—working in the
soil from the dawn of day, they seem to have something in common
with the trees and the roots.
A sort of religious solemnity is thrown over everything by this blind
man. It is not the sun, it is not the fulness of the earth, not the joy
of spring vegetation, not the sounds of the distant choruses that
gives to all the feeling of admiration, of devotion, and more than all,
the sadness of religion. One of the old women gives the name of a
departed relative to whom she wishes to offer songs and oblations.
Mungia uncovers his head.
His wide shining cranium appears encircled with white hair; his
whole face, which in its quiet calm has the appearance of a mask,
wrinkles up when he takes the clarionet in his mouth. Upon his
temples, under his eyes, beside his ears, around his nostrils and at
the corners of his mouth, a thousand lines become visible, some
delicate, some deep, changing with the rhythm of the music by
which he is inspired. His nerves are at a tension, and over his jaw
bones the purple veins show, like those of the turning vine-leaves in
the autumn, the lower eyelid is turned outward, showing a reddish
line, over his whole face the tough skin is tightly drawn, giving the
appearance of a wonderful carving in relief; the light plays over the
face with its short, stiff, and badly shaved beard, and over the neck,
with its deep hollows, between the long still cords which stand out
prominently, flashing like dew upon a warty and mouldy pumpkin;
and, as he plays, a thousand vibrating minor notes float out upon
the air, and the humble head takes on an appearance of mystery. His
fingers press the unsteady keys of the box-wood clarionet, and the
notes pour out. The instrument itself seems almost human, and to
breathe with life, as inanimate objects which have been long and
intimately associated with men often do; the wood has an unctuous
glare; the holes, which in the winter months become the nests of
little spiders, are still filled with cobwebs and dust; the keys are
stained with verdigris; in places beeswax has been employed to
cover up breaks; the joints are held together with paper and thread,
while about the edge one can still see the ornaments of its youth.
The blind man’s voice rises weak and uncertain, his fingers move
mechanically, searching for the notes of a prelude, or an interlude of
days long passed.
His long, deformed hands, with knots upon the phalanges of the first
three fingers, and with the nails of his thumbs depressed and white
in colour, resemble somewhat the hands of a decrepit monkey; the
backs are of the unhealthy colour of decayed fruit, a mixture of pink,
yellow and blue shades; the palms show a net-work of lines and
furrows, and between the fingers the skin is blistered.
When he has finished the prelude, Mungia begins to sing, “Libera Me
Domine,” and “Ne Recorderis,” slowly, and upon a modulation of five
notes. The Latin words of the song are interspersed with his native
idioms, and now and then, to fill out the metrical rhythm, he inserts
an adverb ending in ente, which he follows with heavy rhymes; he
raises his voice in these parts, then lowers it in the less fatiguing
lines. The name of Jesus runs often through the rhapsody; not
without a certain dramatic movement. The passion of Jesus is
narrated in verses of five lines.
The peasants listen with an air of devotion, watching the blind man’s
mouth as he sings. In the season, the chorus of the vintagers comes
from the fields, vieing with the notes of the pious songs; Mungia,
whose hearing is weak, sings on of the mysteries of death; his lips
adhere to his toothless gums, and the saliva runs down and drips
from his chin; placing the clarionet again to his lips, he begins the
intermezzo, then takes up the rhymes again, and so continues to the
end. His recompense is a small measure of corn and a bottle of wine
or a bunch of onions, and sometimes a hen.
He rises from his chair, a tall, emaciated figure, with bent back and
knees turning a little backward. He wears upon his head a large
green cap, and no matter what the season, he is wrapped in a
peasant cloak falling from his throat below his knees and fastened
with two brass buckles. He moves with difficulty, at times stopping to
cough.
When October comes, and the vineyards have been vintaged and
the yards are filled with mud and gravel, he withdraws into a garret,
which he shares with a tailor who has a paralytic wife, and a street
pauper with nine children who are variously afflicted with scrofula
and the rickets. On pleasant days he is taken to the arch of
Portanova, and sits upon a rock in the sun, while he softly sings the
“De Profundis” to keep his throat in condition. On these occasions,
mendicants of all sorts gather around him, men with dislocated
limbs, hunchbacks, cripples, paralytics, lepers, women covered with
wounds and scabs, toothless women, and those without eyebrows
and without hair; children, green as locusts, emaciated, with sharp,
savage eyes, like birds of prey; taciturn, with mouths already
withered; children who bear in their blood diseases inherited from
the monster Poverty; all of that miserable, degenerate rabble, the
remnants of a decrepit race. These ragged children of God come to
gather about the singer, and speak to him as one of themselves.
Then Mungia graciously begins to sing to the waiting crowd.
Chiachiu, a native of Silvi, approaches, dragging himself with great
difficulty, helping himself with the palms of his hands, on which he
wears a covering of leather; when he reaches the group about
Mungia, he stops, holding in his hands his right foot, which is twisted
and contorted like a root. Strigia, an uncertain, repugnant figure, a
senile hermaphrodite with bright red carbuncles covering neck and
grey locks on the temples, of which the creature seems to be proud,
the top and back of the head covered with wool like a vulture, next
approaches. Then come the Mammalucchi, three idiot brothers, who
seem to have been brought forth from the union of man and goat,
so manifest in their faces are the ovine features. The oldest of the
three has some soft, degenerated bulbs protruding from the orbs of
his eyes, of a bluish colour, much like oval bags of pulp about to rot.
The peculiar affliction of the youngest is in his ear, the lobe of which
is abnormally inflated, and of the violet hue of a fig. The three come
together, with bags of strings upon their backs.
The Ossei comes also, a lean, serpent-like man with an olive-
coloured face, a flat nose with a singular aspect of malice and
deceit, which betrays his gipsy origin, and eyelids which turn up like
those of a pilot who sails over stormy seas. Following him is
Catalana di Gissi, a woman of uncertain age, her skin covered with
long reddish blisters, and on her forehead spots looking like copper
coins, hipless, like a bitch after confinement: she is called the Venus
of the Mendicants,—the fountain of Love at which all the thirsty ones
are quenched.
Then comes Jacobbe of Campli, an old man with greenish-coloured
hair like some of the mechanics’ work in brass; then industrious
Gargala in a vehicle built of the remains of broken boats, still
smeared with tar; then Constantino di Corropoli, the cynic, whose
lower lip has a growth which gives him the appearance of holding a
piece of raw meat between his teeth. And still they come,
inhabitants of the woods who have moved along the course of the
river from the hills to the sea; all gather around the rhapsodist in the
sun.
Mungia then sings with studied gestures and strange postures. His
soul is filled with exaltation, an aureole of glory surrounds him, for
now he gives himself freely to his Muse, unrestrained in his singing.
He scarcely hears the clamour of applause which arises from the
swarming mendicants as he closes.
At the end of the song, as the warm sun has left the spot where the
group is assembled and is climbing the Corinthian columns of the
arch of the Capitol, the mendicants bid the blind man farewell and
disperse through the neighbouring lands. Usually Chiachiu di Silvi,
holding his deformed foot, and the dwarfed brothers remain after
the others have gone, asking alms of passers-by, while Mungia sits
silent, thinking, perhaps, of the triumphs of his youth when
Lucicoppelle, Golpo di Casoli, and Quattorece were alive.
Oh, the glorious band of Mungia! The small orchestra had won
through all the lower valley of Pescara a lofty fame. Golpo di Casoli
played the viola. He was a greyish little man, like the lizards on the
rocks, with the skin of his face and neck wrinkled and membranous
like that of a turtle boiled in water. He wore a sort of Phrygian cap
which covered his ears on the sides. He played on his viola with
quick gestures, pressing the instrument with his sharp chin and with
his contracted fingers hammering the keys in an ostentatious effort,
as do the monkeys of wandering mountebanks.
After him came Quattorece with his bass viol slung over his stomach
by a strap of ass-leather; he was as tall and thin as a wax candle,
and throughout his person was a predominance of orange tints; he
looked like one of those monochromatic painted figures in stiff
attitudes which ornament some of the poetry of Castelli; his eyes
shone with the yellow transparency of a shepherd dog’s, the
cartilage of his great ears opened like those of a bat against which
an orange light is thrown, his clothes were of some tobacco-coloured
cloth, such as hunters usually wear; while his old viol, ornamented
with feathers, with silver adornments, bows, images, and medals,
looked like some barbarian instrument from which one might expect
strange sounds to issue. But Lucicoppelle, holding across his chest
his rough, two-stringed guitar, well tuned in diapason, came in last,
with the bold, dancing step of a rustic Figaro. He was the joyful spirit
of the orchestra, the greenest one in age and strength, the liveliest
and the brightest. A heavy tuft of crisp hair fell over his forehead
under a scarlet cap, and in his ears shone womanlike, two silver
clasps. He loved wine as a musical toast. To serenades in honour of
beauty, to open-air dances, to gorgeous, boisterous feasts, to
weddings, to christenings, to votive feasts and funeral rites, the
band of Mungia would hasten, expected and acclaimed. The nuptial
procession would move through the streets strewn with bulrush
blossoms and sweet-scented herbs, greeted with joyful shouts and
salutes. Five mules, decorated with wreaths, carried the wedding
presents. In a cart drawn by two oxen whose harness was wound
with ribbons, and whose backs were covered with draperies, were
seated the bridal couple; from the cart dangled boilers, earthen
vessels, and copper pots, which shook and rattled with the jolting of
the vehicle; chairs, tables, sofas, all sorts of antique shapes of
household furniture oscillated, creaking, about them; damask skirts,
richly figured with flowers, embroidered waist-coats, silken aprons,
and all sorts of articles of women’s apparel shone in the sun in bright
array, while a distaff, the symbol of domestic virtue, piled on top
with the linen, was outlined against the blue sky like a golden staff.
The women relatives, carrying upon their heads baskets of grain,
upon the top of which was a loaf, and upon the loaf a flower, came
next in hierarchical order, singing as they walked. This train of
simple, graceful figures reminded one of the canephoræ in the Greek
bas-reliefs. Reaching the house, the women took the baskets from
their heads, and threw a handful of wheat at the bride, pronouncing
a ritual augury, invoking fecundity and abundance. The mother, also,
observed the ceremony of throwing grain, weeping copiously as with
a brush she touched her daughter on the chest, shoulders and
forehead, and speaking doleful words of love as she did so.
Then in the courtyard, under a roof of branches, the feast began.
Mungia, who had not yet lost his eyesight nor felt the burden of
years upon him, erect in all the magnificence of a green coat,
perspiring and beaming, blew with all the power of his lungs upon
his clarionet, beating time with his foot. Golpo di Casoli struck his
violin energetically, Quattorece exerted himself in a wild endeavour
to keep up with the crescendo of the Moorish dance, while
Lucicoppelle, standing straight with his head up, holding aloft in his
left hand the key of his guitar, and with the right pricking on two
strings the metric chords, looked down at the women, laughing gaily
among the flowers.
Then the “Master of Ceremonies” brought in the viands on large
painted plates and the cloud of vapour rising from the hot dishes
faded away among the foliage of the trees. The amphoras of wine,
with their well-worn handles, were passed around from one to
another, the men stretched their arms out across the table between
the loaves of bread, scattered with anise seeds, and the cheese
cakes, round as full moons, and helped themselves to olives,
oranges and almonds. The smell of spice mingled with the fresh,
vaporous odour of the vegetables; sometimes the guests offered the
bride goblets of wine in which were small pieces of jewelry, or
necklaces of great grape stones like a string of golden fruit. After a
while the exhilarating effects of the liquor began to be felt, and the
crowd grew hilarious with Bacchic joy and then Mungia, advancing
with uncovered head and holding in his hands a glass filled to the
rim, would sing the beautiful deistic ritual which to feasters
throughout the land of Abruzzi gave a disposition for friendly toasts:
“To the health of all these friends of mine, united, I drink this wine
so pure and fine.”
 IX
THE DOWNFALL OF CANDIA

Three days after the customary Easter banquet, which in the house
Lamonica was always sumptuous and crowded with feasters by
virtue of its traditions, Donna Cristina Lamonica counted her table
linen and silver while she placed each article systematically in chest
and safe, ready for future similar occasions.
With her, as usual, at this task and aiding, were the maid Maria
Bisaccia and the laundress Candida Marcanda, popularly known as
“Candia.” The large baskets heaped with fine linen rested in a row
on the pavement. The vases of silver and the other table ornaments
sparkled upon a tray; they were solidly fashioned, if somewhat
rudely, by rustic silversmiths, in shape almost liturgical, as are all of
the vases that the rich provincial families hand down from
generation to generation. The fresh fragrance of bleached linen
permeated the room.
Candia took from the baskets the doilies, the table cloths and the
napkins, had the “signora” examine the linen intact, and handed one
piece after another to Maria, who filled up the drawers while the
“signora” scattered through the spaces an aroma, and took notes in
a book. Candia was a tall woman, large-boned, parched, fifty years
of age; her back was slightly curved from bending over in that
position habitual to her profession; she had very long arms and the
head of a bird of prey resting upon the neck of a tortoise. Maria
Bisaccia was an Ortonesian, a little fleshy, of milk-white complexion,
also possessing very clear eyes; she had a soft manner of speaking
and made slow, delicate gestures like one who was accustomed
habitually to exercise her hands amongst sweet pastry, syrups,
preserves and confectionery. Donna Cristina, also a native of Ortona,
educated in a Benedictine monastery, was small of stature, dressed
somewhat carelessly, with hair of a reddish tendency, a face
scattered with freckles, a nose long and thick, bad teeth, and most
beautiful and chaste eyes which resembled those of a priest
disguised as a woman.
The three women attended to the work with much assiduity,
spending thus a large part of the afternoon.
At length, just as Candia went out with the empty baskets, Donna
Cristina counted the pieces of silver and found that a spoon was
missing.
“Maria! Maria!” she cried, suddenly panic-stricken. “One spoon is
lacking.... Count them! Quick!”
“But how? It cannot be, Signora,” Maria answered. “Allow me a
glance at them.” She began to re-sort the pieces, calling their
numbers aloud. Donna Cristina looked on and shook her head. The
silver clinked musically.
“An actual fact!” Maria exclaimed at last with a motion of despair.
“And now what are we to do?”
She was quite above suspicion. She had given proof of fidelity and
honesty for fifteen years in that family. She had come from Ortona
with Donna Cristina at the time of her marriage, almost constituting
a part of the marriage portion, and had always exercised a certain
authority in the household under the protection of the “signora.” She
was full of religious superstition, devoted to her especial saint and
her especial church, and finally, she was very astute. With the
“signora” she had united in a kind of hostile alliance to everything
pertaining to Pescara, and especially to the popular saint of these
Pescaresian people. On every occasion she quoted the country of
her birth, its beauties and riches, the splendours of its basilica, the
treasures of San Tomaso, the magnificence of its ecclesiastical
ceremonies in contrast to the meagreness of San Cetteo, which
possessed but a solitary, small, holy arm of silver.
At length Donna Cristina said, “Look carefully everywhere.”
Maria left the room to begin a search. She penetrated all the angles
of the kitchen and loggia, but in vain, and returned at last with
empty hands.
“There is no such thing about! Neither here nor there!” she cried.
Then the two set themselves to thinking, to heaping up conjectures,
to searching their memories.
They went out on the loggia that bordered the court, on the loggia
belonging to the laundry, in order to make a final examination. As
their speech grew louder, the occupants of the neighbouring houses
appeared at their windows.
“What has befallen you? Donna Cristina, tell us! Tell us!” they cried.
Donna Cristina and Maria recounted their story with many words and
gestures.
“Jesu! Jesu! then there must be thieves among us!” In less than no
time the rumour of this theft spread throughout the vicinity, in fact
through all of Pescara. Men and women fell to arguing, to surmising,
whom the thief might be. The story on reaching the most remote
house of Sant’ Agostina, was huge in proportions; it no longer told
of a single spoon, but of all the silver of the Lamonica house.
Now, as the weather was beautiful and the roses in the loggia had
commenced to bloom, and two canaries were singing in their cages,
the neighbours detained one another at the windows for the sheer
pleasure of chattering about the season with its soothing warmth.
The heads of the women appeared amongst the vases of basil, and
the hubbub they made seemed especially to please the cats in the
caves above.
Donna Cristina clasped her hands and cried, “Who could it have
been?”
Donna Isabella Sertale, nicknamed “The Cat,” who had the stealthy,
furtive movements of a beast of prey, called in a twanging voice,
“Who has been with you this long time, Donna Cristina? It seems to
me that I have seen Candia come and go.”
“A-a-a-h!” exclaimed Donna Felicetta Margasanta, called “The
Magpipe,” because of her everlasting garrulity.
“Ah!” the other neighbours repeated in turn.
“And you had not thought of her?”
“And did you not observe her?”
“And don’t you know of what metal Candia is made?”
“We would do well to tell you of her!”
“That we would!”
“We would do well to tell you!”
“She washes the clothes in goodly fashion, there is none to dispute
that. She is the best laundress that dwells in Pescara, one cannot
help saying that. But she holds a defect in her five fingers. Did you
not know that, now?”
“Once two of my doilies disappeared.”
“And I missed a tablecloth.”
“And I a shift shirt.”
“And I three pairs of stockings.”
“And I two pillow-cases.”
“And I a new skirt.”
“And I failed to recover an article.”
“I have lost——”
“And I, too.”
“I have not driven her out, for who is there to fill her place?”
“Silvestra?”
“No! No!”
“Angelantonia? Balascetta?”
“Each worse than the other!”
“One must have patience.”
“But a spoon, think of that!”
“It’s too much! it is!”
“Don’t remain silent about it, Donna Cristina, don’t remain silent!”
“Whether silent or not silent!” burst out Maria Bisaccia, who for all
her placid and benign expression never let a chance escape her to
oppress or put in a bad light the other servants of the house, “we
will think for ourselves!”
In this fashion the chatter from the windows on the loggia
continued, and accusation fled from mouth to mouth throughout the
entire district.

II

The following morning, when Candia Marcanda had her hands in the
soap-suds, there appeared at her door-sill the town guard Biagio
Pesce, popularly known as “The Corporal.” He said to her, “You are
wanted by Signor Sindaco at the town-hall this very moment.”
“What did you say?” asked Candia, knitting her brows without
discontinuing her task.
“You are wanted by Signor Sindaco at the town-hall this very
moment.”
“I am wanted? And why?” Candia asked in a brusque manner. She
did not know what was responsible for this unexpected summons
and therefore reared at it like a stubborn animal before a shadow.
“I cannot know the reason,” answered the Corporal. “I have received
but an order.”
“What order?”
The woman because of an obstinacy natural to her could not refrain
from questions. She was unable to realise the truth.
“I am wanted by Signor Sindaco? And why? And what have I done? I
have no wish to go there. I have done nothing unseemly.”
Then the Corporal cried impatiently, “Ah, you do not wish to go
there? You had better beware!” And he went away muttering, with
his hand on the hilt of his shabby sword.
Meanwhile several who had heard the dialogue came from their
doorways into the street and began to stare at the laundress, who
was violently attacking her wash. Since they knew of the silver
spoon they laughed at one another and made remarks that the
laundress did not understand. Their ridicule and ambiguous
expressions filled the heart of the woman with much uneasiness,
which increased when the Corporal appeared accompanied by
another guard.
“Now move on!” he said resolutely.
Candia wiped her arms in silence and went. Throughout the square
everyone stopped to look. Rosa Panara, an enemy, from the
threshold of her shop, called with a fierce laugh, “Drop the bone
thou hast picked up!”
The laundress, bewildered, unable to imagine the cause of this
persecution, could not answer.
Before the town-hall stood a group of curious people who waited to
see her pass. Candia, suddenly seized with a wrathful spirit,
mounted the stairs quickly, came into the presence of Signor Sindaco
out of breath, and asked, “Now, what do you want with me?”
Don Silla, a man of peaceable temperament, remained for a moment
somewhat taken aback by the sharp voice of the laundress and
turned a beseeching look upon the faithful custodians of the
communal dignity. Then he took some tobacco from a horn-box and
said, “Be seated, my daughter.”
Candia remained upon her feet. Her hooked nose was inflated with
choler, and her cheeks, roughly seamed, trembled from the
contraction of her tightly compressed jaws.
“Speak quickly, Don Silla!” she cried.
“You were occupied yesterday in carrying back the clean linen to
Donna Cristina Lamonica?”
“Well, and what of it? Is she missing something? Everything was
counted piece by piece ... nothing was lacking. Now, what is it all
about?”
“One moment, my daughter! The room had silver in it...!”
Candia, divining the truth, turned upon him like a viper about to
sting. At the same time her thin lips trembled.
“The room had silver in it,” he continued, “and now Donna Cristina
finds herself lacking one spoon. Do you understand, my daughter?
Was it taken by you ... through mistake?”
Candia jumped like a grasshopper at this undeserved accusation. In
truth she had stolen nothing. “Ah, I? I?” she cried. “Who says I took
it? Who has seen me in such an act? You fill me with amazement ...
you fill me with wonder! Don Silla! I a thief? I? I?...”
And her indignation had no limit. She was even more wounded by
this unjust accusation because she felt herself capable of the deed
which they had attributed to her.
“Then you have not taken it?” Don Silla interrupted, withdrawing
prudently into the depths of his large chair.
“You fill me with amazement!” Candia chided afresh, while she shook
her long hands as if they were two whips.
“Very well, you may go. We will see in time.” Without saying good-
bye, Candia made her exit, striking against the door-post as she did
so. She had become green in the face and was beside herself with
rage. On reaching the street and seeing the crowd assembled there,
she understood at length that popular opinion was against her, that
no one believed in her innocence. Nevertheless she began publicly to
exculpate herself. The people laughed and drifted away from her. In
a wrathful state of mind she returned home, sank into a condition of
despair and fell to weeping in her doorway.
Don Donato Brandimarte, who lived next door, said to her by way of
a joke:
“Cry aloud, Candia. Cry to the full extent of your strength, for the
people are about to pass now.”
As there were clothes lying in a heap waiting to be boiled clean she
finally grew quiet, bared her arms and set herself to work. While
working, she brooded on how to clear her character, constructed a
method of defence, sought in her cunning, feminine thoughts an
artificial means for proving her innocence; balancing her mind subtly
in mid-air, she had recourse to all of those expedients which
constitute an ignorant argument, in order to present a defence that
might persuade the incredulous.
Later, when she had finished her task, she went out and went first to
Donna Cristina.
Donna Cristina would not see her. Maria Bisaccia listened to Candia’s
prolific words and shook her head without reply and at length left
her in a dignified way.
Then Candia visited all of her customers. To each one she told her
story, to each one she laid bare her defence, always adding to it a
new argument, ever increasing the size of the words, becoming
more heated and finally despairing in the presence of incredulity and
distrust as all was useless. She felt at last that an explanation was
no longer possible. A kind of dark discouragement fastened upon her
mind. What more could she do! What more could she say!
 III

Donna Cristina Lamonica, meanwhile, sent for La Cinigia, a woman

of the ignorant masses, who followed the profession of magic and
unscientific medicine. Previously, La Cinigia had several times
discovered stolen goods and some said that she had underhand
dealings with the thieves.
Donna Cristina said to her, “Recover the spoon for me and I will give
you a rich present.”
La Cinigia answered, “Very well. Twenty-four hours will suffice me.”
And after twenty-four hours she brought the news, “The spoon is to
be found in the court in a hole adjacent to the sewer.” Donna
Cristina and Maria descended to the court, searched, and to their
great astonishment found the missing piece.
The news spread rapidly throughout Pescara. Then in triumph,
Candia Marcanda immediately began to frequent the streets. She
seemed taller, held her head more erect and smiled into the eyes of
everyone as if to say, “Now you have seen for yourselves?”
The people in the shops, when she passed by, murmured something
and then broke into laughter. Filippo Selvi, who was drinking a glass
of brandy in the Café d’Angeladea, called to Candia, “Over here is a
glass waiting for Candia.”
The woman, who loved ardent liquor, moved her lips greedily.
Filippo Selvi added, “And you are deserving of it, there is no doubt of
that.”
A crowd of idlers had assembled before the café. All wore a teasing
expression upon their countenances. Filippo La Selvi having turned
to his audience while the woman was drinking, vouchsafed, “And she
knew how to find it, did she? The old fox....”
He struck familiarly the bony shoulder of the laundress by way of
prelude.
Everyone laughed.
Magnafave, a small hunchback, defective in body and speech and
halting on the syllables, cried:
“Ca-ca-ca—Candia—a—and—Cinigia!” He followed this with
gesticulations and wary stutterings, all of which implied that Candia
and La Cinigia were in league. At this the crowd became convulsed
with mirth.
Candia remained dazed for a moment with the glass in her hand.
Then of a sudden she understood. They still did not believe in her
innocence. They were accusing her of having secretly carried back
the spoon, in agreement with the fortune-teller as to the placing of
it, in order to escape disgrace.
At this thought, the blind grip of rage seized her. She could not find
words for speech. She threw herself upon the weakest of her
tormentors, which was the small hunchback, and belaboured him
with blows and scratches. The crowd, taking a cruel pleasure in
witnessing the scuffle, cheered itself into a circle as if watching the
struggle of two animals, and encouraged both combatants with cries
and gesticulations.
Magnafave, terrified by her unexpected madness, sought to flee,
dodging like a monkey; but, detained by those terrible hands of the
laundress, he whirled with ever-increasing velocity, like a stone from
a sling, until at length he fell upon his face with great violence.
Several ran forward to raise him. Candia withdrew in the midst of
hisses, shut herself up in her house, threw herself across her bed,
weeping and biting her fingers. This latest accusation burnt into her
more than the former, particularly because she realised that she was
capable of such a subterfuge. How to disentangle herself now? How
make the truth clear? She grew desperate on thinking that she could
not bring to the aid of her argument any material difficulties that
might have hindered the execution of such a deceit. Access to the
court was very easy; a never closed door was on the first landing-
place of a large staircase and in order to dispose of waste matter
and to attend to other diverse duties, a quantity of people passed
freely in and out of that doorway. Therefore she could not close the
mouths of her accusers by saying, “How could I have got in there?”
The means for accomplishing such an undertaking were many and
simple, and on this very lack of obstacles popular opinion chose to
establish itself.
Candia therefore sought different persuasive arguments; she
sharpened all her cunning, imagined three, four, five separate
circumstances that might easily account for the finding of the spoon
in that hole; she took refuge in mental turnings and twistings of
every kind and subtilised with singular ingenuity. Later she began to
go around from shop to shop, from house to house, straining in
every way to overcome the incredulity of the people.
At first they listened to her enticing arguments for a diversion. At
last they said, “Oh, very well! Very well!” But with a certain inflection
of the voice which left Candia crushed. All her efforts then were
useless. No one believed!
With an astonishing persistency, she returned to the siege. She
passed entire nights pondering on new reasons, how to construct
new explanations, to overcome new obstacles. Little by little, from
the continuous absorption, her mind weakened, could not entertain
any thought save that of the spoon, and had scarcely any longer any
realisation of the events of every day life. Later, through the cruelty
of the people, a veritable mania arose in the mind of the poor
woman.
She neglected her duties and was reduced almost to penury. She
washed the clothes badly, lost and tore them. When she descended
to the bank of the river under the iron-bridge where the other
laundresses had collected, at times she let escape from her hands
garments which the current snatched and they were gone forever.
She babbled continuously on the same subject. To drown her out the
young laundresses set themselves to singing and to bantering one
another from their places with impromptu verses. She shouted and
gesticulated like a mad woman.
No one any longer gave her work. Out of compassion for her, her
former customers sent her food. Little by little the habit of begging
settled upon her. She walked the streets, ragged, bent, and
dishevelled. Impertinent boys called after her, “Now tell us the story
of the spoon, that we may know about it, do, Candia!”
She stopped sometimes unknown passersby to recount her story and
to wander into the mazes of her defence. The scapegoats of the
town hailed her and for a cent made her deliver her narration three,
four times; they raised objections to her arguments and were
attentive to the end of the tale for the sake of wounding her at last
with a single word. She shook her head, moved on and clung to
other feminine beggars and reasoned with them, always, always
indefatigable and unconquerable. She took a fancy to a deaf woman
whose skin was afflicted with a kind of reddish leprosy, and who was
lame in one leg.
In the winter of 1874 a malignant fever seized her. Donna Cristina
Lamonica sent her a cordial and a hand-warmer. The sick woman,
stretched on her straw pallet, still babbled about the spoon. She
raised on her elbows, tried to motion with her hands in order to
assist in the summing up of her conclusions. The leprous woman
took her hands and gently soothed her.
In her last throes, when her enlarged eyes were already being veiled
behind some suffusing moisture that had mounted to them from
within, Candia murmured, “I was not the one, Signor ... you see ...
because ... the spoon....”
 X
THE DEATH OF THE DUKE OF OFENA

When the first confused clamour of the rebellion reached Don Filippo
Cassaura, he suddenly opened his eyelids, that weighed heavily
upon his eyes, inflamed around the upturned lids, like those of
pirates who sail through stormy seas.
“Did you hear?” he asked of Mazzagrogna, who was standing
nearby, while the trembling of his voice betrayed his inward fear.
The majordomo answered, smiling, “Do not be afraid, Your
Excellency. Today is St. Peter’s day. The mowers are singing.”
The old man remained listening, leaning on his elbow and looking
over the balcony. The hot south wind was fluttering the curtains. The
swallows, in flocks, were darting back and forth as rapidly as arrows
through the burning air. All the roofs of the houses below glared with
reddish and greyish tints. Beyond the roofs was extended the vast,
rich country, gold in colour, like ripened wheat.
Again the old man asked, “But Giovanni, have you heard?”
And indeed, clamours, which did not seem to indicate joy, reached
their ears. The wind, rendering them louder at intervals, pushing
them and intermingling with its whistling noise, made them appear
still more strange.
“Do not mind that, Your Excellency,” answered Mazzagrogna. “Your
ears deceive you.”
“Keep quiet.” And he arose to go towards one of the balconies.
He was a thick-set man, bow-legged, with enormous hands, covered
with hair on the backs like a beast. His eyes were oblique and white,
like those of the Albinos. His face was covered with freckles. A few
red hairs straggled upon his temples and the bald top of his head
was flecked with dark projections in the shape of chestnuts.
He remained standing for a while, between the two curtains, inflated
like sails, in order to watch the plain beneath. Thick clouds of dust,
rising from the road of the Fara, as after the passing of immense
flocks of sheep, were swept by the wind and grew into shapes of
cyclones. From time to time these whirling clouds caused whistling
sounds, as if they encompassed armed people.
“Well?” asked Don Filippo, uneasily.
“Nothing,” repeated Mazzagrogna, but his brows were contracted.
Again the impetuous rush of wind brought a tumult of distant cries.
One of the curtains, blown by the wind, began to flutter and wave in
the air like an inflated flag. A door was suddenly shut with violence
and noise, the glass panel trembled from the shock. The papers,
accumulated upon the table, were scattered around the room.
“Do close it! Do close it!” cried the old man, with emotional terror.
“Where is my son?”
He was lying upon the bed, suffocated by his fleshiness, and unable
to rise, as all the lower part of his body was deadened by paralysis.
A continuous paralytic tremor agitated his muscles. His hands, lying
on the bed sheets, were contorted, like the roots of old olive trees. A
copious perspiration dripped from his forehead and from his bald
head, and dropped from his large face, which had a pinkish, faded
colour, like the gall of oxen.
“Heavens!” murmured Mazzagrogna, between his teeth, as he closed
the shutters vehemently. “They are in earnest!”
One could now perceive upon this road of Fara, near the first house,
a multitude of men, excited and wavering, like the overflow of
rivulets, which indicated a still greater multitude of people, invisible,
hidden by the rows of roofs and by the oak trees of San Pio. The
auxiliary legion of the country had met the one of the rebellion. Little
by little the crowd would diminish, entering the roads of the country
and disappearing like an army of ants through the labyrinth of the
ant hill.
The suffocated cries, echoing from house to house, reached them
now, like a continuous but indistinct rumbling. At moments there
was silence and then you could hear the great fluttering of the ash
trees in front of the palace, which seemed as if already abandoned.
“My son! Where is he?” again asked the old man, in a quivering,
squeaking voice. “Call him! I wish to see him.”
He trembled upon his bed, not only because he was a paralytic, but
also because of fear.
At the time of the first seditious movement of the day before, at the
cries of about a hundred youths, who had come under the balcony
to shout against the latest extortions of the Duke of Ofena, he had
been overcome by such a foolish fright, that he had wept like a little
girl, and had spent the night invoking the Saints of Paradise. The
thought of death and of his danger gave rise to an indescribable
terror in that paralytic old man, already half dead, in whom the last
breaths of life were so painful. He did not wish to die.
“Luigi! Luigi!” he began to cry in his anguish.
All the place was filled with the sharp rattling of the window glasses,
caused by the rush of the wind. From time to time one could hear
the banging of a door, and the sound of precipitate steps and sharp
cries.
“Luigi!”