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 SQL in a Nutshell
A Desktop Quick Reference

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Kevin Kline, Regina O. Obe, and Leo S. Hsu

SQL in a Nutshell
by Kevin Kline , Regina O. Obe , and Leo S. Hsu
Copyright © 2021 O’Reilly Media. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
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978-1-492-08879-0
[FILL IN]
Chapter 1. SQL History and
Implementations

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS

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In the early 1970s, the seminal work of IBM research fellow Dr. E. F.
Codd led to the development of a relational data model product
called SEQUEL, or Structured English Query Language . SEQUEL
ultimately became SQL, or Structured Query Language .
IBM, along with other relational database vendors, wanted a
standardized method for accessing and manipulating data in a
relational database. Although IBM was the first to develop relational
database theory, Oracle was first to market the technology. Over
time, SQL proved popular enough in the marketplace to attract the
attention of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in
cooperation with the International Standards Organization (ISO),
which released standards for SQL in 1986, 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003,
2006, 2011, and 2016.
Since 1986, various competing languages have allowed developers
to access and manipulate relational data. However, few were as easy
to learn or as universally accepted as SQL. Programmers and
administrators now have the benefit of being able to learn a single
language that, with minor adjustments, is applicable to a wide
variety of database platforms, applications, and products.
SQL in a Nutshell , Fourth Edition, provides the syntax for five
common implementations of SQL:
The ANSI/ISO SQL standard

MySQL version 8 and MariaDB 10.5

Oracle Database 19c

PostgreSQL version 13

Microsoft’s SQL Server 2019

The Relational Model and ANSI SQL
Relational database management systems (RDBMSs) such as those
covered in this book are the primary engines of information systems
worldwide, and particularly of web applications and distributed
client/server computing systems. They enable a multitude of users
to quickly and simultaneously access, create, edit, and manipulate
data without impacting other users. They also allow developers to
write useful applications to access their resources and provide
administrators with the capabilities they need to maintain, secure,
and optimize organizational data resources.
An RDBMS is defined as a system whose users view data as a
collection of tables related to each other through common data
values. Data is stored in tables , which are composed of rows and
columns . Tables of independent data can be linked (or related ) to
one another if they each have unique, identifying columns of data
(called keys ) that represent data values held in common. E. F. Codd
first described relational database theory in his landmark paper “A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks,” published in
the Communications of the ACM (Association for Computing
Machinery) in June, 1970. Under Codd’s new relational data model,
data was structured (into tables of rows and columns); manageable
using operations such as selections, projections, and joins; and
consistent as the result of integrity rules such as keys and referential
integrity. Codd also articulated rules that governed how a relational
database should be designed. The process for applying these rules is
now known as normalization .
Codd’s Rules for Relational Database Systems
Codd applied rigorous mathematical theories (primarily set theory)
to the management of data, and he compiled a list of criteria a
database must meet to be considered relational. At its core, the
relational database concept centers around storing data in tables.
This concept is now so common as to seem trivial; however, not long
ago the goal of designing a system capable of sustaining the
relational model was considered a long shot with limited usefulness.
Following are Codd’s Twelve Principles of Relational Databases :
1. Information is represented logically in tables.

2. Data must be logically accessible by table, primary key, and

column.

3. Null values must be uniformly treated as “missing information,”

not as empty strings, blanks, or zeros.

4. Metadata (data about the database) must be stored in the

database just as regular data is.

5. A single language must be able to define data, views, integrity

constraints, authorization, transactions, and data manipulation.

6. Views must show the updates of their base tables and vice
versa.

7. A single operation must be available to do each of the following

operations: retrieve data, insert data, update data, or delete
data.

8. Batch and end-user operations are logically separate from

physical storage and access methods.
 9. Batch and end-user operations can change the database
schema without having to recreate it or the applications built
upon it.

10. Integrity constraints must be available and stored in the

metadata, not in an application program.

11. The data manipulation language of the relational system should

not care where or how the physical data is distributed and
should not require alteration if the physical data is centralized
or distributed.

12. Any row processing done in the system must obey the same
integrity rules and constraints that set-processing operations
do.
These principles continue to be the litmus test used to validate the
“relational” characteristics of a database platform; a database that
does not meet all of these rules is not fully relational. While these
rules do not apply to applications development, they do determine
whether the database engine itself can be considered truly
“relational.” Currently, most commercial RDBMS products pass Codd’s
test. All platforms discussed in the reference material of SQL in a
Nutshell , Fourth Edition satisfy these requirements, while the most
prominent NoSQL data platforms are discovered in Chapter 9.
Understanding Codd’s principles assists developers in the proper
development and design of relational databases (RDBs). The
following sections detail how some of these requirements are met
within SQL using RDBs.

Data structures (rules 1, 2, and 8)

Codd’s rules 1 and 2 state that “information is represented logically
in tables” and that “data must be logically accessible by table,
primary key, and column.” So, the process of defining a table for a
relational database does not require that programs instruct the
database how to interact with the underlying physical data
structures. Furthermore, SQL logically isolates the processes of
accessing data and physically maintaining that data, as required by
rule 8: “batch and end-user operations are logically separate from
physical storage and access methods.”
In the relational model, data is shown logically as a two-dimensional
table that describes a single entity (for example, business expenses).
Academics refer to tables as entities and to columns as attributes .
Tables are composed of rows , or records (academics call them
tuples ), and columns (called attributes , since each column of a
table describes a specific attribute of the entity). The intersection of
a record and a column provides a single value . However, it is quite
common to hear this referred to as a field , from spreadsheet
parlance. The column or columns whose values uniquely identify
each record can act as a primary key . These days this
representation seems elementary, but it was actually quite innovative
when it was first proposed.
The SQL standard defines a whole data structure hierarchy beyond
simple tables, though tables are the core data structure. Relational
design handles data on a table-by-table basis, not on a record-by-
record basis. This table-centric orientation is the heart of set
programming. Consequently, almost all SQL commands operate
much more efficiently against sets of data within or across tables
than against individual records. Said another way, effective SQL
programming requires that you think in terms of sets of data, rather
than of individual rows.
Figure 1-1 is a description of SQL’s terminology used to describe the
hierarchical data structures used by a relational database: clusters
contain sets of catalogs ; catalogs contain sets of s chemas ;
schemas contain sets of objects , such as tables and views ; and
tables are composed of sets of columns and records .
 Figure 1-1. SQL3 dataset hierarchy

For example, in a Business_Expense table, a column called

Expense_Date might show when an expense was incurred. Each
record in the table describes a specific entity; in this case, everything
that makes up a business expense (when it happened, how much it
cost, who incurred the expense, what it was for, and so on).
Each attribute of an expense—in other words, each column—is
supposed to be atomic ; that is, each column is supposed to contain
one, and only one, value. If a table is constructed in which the
intersection of a row and column can contain more than one distinct
value, one of SQL’s primary design guidelines has been violated.
Some of the database platforms discussed in this book do allow you
to place more than one value into a column, via the VARRAY or
TABLE data types or, more common in the last several years, XML or
J SON data types.
Rules of behavior are specified for column values. Foremost is that
column values must share a common domain , better known as a
data type . For example, if the Expense_Date field is defined as
having a DATE data type, the value ELMER should not be placed into
that field because it is a string, not a date, and the Expense_Date
field can contain only dates. In addition, the SQL standard allows
further control of column values through the application of
constraints (discussed in detail in Chapter 2) and assertions . A SQL
constraint might, for instance, limit Expense_Date to expenses less
than a year old. Additionally, data access for all individuals and
computer processes is controlled at the schema level by an
AuthorizationID or user . Permissions to access or modify specific
sets of data may be granted or restricted on a per-user basis.
SQL databases also employ character sets and collations . Character
sets are the “symbols” or “alphabets” used by the “language” of the
data. For example, the American English character set does not
contain the special character for ñ in the Spanish character set.
Collations are sets of sorting rules that operate on a character set. A
collation defines how a given data manipulation operation sorts data.
For example, an American English character set might be sorted
either by character-order, case-insensitive , or by character-order,
case-sensitive .

NOTE
The ANSI/ISO standard does not say how data should be sorted, only
that platforms must provide common collations found in a given
language.

It is important to know what collation you are using when writing

SQL code against a database platform, as it can have a direct impact
on how queries behave, and particularly on the behavior of the
WHERE and ORDER BY clauses of SELECT statements. For example,
a query that sorts data using a binary collation will return data in a
very different order than one that sorts data using, say, an American
English collation. This is also very important when migrating SQL
code between database platforms since their default behavior may
vary widely. For example, Oracle is normally case-sensitive, while
Microsoft SQL Server is not case sensitive. So moving an unmodified
query from Oracle to SQL Server might produce a wildly different
result set because Oracle would evaluate “Halloween” and
“HALLOWEEN” as two unequal values, whereas SQL Server would
see them as equal, by default.

NULLs (rule 3)
Most databases allow any of their supported data types to store
NULL values. Inexperienced SQL developers tend to think of NULL as
zero or blank. In fact, NULL is neither of these. In SQL, NULL literally
means that the value is unknown or indeterminate. (This question
alone—whether NULL should be considered unknown or
Other documents randomly have
different content
He sent for Lois and told her about it, and she wept a little, partly for
joy and partly, he suspected, because she did not want him to take on
any new responsibilities.
Harker flicked the tears away. He stretched gently, mindful of his
sutures.
Lois said, "It's all finished, isn't it? The struggling and the conniving,
the plotting and scheming? Everything's going to be all right now."
He smiled at her. He was thinking that the stream of events could
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But the world as he had known it for forty-odd years was dead, and
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He squeezed her hand tightly. "No, Lois. It isn't all finished. The
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