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Arduino Android Blueprints

Get the best out of Arduino by interfacing it with

Android to create engaging interactive projects

Marco Schwartz
Stefan Buttigieg

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Arduino Android Blueprints

Copyright © 2014 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the authors, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: December 2014

Production reference: 1151214

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78439-038-9

www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Authors Copy Editors

Marco Schwartz Janbal Dharmaraj
Stefan Buttigieg Vikrant Phadkay

Reviewers Project Coordinator

Simone Bianchi Rashi Khivansara
Kyrre Havik Eriksen
Adam Laskowitz Proofreaders
Martin Diver
Rufael Negash
Maria Gould

Commissioning Editor Samantha Lyon

Nadeem N. Bagban
Indexer
Acquisition Editor Hemangini Bari
Harsha Bharwani
Production Coordinator
Content Development Editor Nitesh Thakur
Anand Singh
Cover Work
Technical Editor Nitesh Thakur
Indrajit A. Das
 About the Authors

Marco Schwartz is an electrical engineer, entrepreneur, and blogger. He has a

Master's degree in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science from Supélec in
France and a Master's degree in Micro Engineering from the EPFL in Switzerland.

He has more than 5 years of experience working in the domain of electrical

engineering. His interests gravitate around electronics, home automation, the
Arduino and Raspberry Pi platforms, open source hardware projects, and 3D printing.

He runs several websites around Arduino, including the Open Home Automation
website, which is dedicated to building home automation systems using open
source hardware.

He has written another book on home automation and Arduino, called Home
Automation with Arduino and another book on how to build the Internet of Things
projects with Arduino, called Internet of Things with the Arduino Yún, Packt Publishing.
Stefan Buttigieg is a medical doctor, mobile developer, and entrepreneur.
He graduated as a Doctor of Medicine and Surgery at the University of Malta,
and he is currently enrolled at the University of Sheffield where he is undertaking
a Master's degree in Health Informatics.

He has more than 5 years of experience working in various technical positions in

international and local student organizations, and has founded MD Geeks, an online
community that brings health professionals, developers, and entrepreneurs together
from around the world to share their passion for the intersection of healthcare and
information technology.

His main interests are in mobile development, specifically, Android and iOS,
open source healthcare projects, user interface design, mobile user experience,
and project management.

I would like to thank Angelika Biernacka-Buttigieg, my wife, for

her unconditional support and patience throughout the creation
of this book.
My parents, Joseph Buttigieg and Anne Buttigieg, for their support
for this book project.
Christopher Svanefalk for his amazing insight and patience with
code reviews and support.
Don Coleman, for his invaluable help in Chapter 8, Control an
Arduino Board via NFC. We recommend his expertise on near
field communication technologies.
 About the Reviewers

Simone Bianchi lives in Italy, where after a degree in electronic engineering,

he started to work as a programmer developing web applications using technologies
such as Java, JSP, JQuery, and Oracle. When time permits, he likes to explore other
topics, contribute to the open source community developing free components for the
Talend Platform (for example, the tDBFInput and tDBFOutput components), develop
Android apps (SleepyTimer), or return to the subjects of his studies, delighting
himself building small IoT projects using microcontrollers like the ones of the
Arduino family.

I'd like to thank Pack Publishing for again giving me the opportunity
to review their book after Talend for Big Data, and I hope you can find
this book as inspiring as it has been for me reviewing it.

Kyrre Havik Eriksen is an independent and curious person, with a Master's

degree in Informatics from the University of Oslo, Norway. He works full time as
a Java developer, but in his spare time, he studies Android and game development
with Löve and Libgdx. He has also taught Processing and Arduino while he studied.
Adam Laskowitz received his Master's degree in Architecture and Master's degree
in Fine Arts from the University at Buffalo in 2012. Adam has designed and built a
number of interactive installations, notably Diep International Art Festival in 2011,
Dieppe, France; SIGGRAPH in 2012, Los Angeles, CA; and HERE Art Center in
2013, New York. Adam has worked as a designer, researcher, and prototyper at Intel
Labs and Intel New Devices Group. In October 2014, he joined Target Technology
Innovation Center as an experience design lead. He has been featured in a number of
articles and productions, including a BBC interview discussing citizen science and air
quality research.

Rufael Negash is an interaction designer and creative coder, based in Malmö,

Sweden.
 www.PacktPub.com

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 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: Setting Up Your Workspace 7
Hardware and software requirements 8
Installing Java Developer Kit 10
Checking the JDK version 10
Mac 10
Windows 10
Installing Java 11
Installing Android Studio 12
Mac 14
Windows 15
Setting up the Android Software Development Kit 15
Setting up your physical Android device for development 17
Enabling developer options 18
Enabling USB debugging 18
Entrusting the computer with the installed IDE using secure USB debugging
(devices with Android 4.4.2) 18
Hardware configuration 18
Learning to use the aREST library 20
Creating your first Android project 26
Setting up your first Hello Arduino project 27
Installing your app on your physical device 30
Summary 33
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Controlling an Arduino Board via Bluetooth 35

Hardware and software requirements 36
Configuring the hardware 37
Writing the Arduino sketch 38
How to create a simple Android app to connect to the BLE module 42
Modifying the Android layout file 47
Connecting the modified layout to the corresponding activity 50
How to go further 54
Summary 55
Chapter 3: Bluetooth Weather Station 57
Hardware and software requirements 57
Hardware configuration 59
Testing the sensors 61
Writing the Arduino sketch 64
Wireframing our Android application and modifying the layout files 67
Implementing Android layouts in the main activity 69
Enhancing the user interface 73
Creating and adding our very own app icon 73
Centering and enlarging the data output text 77
Modifying the buttons and adding some color to our text 78
How to go further 80
Summary 81
Chapter 4: Wi-Fi Smart Power Plug 83
Hardware and software requirements 83
Configuring the hardware 85
Testing the relay 89
Writing the Arduino sketch 90
Wireframing our Android application 97
Implementing our layouts into the code 98
Polishing the user interface and experience 105
Adding a new app icon 106
Centering and enlarging the data output text 109
Aligning and styling the buttons 109
Changing the application name within the action bar 111
How to go further 112
Summary 112

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Wi-Fi Remote Security Camera 113

Hardware and software requirements 113
Hardware configuration 116
Setting up video streaming 117
Implementing a fullscreen stream player on Android 119
How to go further 126
Summary 126
Chapter 6: Android Phone Sensor 127
Hardware and software requirements 127
Configuring the hardware 129
Testing the servo 130
Writing the Arduino sketch 132
Setting up the Android app project 136
Laying out the Android user interface and permissions 137
Setting up the app's internals 139
How to go further 146
Summary 146
Chapter 7: Voice-activated Arduino 147
Hardware and software requirements 147
Configuring the hardware 149
Writing the Arduino sketch 151
Setting up the Android app 154
Laying out the Android user interface and permissions 155
Coding the app's internals 156
How to go further 166
Summary 167
Chapter 8: Control an Arduino Board via NFC 169
Hardware and software requirements 169
Configuring the hardware 170
Testing the NFC shield 171
Writing the Arduino sketch 173
Setting up the Android app 175
Laying out the Android user interface and permissions 176
Coding the app's internals 178
How to go further 182
Summary 182

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Bluetooth Low Energy Mobile Robot 183

Hardware and software requirements 184
Configuring the hardware 185
Testing the robot 188
Writing the Arduino sketch 191
Setting up the Android app 192
Laying out the Android user interface and setting permissions 193
Coding the app's internals 196
Enhancing the user interface further 204
Adding a new app icon 205
Styling the user interface buttons 205
How to go further 207
Summary 208
Chapter 10: Pulse Rate Sensor 209
Hardware and software requirements 209
Configuring our hardware 211
Testing the sensor 212
Writing the Arduino sketch 214
Setting up the Android app 216
Laying out the Android user interface and setting permissions 216
Coding the app's internals 219
How to go further 227
Summary 228
Index 229

[ iv ]
 Preface
When directly comparing Arduino and Android, one can see that they are two
incredibly different platforms with different targets. Arduino is mostly focused on
connecting physical everyday objects to embedded microcontrollers. On the other
hand, Android intends to provide the necessary operating system and framework
to operate countless smartphones around the world.

This reality also reflects the contrasting realities of the authors, who come from very
different backgrounds and cultures; Stefan hails from the Island of Malta, and he
brings with him a medical background and passion for the intersection of technology
and medicine, whereas Marco originates from France and has an electrical
engineering background.

The power of combining the efforts of Arduino and Android platforms bring about
incredibly implemented practical projects that enhance daily life. Keeping this
motivation in mind is what brought two authors from contrasting backgrounds
together to work on this book. We believe in the intersection of technology and real
life and visualize a future where technology will keep on forming an integral part of
our day-to-day life.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Setting Up Your Workspace, covers the necessary steps that you will have
to take in order to build all the projects of the book. You will learn how to set up the
Android development environment. We will also build our first Arduino project.

Chapter 2, Controlling an Arduino Board via Bluetooth, teaches us how to link Arduino
and Android for the first time. We will build an Arduino system with a Bluetooth
Low Energy module, and control a simple LED from an Android application.
Preface

Chapter 3, Bluetooth Weather Station, teaches us how to build our first useful
application using Arduino and Android. We will build a weather measurement
station, and visualize the measurements via an Android application, which we
will build from scratch.

Chapter 4, Wi-Fi Smart Power Plug, teaches us how to build a DIY version of a popular
device: a wireless power switch. We will use an Android application to communicate
with the switch via Wi-Fi, control it, and measure the energy consumption of the
connected device.

Chapter 5, Wi-Fi Remote Security Camera, introduces a powerful Arduino board,

the Arduino Yún, to build a DIY wireless security camera. We will also build an
Android application to monitor this camera remotely from an Android phone.

Chapter 6, Android Phone Sensor, explains how to turn things around, and use the
sensors from our phone to control the Arduino board. Applying this, we will
use the gyroscope of the phone to control the angle of a servomotor.

Chapter 7, Voice-activated Arduino, teaches us how to use the powerful Android

speech API to control an Arduino board via Bluetooth.

Chapter 8, Control an Arduino Board via NFC, shows how to use the NFC chip present
in many Android phones to activate a relay connected to an Arduino board.

Chapter 9, Bluetooth Low Energy Mobile Robot, uses everything we learned so far in the
book to build a mobile robot based on the Arduino. The robot will be controlled via
Wi-Fi from an Android application.

Chapter 10, Pulse Rate Sensor, is dedicated to a medical application that measures
the heart rate. We will connect a heart rate sensor to Arduino and monitor the
measurements via Bluetooth Low Energy.

What you need for this book

You will need two kind of software for this book: the software you will need for
Arduino, and the software you will need for Android. For Arduino, here is what
you will need in all chapters:

• Arduino IDE (Version 1.5.7 is recommended)

You will also need several Arduino libraries depending on the chapter, but the links
to these libraries are given in the relevant chapters.

[2]
 Preface

On the Android side, you will need the following:

• Android Studio
• Android 4.3 or higher on your Android phone

Who this book is for

Arduino Android Blueprints is aimed for anyone who is knowledgeable in either the
Arduino or Android ecosystems and who would like to get started with building
exciting applications using both platforms.

For example, this book is for you if you are already using the Arduino platform
and you want to build mobile applications to control your projects remotely.

Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of styles of text that distinguish between
different kinds of information. Here are some examples of these styles, and an
explanation of their meaning.

Code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions,
pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows:
"Your Arduino folder is where all the sketches are stored, and you can define this
folder in the preferences of the Arduino IDE."

A block of code is set as follows:

android:textSize="200dp"
android:gravity="center"

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

/distance

New terms and important words are shown in bold. Words that you see on
the screen, in menus or dialog boxes for example, appear in the text like this:
"Depending on your device, this option might vary slightly, but as from
Android 4.2 and higher, the Developer options screen is hidden by default."

[3]
Preface

Warnings or important notes appear in a box like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

Reader feedback
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this book—what you liked or may have disliked. Reader feedback is important for
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default/files/downloads/0389OS_ColorImages.pdf.

[4]
 Preface

Errata
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questions@packtpub.com, and we will do our best to address the problem.

[5]
 Setting Up Your Workspace
The first chapter of this book will teach you the basics of the Arduino and Android
development so that you can be sure you have the basics required for the more
advanced tutorials you will find in the rest of this book.

On the Arduino side, we will build a very simple project with a relay module
(which is basically a switch that can be controlled with Arduino) and a temperature
and humidity sensor. We will also see the basics of the Arduino IDE and the basic
commands of the aREST library, which is a framework to easily control Arduino
boards. We will use this library in several chapters of this book to make it really easy
to control the Arduino board from an Android device. In this first chapter, we will
simply try out the commands of the aREST library by having the Arduino board
connected to your computer via a USB.

From the Android development point of view, we will work together to set up a
development environment and ensure that your computer and the Android device
are ready for development purposes. We will start off with a simple Android app
that displays the legendary text, Hello World.

Android Studio is an IntelliJ-based Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

fully supported by the Android development team, which will provide you with
the necessary tools and resources to make sure that you develop a functional and
aesthetic Android app.

Android Studio is in beta but the software is updated on a frequent and regular
basis by a dedicated team at Google, which makes it the natural choice to develop
our Android projects.
Setting Up Your Workspace

Hardware and software requirements

The first thing you will need is an Arduino Uno board. We will use this board
throughout this book to connect sensors, actuators, and wireless modules and make
them interact with Android. Then, we will need a relay module. A relay is basically
an electrical switch that we can command from Arduino, which can allow us to
control devices such as lamps. This project uses a 5V relay module from Polulu,
which properly integrates a relay on a board, along with all the required components
to control the relay from Arduino. The following is the image of the relay module
that was used in this chapter:

You will also need a DHT11 (or DHT22) sensor, along with a 4.7K resistor, for
temperature and humidity measurements. A resistor is basically a device to limit
the current flowing into an electrical device. Here, it is necessary to ensure the
correct functioning of the DHT sensor.

Finally, you will need a small breadboard and jumper wires to make the different
hardware connections.

[8]
 Chapter 1

The following is the list of all hardware parts you will need for this project,
along with links to find these parts on the Web:

• The Arduino Uno board (http://www.adafruit.com/product/50)

• The 5V relay module (http://www.pololu.com/product/2480)
• The DHT11 sensor and 4.7K Ohm resistor (https://www.adafruit.com/
product/386)
• The breadboard (https://www.adafruit.com/product/64)
• Jumper wires (https://www.adafruit.com/product/758)

On the software side, you will need the Arduino IDE that we will also use in the
rest of this book. You can get it at http://arduino.cc/en/Main/Software.

The installation process of the IDE is very simple; you simply have to open the
file and follow the onscreen instructions.

You will need the library for the DHT11 sensor, which can be found at
https://github.com/adafruit/DHT-sensor-library.

You will also need the aREST library found at https://github.com/

marcoschwartz/aREST.

To install a given library, simply extract the folder in your Arduino/libraries

folder (or create this folder if it doesn't exist yet). Your Arduino folder is where
all the sketches are stored, and you can define this folder in the preferences of
the Arduino IDE.

Preparing for Android development requires that we get ready to design and
develop the app, and the following checklist will guide you with having the
basics ready for any project:

• Java Developer Kit Version 6 (or higher)

• Android Studio
• Android Software Development Kit
• Android Device with Bluetooth SMART technology

We will also work together to make sure that you have everything properly set up.

[9]
Setting Up Your Workspace

Installing Java Developer Kit

Android Studio will not work without Java Developer Kit (JDK); therefore,
it's necessary to know what Java version you have installed (in this particular
case, the Java Runtime Environment will not be enough).

Checking the JDK version

It is mandatory that you check the version of your JDK for compatibility purposes.

Mac
Open Terminal and type the following command:
java –version

This is what will be shown on the screen:

Windows
Open Command Prompt and type the following command:
java -version

[ 10 ]
 Chapter 1

This is what will be shown on the screen:

Installing Java
If you do not have Java installed, or if your version is below 6.0, install the Java JDK
by clicking on the following customized and shortened link and choosing the version
that applies for you:

http://j.mp/javadevkit-download

The following window will open:

[ 11 ]
Setting Up Your Workspace

The main recommendation for these projects is that you install a version of
JDK 6.0 or higher.

Select the JDK for your operating system. On an Intel-based Mac, you can follow
this useful table to see whether your Mac is 32-bit or 64-bit:

Processor Name 32- or 64-bit processor

Intel Core Solo 32 bit
Intel Core Duo 32 bit
Intel Core 2 Duo 64 bit
Intel Quad-Core Xeon 64 bit
Dual-Core Intel Xeon 64 bit
Quad-Core Intel Xeon 64 bit
Core i3 64 bit
Core i5 64 bit
Core i7 64 bit

You can check for Processor Name by clicking on the Apple logo in the top-left
corner of your screen followed by About my Mac.

In the case of Windows, to see whether your computer is running a 32-bit or 64-bit
version of Windows, you need to do the following:

1. Click on the Start button.

2. Right-click on My Computer, and then click on Properties.
If x64 edition is listed under system, your processor is capable
of running 64-bit-enabled applications.

Installing Android Studio

Let's see how we install Android Studio on Mac and Windows:

1. Go to the Android Developers site at http://developer.android.com.

The following screen will appear:

[ 12 ]
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Fig. 144. Lepidodendron Veltheimianum Sternb.
A. Leaf-cushion and leaf-scar seen in surface-view at a; on the rest
of the specimen a slightly lower surface is exposed. (After Stur.)
B. Diagrammatic longitudinal section to explain the differences
between its two surfaces a and b shown in fig. A.
The shaded portion c represents the rock matrix, the surfaces
ab, ed, mark the outer and inner edge of the outer portion of the
bark of the Lepidodendron stem.
lt, leaf-trace; p, p′, parichnos.
 Fig. 145.
A. Diagrammatic surface-view and longitudinal section of a
Lepidodendron leaf-cushion.
B. Aerenchyma below the leaf-scar. (After F. E. Weiss.)

The parichnos scars are shown on the leaf-scar and cushion in fig.
146, C. In the lower leaf-cushion shown in fig. 146, E, the infra-foliar
parichnos scars, p, are clearly seen, but the preservation of the leaf-
scar is not sufficiently good to show them on that part of the fossil. In
the upper cushion (fig. 146, E) the position of the parichnos arms is
shown on the leaf-scar, but the infra-foliar parichnos scars are
hidden by two small spiral shells. The genus Spirorbis, to which
these shells are referred, appears to have persisted from the Silurian
epoch to the present day. The comparatively frequent occurrence of
Spirorbis shells on the leaves and other parts of Palaeozoic plants,
has recently been dealt with in a paper by Barrois[245] who discusses
in detail the habitats of these small animals from the point of view of
the conditions under which the plants were preserved. In a note by
Malaquin appended to Barrois’ paper the belief is expressed that
Spirorbis lived on pieces of Palaeozoic plants which lay under water.
The fact that with one exception all the Spirorbis shells on the
specimen of Lepidodendron, of which two leaf-cushions are shown in
fig. 146, E, occur on the large parichnos scars on the cheeks of the
cushions, suggests the possibility that the escape of gases from the
parichnos tissue may have rendered the position attractive to the
Spirorbis. It can hardly be accidental that the shells occur on the
parichnos strands. This fact recalls the view held by Binney[246] and
accepted with favour by Darwin[247] that Lepidodendron and other
coal-forest trees may have lived with the lower parts of the stems in
sea water.
Above the leaf-scar is a fairly deep triangular or crescentic pit (fig.
146, C, l) known as the ligular pit from the occurrence on younger
shoots of a delicate organ like the ligule of Isoetes (fig. 132)
embedded in a depression in the upper part of the leaf-cushion. The
ligule was first figured in Lepidodendron by Solms-Laubach[248] and
described in English material by Williamson under the name of the
adenoid organ[249].
In some Lepidodendron stems a second triangular depression
may occur above the ligular pit, the meaning of which is not clear:
this has been called the triangulum by Potonié[250]. Stur[251] suggested
that it may represent the position occupied by a sporangium in
Lepidodendron cones.
It is important to remember that as a branch increases in girth the
leaf-cushions are capable of only a certain amount of growth: when
the limit is reached they are stretched farther apart and thus the
narrow groove which separates them is converted in older stems into
a comparatively broad and flat channel, thus altering the surface
characters.
 Fig. 146. Lepidophloios and Lepidodendron leaf-cushions.
A, B, D, F, G, H, I. Lepidophloios. (Fig. A should be reversed.)
C, E. Lepidodendron aculeatum.
A, B. From a specimen in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge (leaf-
cushion 3 cm. broad).
C. From a specimen in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge (leaf-cushion 4
cm. long).
D. From a section in the Cambridge Botany School Collection.
E. From a specimen in the Bunbury Collection, Cambridge Botany
School, showing Spirorbis shells (leaf-cushion 2 cm. long).
F. From a section in the Williamson Collection, British Museum No. 1,
973.
G, H, I. From sections in the Cambridge Botany School Collection.

Another feature worthy of notice in reference to the leaf-cushions

of Lepidodendron is the occurrence in rare instances of alternate
zones of larger and smaller cushions. This variation in the size of the
leaf-cushions is by no means uncommon in the closely allied genus
Sigillaria; in Lepidodendron it has been described by Potonié[252] in L.
volkmannianum and more recently by Mr Leslie and myself[253] in a
South African species L. vereenigense.
Owing to the natural exfoliation of the superficial layers of the
outer bark at a certain stage in the growth of the plant, or in some
instances no doubt as the result of post-mortem decay, which
destroys the delicate cells of the meristematic zone in the outer
cortex, isolated leaf-cushions and strips of the external surface are
occasionally met with as carbonised impressions.
The appearance presented by a Lepidodendron stem which has
been deprived of its superficial tissues may be dealt with more
intelligibly after we have become familiar with the anatomical
characters.

iii. Lepidophloios.
Before proceeding further with the genus Lepidodendron a short
account may be intercalated of the external features of a
lepidodendroid type of stem which it is customary to describe under
a distinct generic title Lepidophloios. This name is convenient for
diagnostic purposes though it seems clear that apart from the form of
the leaf-cushion (fig. 146, A) we are at present unable to recognise
any well-defined differences between the two forms Lepidodendron
and Lepidophloios. For general purposes the name Lepidodendron
will be used as including plants possessing leaf-cushions of the type
already described as well as those with the Lepidophloios form of
cushion.
The generic name Lepidophloios was first used by Sternberg[254]
for a Carboniferous species which he had previously described as
Lepidodendron laricinum. In 1845 Corda[255] instituted the name
Lomatophloios for specimens possessing the same external
characters as those for which Sternberg had chosen the name
Lepidophloios. The leaf-cushions of Lepidophloios differ from those
of the true Lepidodendron in their relatively greater lateral extension
(cf. fig. 146, A and C), in their imbricate arrangement and in bearing
the leaf, or leaf-scar, at the summit. In some species referred to
Lepidophloios the cushions are however vertically elongated and in
this respect similar to those of Lepidodendron: an example of this
type is afforded by Lepidophloios Dessorti a French species
described by Zeiller[256]. In younger branches the cushions may be
directed upwards having the leaf-scar at the top; but in the majority
of specimens the cushions are deflexed as in figs. 146, D; 160, A.
The shoot of Lycopodium dichotomum shown in fig. 121, B, with the
leaves in the reversed position bears a close resemblance to a
branch of Lepidophloios.
The photograph of Lepidophloios scoticus Kidst.[257] reproduced in
fig. 160, A, illustrates the dichotomous branching of the stem and the
form of the cushions with the leaf-scars pointing downwards. In the
fertile branch of the same species shown in fig. 160, B, the leaf-scars
face upwards.
In most species the cushions are simply convex without a median
keel, but in some cases a median ridge divides the cushion into two
cheeks as in the genus Lepidodendron. The leaf-scar bears three
small scars, the larger median scar marking the position of the leaf-
trace, while the lateral scars are formed by the two arms of the
parichnos: in some examples of deflexed cushions, though not in all,
a ligular pit occurs on the cushion a short distance above the leaf-
scar.
The drawing reproduced in fig. 146, A, showing the leaf-scar on
the upper edge of the cushion should have been reversed with the
leaf-scars pointing downwards. This figure represents part of the
surface of a specimen consisting of the outer cortex of a stem with
leaf-cushions 3 cm. broad. The thickness of this specimen is 4 cm.: a
section through the line ab is represented in fig. 146, D (reproduced
in the correct position, with the leaf-scars, sc, pointing downwards):
internal to the cushions is a band of secondary cortex (the shaded
strip on the outer edge of the section) which was formed on the
outside of the phellogen. The phellogen is a cylinder of actively
dividing cells in the outer part of the cortex of the stem, often spoken
of as the cork-cambium or cortical meristem, which produces a
considerable amount of secondary cortical tissue on its inner face
and a much smaller amount towards the stem surface. This delicate
cylinder frequently forms a natural line of separation between the
outer shell of bark and the rest of the stem. In the specimen before
us, the thin-walled cells of the phellogen were ruptured before
petrification and the outer shell of bark was thus separated as a
hollow cylinder from the rest of the stem: this cylinder was then
flattened, the two inner surfaces coming into contact. Fig. 146, D,
represents a section of one half of the thickness of the flattened
shell.
This separation of the outer cortex, and its preservation apart from
the rest of the stem, is of frequent occurrence in fossil
lycopodiaceous stems. The flattened outer cortical shell of a
Lepidophloios, specifically identical with that shown in fig. 146, A and
D, was erroneously described by Dr C. E. Weiss in 1881 as a large
lepidodendroid cone[258].
Fig. 146, B, affords a view of the inner face of the specimen of
which the outer surface is seen in fig. 146, A: the surface shown in
the lower part of the drawing, on which the boundaries of the
cushions are represented by a reticulum, corresponds to the inner
edge of the strip of secondary cortical tissue represented by the
vertically shaded band in fig. 146, D.
The shaded surface in fig. 146, B, represents a slightly deeper
level in the stem which corresponds to the outer edge of the
vertically shaded band of fig. 146, D: the narrow tapered ridges (fig.
146, B) represent the leaf-traces passing through the secondary
cortex, and the fine vertical shading indicates the elongated
elements of which this strip of secondary cortex is composed.
In the longitudinal section diagrammatically reproduced in fig. 146,
D, cut along the line ab of fig. 146, A, the parenchymatous tissue of
the stout cushions has been partially destroyed, as at a; at s is seen
the section of a Stigmarian rootlet which has found its way into the
interior of a cushion. Each leaf-trace is accompanied by a parichnos
strand as in the true Lepidodendron; at the base of the leaf-cushion
the parichnos branches into two arms which diverge slightly right and
left of the leaf-trace, finally entering the base of the leaf lamina as
two lateral strands (fig. 147, p). At one point in fig. 146, D the section
has shaved a leaf-trace represented by a black patch resting on the
parichnos just above the line ef, but it passes through one of the
parichnos arms p′ which debouches on to the leaf-scar sc at p. Had
the section been cut along the line cd of fig. 146, A the leaf-trace
would have been seen in a position similar to that occupied by the
parichnos p′ in fig. 146, D.
 Fig. 147. Lepidophloios leaf-cushion in tangential section. (From a
section in the Williamson Collection, British Museum, No. 1973.)
Fig. 147, A, affords a good example of a tangential section through
a Lepidophloios leaf-cushion, 1 cm. broad, like that represented in
fig. 146, A, showing the vascular bundle lt, the two parichnos
strands, p, composed of large thin-walled cells (cf. Isoetes, fig. 133,
H, I), and the ligular pit near the upper edge of the section enclosing
the shrunken remains of the ligule (fig. 147, B, l).
LEPIDODENDRON

Fig. 147, B, shows the form of the tangentially elongated leaf-

cushions of Lepidophloios and their spiral disposition.
 Fig. 146, F, represents a section similar to that shown in figs. 147,
A and B, but in this case the leaf-trace, lt, and the parichnos strands,
p, lie in a cavity formed by the destruction of some of the leaf-
cushion tissue. It is worthy of notice that the parichnos cells have
resisted decay more successfully than the adjacent tissue of the
cushion.
The diagrammatic sketches reproduced in fig. 146, H and I, were
made from a transverse section similar to one originally figured by
Williamson[259]: fig. 146, H, corresponding in position to the line gh in
fig. 146, A, passes through the ligular pit, l, and cuts across the
parichnos in the act of branching; the leaf-trace passes outwards
beyond the Y-shaped parichnos strand. In the other section, fig. 146,
I, the parichnos is shown in a horizontal plane and the leaf-trace, lt,
appears in oblique transverse section. In both sections and in fig.
146, G the shaded band at the base represents the secondary
cortical tissue external to the phellogen.
The transverse section represented in fig. 146, G, shows in the
left-hand cushion, a, the exit of the two parichnos arms and the leaf-
trace between them: it illustrates also the various forms assumed by
lepidodendroid leaf-cushions when cut across at different levels.

iv. The Anatomy of Lepidodendron vasculare

Binney[260].
Figs. 148–155, 168, A.
In the earlier literature dealing with the anatomy of Lepidodendron
and Sigillaria the presence or absence of secondary vascular tissue
was made the criterion of generic distinction and the distinguishing
feature between the classes Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms,
Lepidodendron being relegated to the former class because it was
supposed to have no power of forming secondary wood, while
Sigillaria, characterised by a considerable development of such
tissue, was classed by Brongniart and afterwards by Renault as a
Gymnosperm. Binney[261] in 1865 recognised that the two types of
stem pass into one another, but it was Williamson[262] who provided
complete demonstration of the fallacy of the Brongniartian view.
These two undoubted Pteridophytes agree very closely in
anatomical structure and both are now recognised as arborescent
genera of Lycopodiaceous plants. In a paper published by Lomax
and Weiss in 1905[263] a specimen is described from the Coal-
Measures of Huddersfield, in which a decorticated stem with the
anatomical characters of Binney’s Sigillaria vascularis gives off a
branch having the anatomical structure which it has been customary
to associate with the species Lepidodendron selaginoides, so-called
by Sternberg and founded by him on impressions showing well-
preserved external characters.
In 1862 Binney[264] described petrified specimens of vegetative
shoots from the Lower Coal-Measures of Lancashire under the
names Sigillaria vascularis and Lepidodendron vasculare. These
were afterwards recognised as different states of the same species.
A few years after the publication of Binney’s paper Carruthers[265]
identified Binney’s species Lepidodendron vasculare with
Sternberg’s L. selaginoides. The evidence on which this identification
rests has not been stated, but many writers have retained this
specific designation for the well-defined type of anatomical structure
first described by Binney as L. vasculare. The use of the specific
name selaginoides is, however, open to objection. The species
Lepidodendron selaginoides, as pointed out by Kidston[266], is
probably identical with the plant which Brongniart had named L.
Sternbergii before the institution of Sternberg’s species, and we are
not in possession of convincing evidence as to the connection of L.
Sternbergii (= L. selaginoides) with specimens possessing the
anatomy of Binney’s type. Binney’s designation is therefore retained
for the anatomical type described in the following pages[267].
The most detailed account hitherto published of the anatomy of
Lepidodendron vasculare is that by the late M. Hovelacque[268],
based on material from the Lower Coal-Measures of England.
 Fig. 148. Lepidodendron vasculare Binney.
A. Transverse section. (Based on a section 2·5 cm. in diameter, in
the Cambridge Botany School Collection.)
B. Longitudinal section. (Drawn from a section in Dr Kidston’s
Collection.)

The small shoot, represented somewhat diagrammatically in fig.

148, A, illustrates the anatomical features of a typical example of the
species: the shoot has a diameter of 2·5 cm. and its central cylinder
(x-sc) is 2·5 mm. in width.
 Noticeable features are (i) the small size of the central cylinder (or
stele) in proportion to the diameter of the branch, (ii) the production
at a comparatively early stage of growth of a zone of secondary
wood, x2, which gradually assumes the form of a complete cylinder
of unequal breadth, surrounding the primary xylem, x, (iii) the
formation of a secondary cortical tissue by a meristematic cylinder
(phellogen, pl) situated close to the leaf-cushion region of the outer
cortex. On the outer edge the stele consists of narrow tracheae
some of which show in longitudinal section the spiral form of
thickening characteristic of most protoxylem elements: towards the
centre of the stele the diameter of the tracheae gradually increases
and parenchymatous cells become associated with the elongated
scalariform elements. In the central region the stele is composed of
parenchymatous tissue arranged in vertical series of short cells,
interspersed with short tracheae distinguished by the greater
thickness of their walls and by their scalariform and reticulate
thickening bands. Some of these short tracheae are shown in
vertical section in fig. 149, B: the fine and broken lines connecting
adjacent thickening bands probably represent the remains of the
original wall. These delicate bands, which have been figured in
various species of lepidodendroid plants[269], are worthy of notice in
connexion with the recent work of Mr Gwynne-Vaughan[270] who has
shown that in many recent ferns the scalariform bands in the xylem
elements are not connected by a thin pit-closing membrane, but are
separated from one another by open spaces. In the Lepidodendron
tracheae we seem to have a stage in which the intervening
membrane is in process of absorption. It is, however, possible that
the threads may be the result of contraction and splitting of the
membrane during drying or decay.
 Fig. 149. Lepidodendron vasculare. a, immature tracheae; m, meristem;
mr, medullary ray; x, xylem.
A. Longitudinal section through the edge of the secondary wood.
B. Short tracheae in the centre of the stele. (From a specimen from
the Halifax Hard bed in Dr Kidston’s Collection.)

The stele of Lepidodendron vasculare, before the addition of any

secondary xylem, may be described as a protostele, a term originally
proposed by Professor Jeffrey[271], in which the central part of the
conducting strand of xylem elements has been converted into rows
of parenchyma and short tracheids, the latter being better adapted to
storage than to conduction. It is probable that this type of stelar
anatomy, which distinguishes L. vasculare from other species,
represents a comparatively primitive arrangement forming a
transition between the stele of L. esnostense, which consists of a
solid rod of tracheids, and the stele of L. Harcourtii (fig. 179, A) and
other species in which the xylem forms a cylinder enclosing a large
parenchymatous pith.
Parenchymatous cells occur in contact with the outer edge of the
xylem-cylinder some of which are distinguished by an irregular
reticulate pitting. The tangential section represented in fig. 148, B,
illustrates the appearance of a shoot of L. vasculare in which no
secondary xylem is present: the central strand of tissue consists of
the parenchyma abutting on the xylem with several leaf-traces (lt)
passing upwards in an almost vertical course from the outer edge of
the stele.
The secondary xylem (fig. 148, A, x2) consists of radially arranged
scalariform tracheae with associated rows of parenchymatous cells
which form medullary rays (fig. 149, mr). Leaf-traces pass through
the medullary rays in the secondary xylem cylinder in a direction at
right angles to the primary xylem stele from which they are given off,
but at the outer edge of the secondary xylem they bend suddenly
upwards and for a time follow a steep and almost vertical course.
In well-preserved longitudinal sections the outermost secondary
xylem tracheae are seen to be succeeded by a few narrow and
vertically elongated elements (fig. 149, A, a), which represent young
unlignified tracheae: these are followed by shorter parenchymatous
cells (m) forming part of a meristematic zone from which the
secondary xylem receives additions.
Returning to fig. 148, A; the zone of secondary wood, x2,
composed of scalariform tracheids and medullary rays, is succeeded
by a few layers of parenchymatous cells and beyond this is a
broader zone, sc, to which the term secretory zone has been
applied[272]; this is made up of small parenchymatous cells varying in
size and of larger spaces which appear to have been formed by the
disorganisation of thin-walled elements. The whole zone presents a
characteristic appearance due to the association of small cells, large
clear spaces, and a certain amount of dark-coloured material
suggestive of tissue disorganisation and secreted products. The
anatomical characters of the secretory zone are shown in the
photograph, fig. 168, A, sc. Several leaf-traces are seen in
transverse section in the secretory zone (black dots in fig. 148, A, sc;
fig. 154, C, lt): each trace consists of a strand of narrow tracheae
accompanied by a few encircling layers of small parenchymatous
cells. As a trace continues its steeply ascending course through the
secretory zone, it becomes associated with a strand of that tissue
and assumes the form of a collateral vascular bundle, the outer part
of which does not consist of typical phloem but of shorter elements
derived from the secretory zone. Beyond the secretory zone we find
a more homogeneous tissue composed of parenchymatous
elements slightly extended tangentially (figs. 148, A, c1; fig. 168, A,
c); this is spoken of as the inner cortical region. In the great majority
of sections of L. vasculare as of other species of the genus, the
broader middle cortex (fig. 148, c2) is occupied by mineral matter,
introduced subsequent to decay of the tissue; or it is represented by
patches of delicate tissue composed of loosely arranged
parenchymatous cells varying considerably in size and shape, some
being small, oval or polygonal elements while others have the form
of sinuous hypha-like tubes.
In this middle cortical region may be seen leaf-traces passing
outwards in an almost horizontal course (fig. 148, A, lt): after leaving
the inner cortex the leaf-traces bend somewhat abruptly outwards to
follow a more direct path through the middle and outer cortex. The
ring of tissue, s, seen in the middle cortex of fig. 148, A, belongs to a
Stigmarian rootlet.
The outer cortex (fig. 148, A and B, c3) consists of homogeneous
parenchyma which is stronger and more resistant to decay than the
looser middle cortex. The leaf-traces, as shown in fig. 148, B, pass
through this region in a rather steeply ascending direction: each is
seen to be enclosed by a space originally occupied by a strand of
middle cortical tissue which accompanies lepidodendroid leaf-traces
on their under side and has already been described as the
parichnos, (pp. 97, 100–103; figs. 146, 147).
The surface of the stem shown in section in fig. 148, A, is
composed of broad leaf-cushions. A single leaf-trace with its
parichnos passes into each cushion, but in the neighbourhood of the
base of a cushion the parichnos bifurcates (cf. fig. 146, H, I) and the
arms diverge slightly to the right and left finally passing beyond the
cushion into the lamina of the leaf, their position being shown, as
already explained, by the two small lateral scars on the leaf-scar
area.
The diagrammatic sketch of a radial longitudinal section through a
leaf-cushion represented in fig. 150 illustrates the relation of the leaf-
trace to the leaf-cushion. The trace consists of xylem, x, above and a
strand of the secretory zone, st, below; the parichnos tissue was
originally present on the under side of the leaf-trace at a. The
external surface, bc, marks the limit of the leaf-scar through the
middle of which passes the vascular strand lt.
The lower gap a has been formed by the tearing of thin-walled
cells of the phellogen, the meristematic tissue from which a
considerable amount of secondary cortical tissue or phelloderm has
been produced at pd. On the outside of the cushion, c, the cells are
somewhat crushed and distinguished by their darker colour from the
bulk of the parenchymatous tissue d.
This section also illustrates another characteristic feature of
Lepidodendron, namely the presence of a ligule and a ligular pit: the
former is represented by a carbonised patch of tissue and the latter
extends from the surface of the cushion at b, just above the leaf-
scar, almost to the level of the leaf-trace, lt. A comparison of this
section with figs. 146 and 147 will make clear the relation of the
several parts of the cushion and leaf-scar.
The gaps gg, seen in fig. 148, A and B, mark the position of the
delicate meristematic zone or phellogen which arises close to the
bases of the leaf-cushions; the phellogen has already produced a
few rows of radially disposed elements, represented by short radial
lines in the drawing, which constitute secondary cortical tissue.
 Fig. 150. Lepidodendron vasculare. Leaf-cushions in longitudinal section.
(From a specimen in Dr Kidston’s Collection.)
In older shoots the amount of the secondary cortical tissue
developed on the inner side of the phellogen is considerable (cf. figs.
152, 153).
The structure of the cortex of a shoot in which secondary growth,
both in the stele and in the outer cortex, has progressed further than
in the specimen shown in fig. 148 is represented in fig. 151.
 Fig. 151. Lepidodendron vasculare. An older stem than that shown in fig.
148. (From a section in the Manchester Museum. No. 351.)
The section (fig. 151, A) measures 7 × 3·8 cm. in diameter; the
primary xylem is surrounded by a fairly broad cylinder of secondary
wood (fig. 151, E, x and x2). The almost smooth surface of the
primary wood (fig. 151, E, x) is succeeded by the secondary xylem,
x2, characterised at its inner edge by the tapered ends of the radial
rows of scalariform tracheids between which occur several delicate
parenchymatous cells (fig. 151, E, a). The occurrence of such
isodiametric elements, often exhibiting a delicate spiral thickening
band, is a characteristic feature of the boundary between primary
and secondary wood in lepidodendroid stems. The secondary wood
is penetrated by numerous medullary rays and in some of them are
seen strands of narrow spirally thickened tracheae—the leaf-traces
—which are in organic continuity with the exarch protoxylem of the
primary wood. The leaf-traces are oval and mesarch. The space, c2,
(fig. 151, A) originally occupied by the delicate middle cortex, is
succeeded by a shell of outer cortex composed chiefly of secondary
tissue (phelloderm, pd) passing towards the inner boundary of this
region into the primary outer cortex g (fig. 151, A and C). The radially
disposed elements which make up the bulk of the phelloderm are
associated with concentric rows of secretory strands, represented by
tangentially arranged dots in fig. 151, A: on the outer edge of the
phelloderm a few patches of primary cortex are still preserved, as at
c, fig. A. One of these is shown on a larger scale in fig. B; at m the
phelloderm is interrupted by a gap beyond which the cells have
thinner walls and show signs of recent division; this is probably the
position of the phellogen. The tissue b, fig. 151, B, consists of
secondary cortex succeeded beyond d by the parenchymatous
tissue of the leaf-cushion, in which the remains of a ligule, l, are seen
in the ligular pit. This section corresponds in position to a line drawn
across fig. 150 at the level of b. In this specimen we have two kinds
of secondary cortical tissue: that formed external to the phellogen,
from m to d in fig. 151, B, is less in amount than that produced
internal to the phellogen. We cannot make any satisfactory
statement as to the nature of this secondary tissue, whether or not
any of it agreed in composition with the cork which is usually formed
external to the phellogen in recent plants. As the stem of a
Lepidodendron grew in girth the leaf-cushions became separated by
intervening depressions composed of the secondary cortex formed
external to the phellogen, but at a later stage the cushions were
thrown off, leaving the outer edge of the phelloderm as the
superficial tissue. This exposed tissue became fissured as growth
and consequent stretching continued, producing the appearance
seen on the surface of the still older stem represented in fig. 153.
The inner edge of the phelloderm seen at e in fig. 151, C, passes
suddenly into the inner primary region of the outer cortex (fig. 151, A
and C, g) which comprises two types of parenchymatous tissue,
patches of isodiametric cells, g, g, alternating with radially arranged
areas consisting of tangentially elongated elements (fig. C, f, f; fig. D)
which extend as wedges into the phelloderm.
The longitudinal section represented in fig. 152, B, shows an equal
bifurcation of a stem in which no secondary xylem is present; in the
lower part of the section the xylem and the outgoing leaf-traces are
seen in radial section and at the upper end of each arm the leaf-
traces alone, lt, are exposed, as in fig. 148, B. It is interesting to