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The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition

Circuits, Signals, and

Speech and Image
Processing
This page intentionally left blank
The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series
Series Editor
Richard C. Dorf
University of California, Davis

Titles Included in the Series

The Handbook of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Mohammad Ilyas
The Avionics Handbook, Cary R. Spitzer
The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Joseph D. Bronzino
The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Second Edition, Wai-Kai Chen
The Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry Gibson
The Computer Engineering Handbook, Vojin G. Oklobdzija
The Control Handbook, William S. Levine
The CRC Handbook of Engineering Tables, Richard C. Dorf
The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, Vijay K. Madisetti and Douglas Williams
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Leo L. Grigsby
The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry C. Whitaker
The Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Handbook of Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, Alexander D. Poularikas
The Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology, William A. Goddard, III,
Donald W. Brenner, Sergey E. Lyshevski, and Gerald J. Iafrate
The Handbook of Optical Communication Networks, Mohammad Ilyas and
Hussein T. Mouftah
The Industrial Electronics Handbook, J. David Irwin
The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, John G. Webster
The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook, Osita D.I. Nwokah and Yidirim Hurmuzlu
The Mechatronics Handbook, Robert H. Bishop
The Mobile Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry D. Gibson
The Ocean Engineering Handbook, Ferial El-Hawary
The RF and Microwave Handbook, Mike Golio
The Technology Management Handbook, Richard C. Dorf
The Transforms and Applications Handbook, Second Edition, Alexander D. Poularikas
The VLSI Handbook, Wai-Kai Chen
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition
Edited by
Richard C. Dorf

Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing

Electronics, Power Electronics, Optoelectronics,
Microwaves, Electromagnetics, and Radar
Sensors, Nanoscience, Biomedical Engineering,
and Instruments
Broadcasting and Optical Communication Technology
Computers, Software Engineering, and Digital Devices
Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy,
and Machines
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Third Edition

Circuits, Signals, and

Speech and Image
Processing

Edited by

Richard C. Dorf
University of California
Davis, California, U.S.A.

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-7337-9 (Hardcover)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-7337-4 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress Card Number 2005054346

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Circuits, signals, and speech and image processing / edited by Richard C. Dorf.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-7337-9 (alk. paper)
1. Signal processing. 2. Electric circuits. I. Dorf, Richard C. II. Title.

TK5102.9.C495 2005
621.3--dc22 2005054346

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 Preface

Purpose
The purpose of The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 3rd Edition is to provide a ready reference for the
practicing engineer in industry, government, and academia, as well as aid students of engineering. The third
edition has a new look and comprises six volumes including:
Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing
Electronics, Power Electronics, Optoelectronics, Microwaves, Electromagnetics, and Radar
Sensors, Nanoscience, Biomedical Engineering, and Instruments
Broadcasting and Optical Communication Technology
Computers, Software Engineering, and Digital Devices
Systems, Controls, Embedded Systems, Energy, and Machines
Each volume is edited by Richard C. Dorf, and is a comprehensive format that encompasses the many
aspects of electrical engineering with articles from internationally recognized contributors. The goal is to
provide the most up-to-date information in the classical fields of circuits, signal processing, electronics,
electromagnetic fields, energy devices, systems, and electrical effects and devices, while covering the emerging
fields of communications, nanotechnology, biometrics, digital devices, computer engineering, systems, and
biomedical engineering. In addition, a complete compendium of information regarding physical, chemical,
and materials data, as well as widely inclusive information on mathematics is included in each volume. Many
articles from this volume and the other five volumes have been completely revised or updated to fit the needs
of today and many new chapters have been added.
The purpose of this volume (Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing) is to provide a ready
reference to subjects in the fields of electric circuits and components, analysis of circuits, and the use of the
Laplace transform. We also discuss the processing of signals, speech, and images using filters and algorithms.
Here we provide the basic information for understanding these fields. We also provide information about the
emerging fields of text-to-speech synthesis, real-time processing, embedded signal processing, and biometrics.

Organization
The information is organized into three sections. The first two sections encompass 27 chapters and the last
section summarizes the applicable mathematics, symbols, and physical constants.
Most articles include three important and useful categories: defining terms, references, and further
information. Defining terms are key definitions and the first occurrence of each term defined is indicated in
boldface in the text. The definitions of these terms are summarized as a list at the end of each chapter or
article. The references provide a list of useful books and articles for follow-up reading. Finally, further
information provides some general and useful sources of additional information on the topic.

Locating Your Topic

Numerous avenues of access to information are provided. A complete table of contents is presented at the
front of the book. In addition, an individual table of contents precedes each section. Finally, each chapter
begins with its own table of contents. The reader should look over these tables of contents to become familiar
with the structure, organization, and content of the book. For example, see Section II: Signal Processing, then
Chapter 18: Multidimensional Signal Processing, and then Chapter 18.2: Video Signal Processing. This tree-
and-branch table of contents enables the reader to move up the tree to locate information on the topic of
interest.
Two indexes have been compiled to provide multiple means of accessing information: subject index and
index of contributing authors. The subject index can also be used to locate key definitions. The page on which
the definition appears for each key (defining) term is clearly identified in the subject index.
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 3rd Edition is designed to provide answers to most inquiries and direct
the inquirer to further sources and references. We hope that this handbook will be referred to often and that
informational requirements will be satisfied effectively.

Acknowledgments
This handbook is testimony to the dedication of the Board of Advisors, the publishers, and my editorial
associates. I particularly wish to acknowledge at Taylor & Francis Nora Konopka, Publisher; Helena Redshaw,
Editorial Project Development Manager; and Susan Fox, Project Editor. Finally, I am indebted to the
support of Elizabeth Spangenberger, Editorial Assistant.

Richard C. Dorf
Editor-in-Chief
 Editor-in-Chief

Richard C. Dorf, Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of California, Davis,
teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in electrical engineering in the fields of circuits and control
systems. He earned a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, an M.S. from
the University of Colorado, and a B.S. from Clarkson University. Highly concerned with the discipline of
electrical engineering and its wide value to social and economic needs, he has written and lectured
internationally on the contributions and advances in electrical engineering.
Professor Dorf has extensive experience with education and industry and is professionally active in the fields
of robotics, automation, electric circuits, and communications. He has served as a visiting professor at the
University of Edinburgh, Scotland; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Stanford University; and the
University of California, Berkeley.
Professor Dorf is a Fellow of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a Fellow of the
American Society for Engineering Education. Dr. Dorf is widely known to the profession for his Modern
Control Systems, 10th Edition (Addison-Wesley, 2004) and The International Encyclopedia of Robotics (Wiley,
1988). Dr. Dorf is also the co-author of Circuits, Devices and Systems (with Ralph Smith), 5th Edition (Wiley,
1992), and Electric Circuits, 7th Edition (Wiley, 2006). He is also the author of Technology Ventures (McGraw-
Hill, 2005) and The Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition (CRC Press, 2005).
This page intentionally left blank
 Advisory Board

Frank Barnes William Kersting Richard S. Sandige

University of Colorado New Mexico State University California Polytechnic State
Boulder, Colorado Las Cruces, New Mexico University
San Luis Obispo, California
Joseph Bronzino
Trinity College Vojin Oklobdzia
Hartford, Connecticut University of California, Davis Leonard Shaw
Davis, California Polytechnic University
Wai-Kai Chen Brooklyn, New York
University of Illinois
Chicago, Illinois
John V. Oldfield John W. Steadman
Syracuse University
Delores Etter University of South Alabama
Syracuse, New York
United States Naval Academy Mobile, Alabama
Annapolis, Maryland

Lyle Feisel Banmali Rawat R. Lal Tummala

State University of New York University of Nevada Michigan State University
Binghamton, New York Reno, Nevada East Lansing, Michigan
This page intentionally left blank
 Contributors

Taan El Ali Theodore F. Bogart, Jr. Wai-Kai Chen

Benedict College University of Southern Mississippi University of Illinois
Columbia, South Carolina Hattiesburg, Mississippi Chicago, Illinois

Nick Angelopoulos Bruce W. Bomar Michael D. Ciletti

Hoffman Engineering University of Tennessee Space Institute University of Colorado
Scarborough, Canada Tullahoma, Tennessee Colorado Springs, Colorado

A. Terry Bahill N.K. Bose J.R. Cogdell

University of Arizona and Pennsylvania State University University of Texas
BAE Systems University Park, Pennsylvania Austin, Texas
Tucson, Arizona
John E. Boyd Israel Cohen
Norman Balabanian Cubic Defense Systems Israel Institute of Technology
University of Florida San Diego, California Haifa, Israel
Gainesville, Florida
Marcia A. Bush Reza Derakhshani
Sina Balkir Xerox Palo Alto Research Center University of Missouri
University of Nebraska Palo Alto, California
Kansas City, Missouri
Lincoln, Nebraska
James A. Cadzow Hui Dong
Glen Ballou Vanderbilt University
University of California
Ballou Associates Nashville, Tennessee
Santa Barbara, California
Guilford, Connecticut
Yu Cao
Mahamudunnabi Basunia Richard C. Dorf
Queen’s University
University of Dayton University of California
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Dayton, Ohio Davis, California
Shu-Park Chan
Stella N. Batalama International Technological University
Yingzi Du
State University of New York Indiana University/Purdue University
Santa Clara, California
Buffalo, New York Indianapolis, Indiana
Rulph Chassaing
Peter Bendix Roger Williams University Gary W. Elko
LSI Logic Corp. Bristol, Rhode Island Agere Systems
Milpitas, California Murray Hill, New Jersey
Rama Chellappa
Theodore A. Bickart University of Maryland Yariv Ephraim
Michigan State University College Park, Maryland George Mason University
East Lansing, Michigan Fairfax, Virginia
Chih-Ming Chen
Bill Bitler National Taiwan University Delores M. Etter
InfiMed of Science and Technology United States Naval Academy
Liverpool, New York Taipei, Taiwan Annapolis, Maryland
Jesse W. Fussell Pradeep Lall Amit K. Roy-Chowdhury
U.S. Department of Defense Auburn University University of California
Fort Meade, Maryland Auburn, Alabama Riverside, California

Jerry D. Gibson Kartikeya Mayaram C. Sankaran

University of California Oregon State University Electro-Test
Santa Barbara, California Corvallis, Oregon Seattle, Washington

Lawrence Hornak Michael G. Morrow Juergen Schroeter

West Virginia University University of Wisconsin-Madison AT&T Labs
Morgantown, West Virginia Madison, Wisconsin Florham Park, New Jersey

Jerry L. Hudgins Paul Neudorfer Stephanie A.C. Schuckers

University of Nebraska Seattle University Clarkson University
Lincoln, Nebraska Seattle, Washington Potsdam, New York

Mohamed Ibnkahla Norman S. Nise Yun Q. Shi

Queen’s University California State Polytechnic University New Jersey Institute of Technology
Kingston, Ontario, Canada Orange, California Newark, New Jersey

J. David Irwin Keshab K. Parhi Theodore I. Shim

Auburn University University of Minnesota Polytechnic University
Auburn, Alabama Minneapolis, Minnesota Brooklyn, New York

Robert W. Ives Sujan T.V. Parthasaradhi L.H. Sibul

United States Naval Academy Bioscrypt, Inc. Pennsylvania State University
Annapolis, Maryland Markham, Ontario, Canada University Park, Pennsylvania

W. Kenneth Jenkins Clayton R. Paul L. Montgomery Smith

The Pennsylvania State University Mercer University University of Tennessee Space Institute
University Park, Pennsylvania Macon, Georgia Tullahoma, Tennessee

David E. Johnson Michael Pecht M. Mohan Sondhi

Birmingham-Southern College University of Maryland AT&T Labs
Birmingham, Alabama College Park, Maryland Florham Park, New Jersey

Dimitri Kazakos S. Unnikrishna Pillai Wei Su

University of Idaho Polytechnic University U.S. Army RDECOM CERDEC
Moscow, Idaho Brooklyn, New York Fort Monmouth, New Jersey

William J. Kerwin Alexander D. Poularikas Ahmad Iyanda Sulyman

The University of Arizona University of Alabama Queen’s University
Tucson, Arizona Huntsville, Alabama Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Yong Deak Kim Jose C. Principe David D. Sworder

Ajou University University of Florida University of California
Suwon, South Korea Gainesville, Florida San Diego, California

Allan D. Kraus Sarah A. Rajala Ferenc Szidarovszky

Naval Postgraduate School North Carolina State University University of Arizona
Pacific Grove, California Raleigh, North Carolina Tucson, Arizona

Dean J. Krusienski J. Gregory Rollins Ronald J. Tallarida

Wadsworth Center Technology Modeling Associates Inc. Temple University
Albany, New York Sunnyvale, California Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Charles W. Therrien Thad B. Welch Ping Xiong
Naval Postgraduate School United States Naval Academy State University of New York
Monterey, California Annapolis, Maryland Buffalo, New York

Vyacheslav Tuzlukov Lynn D. Wilcox Won-Sik Yoon

Ajou University Rice University Ajou University
Suwon, South Korea Houston, Texas Suwon, South Korea

Bo Wei Cameron H.G. Wright Shaohua Kevin Zhou

Southern Methodist University University of Wyoming University of Maryland
Dallas, Texas Laramie, Wyoming College Park, Maryland
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

SECTION I Circuits

1 Passive Components
1.1 Resistors Michael Pecht and Pradeep Lall ................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Capacitors and Inductors Glen Ballou ...................................................................................... 1-11
1.3 Transformers C. Sankaran .......................................................................................................... 1-27
1.4 Electrical Fuses Nick Angelopoulos ............................................................................................. 1-33

2 Voltage and Current Sources

2.1 Step, Impulse, Ramp, Sinusoidal, Exponential, and DC Signals Richard C. Dorf ................. 2-1
2.2 Ideal and Practical Sources Clayton R. Paul ............................................................................... 2-4
2.3 Controlled Sources J.R. Cogdell ................................................................................................... 2-7

3 Linear Circuit Analysis

3.1 Voltage and Current Laws Michael D. Ciletti ............................................................................. 3-1
3.2 Node and Mesh Analysis J. David Irwin .................................................................................... 3-7
3.3 Network Theorems Allan D. Kraus ........................................................................................... 3-15
3.4 Power and Energy Norman Balabanian and Theodore A. Bickart .......................................... 3-26
3.5 Three-Phase Circuits Norman Balabanian ............................................................................... 3-34
3.6 Graph Theory Shu-Park Chan ................................................................................................... 3-38
3.7 Two-Port Parameters and Transformations Norman S. Nise .................................................. 3-56

4 Passive Signal Processing William J. Kerwin ................................................................................ 4-1

5 Nonlinear Circuits
5.1 Diodes and Rectifiers Jerry L. Hudgins ....................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Limiter (Clipper) Theodore F. Bogart Jr., Taan El Ali, and Mahamudunnabi Basunia .......... 5-6
5.3 Distortion Kartikeya Mayaram .................................................................................................. 5-12

6 Laplace Transform
6.1 Definitions and Properties Richard C. Dorf ............................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Applications David E. Johnson ................................................................................................... 6-10

7 State Variables: Concept and Formulation Wai-Kai Chen ..................................................... 7-1

8 The z-Transform Richard C. Dorf .................................................................................................... 8-1

9 T-P Equivalent Networks Richard C. Dorf .................................................................................. 9-1

10 Transfer Functions of Filters Richard C. Dorf ........................................................................... 10-1

11 Frequency Response Paul Neudorfer ............................................................................................. 11-1

12 Stability Analysis Ferenc Szidarovszky and A. Terry Bahill .......................................................... 12-1

13 Computer Software for Circuit Analysis and Design

13.1 Analog Circuit Simulation J. Gregory Rollins and Sina Balkir ............................................. 13-1
13.2 Parameter Extraction for Analog Circuit Simulation Peter Bendix ................................... 13-16

SECTION II Signal Processing

14 Digital Signal Processing

14.1 Fourier Transforms W. Kenneth Jenkins .................................................................................. 14-1
14.2 Fourier Transforms and the Fast Fourier Transform Alexander D. Poularikas ................. 14-18
14.3 Design and Implementation of Digital Filters Bruce W. Bomar and
L. Montgomery Smith ................................................................................................................. 14-30
14.4 Minimum ‘1 ,‘2 , and ‘1 Norm Approximate Solutions to an Overdetermined
System of Linear Equations James A. Cadzow ..................................................................... 14-42
14.5 Adaptive Signal Processing W. Kenneth Jenkins and Dean J. Krusienski ............................ 14-71

15 Speech Signal Processing

15.1 Coding, Transmission, and Storage Jerry D. Gibson, Bo Wei, and Hui Dong ..................... 15-1
15.2 Recent Advancements in Speech Enhancement Yariv Ephraim
and Israel Cohen ......................................................................................................................... 15-12
15.3 Analysis and Synthesis Jesse W. Fussell .................................................................................. 15-26
15.4 Speech Recognition Lynn D. Wilcox and Marcia A. Bush ................................................... 15-33

16 Text-to-Speech (TTS) Synthesis Juergen Schroeter ................................................................... 16-1

17 Spectral Estimation and Modeling

17.1 Spectral Analysis S. Unnikrishna Pillai and Theodore I. Shim .............................................. 17-1
17.2 Parameter Estimation Ping Xiong, Stella N. Batalama, and Dimitri Kazakos ..................... 17-8
17.3 Multiple-Model Estimation and Tracking David D. Sworder and John E. Boyd ............... 17-17

18 Multidimensional Signal Processing

18.1 Digital Image Processing Yun Q. Shi, Wei Su, and Chih-Ming Chen .................................. 18-1
18.2 Video Signal Processing Sarah A. Rajala .............................................................................. 18-16
18.3 Sensor Array Processing N.K. Bose and L.H. Sibul .............................................................. 18-29

19 Real-Time Digital Signal Processing Cameron H.G. Wright, Thad B. Welch, and
Michael G. Morrow .................................................................................................................................. 19-1

20 VLSI for Signal Processing

20.1 Special Architectures Keshab K. Parhi ..................................................................................... 20-1
20.2 Signal Processing Chips and Applications Rulph Chassaing and Bill Bitler ...................... 20-15

21 Acoustic Signal Processing

21.1 Digital Signal Processing in Audio and Electroacoustics Juergen Schroeter,
Gary W. Elko, and M. Mohan Sondhi ........................................................................................ 21-1
 21.2 Underwater Acoustical Signal Processing Vyacheslav Tuzlukov, Won-Sik Yoon, and
Yong Deak Kim ........................................................................................................................... 21-14

22 Neural Networks and Adaptive Signal Processing

22.1 Artificial Neural Networks Jose C. Principe ............................................................................ 22-1
22.2 Adaptive Signal Processing for Wireless Communications Mohamed Ibnkahla,
Ahmad Iyanda Sulyman, and Yu Cao ...................................................................................... 22-15

23 Computing Environments for Digital Signal Processing Robert W. Ives and

Delores M. Etter ....................................................................................................................................... 23-1

24 An Introduction to Biometrics Robert W. Ives and Delores M. Etter ..................................... 24-1

25 Iris Recognition Yingzi Du, Robert W. Ives, and Delores M. Etter .............................................. 25-1

26 Liveness Detection in Biometric Devices Stephanie A.C. Schuckers, Reza Derakhshani,

Sujan T.V. Parthasaradhi, and Lawrence Hornak .................................................................................. 26-1

27 Human Identification Using Gait and Face Rama Chellappa,

Amit K. Roy-Chowdhury, and Shaohua Kevin Zhou ............................................................................. 27-1

SECTION III Mathematics, Symbols, and Physical Constants

Introduction Ronald J. Tallarida .............................................................................................................. III-1

Greek Alphabet ........................................................................................................................................ III-3
International System of Units (SI) ........................................................................................................ III-3
Conversion Constants and Multipliers ................................................................................................. III-6
Physical Constants ................................................................................................................................... III-8
Symbols and Terminology for Physical and Chemical Quantities ..................................................... III-9
Credits .................................................................................................................................................... III-13
Probability for Electrical and Computer Engineers Charles W. Therrien ..................................... III-14

Indexes

Author Index .................................................................................................................................................... A-1

Subject Index ..................................................................................................................................................... S-1

This page intentionally left blank
 I
Circuits
1 Passive Components M. Pecht, P. Lall, G. Ballou, C. Sankaran, N. Angelopoulos .............. 1-1
Resistors *
Capacitors and Inductors *
Transformers *
Electrical Fuses

2 Voltage and Current Sources R.C. Dorf, C.R. Paul, J.R. Cogdell ......................................... 2-1
Step, Impulse, Ramp, Sinusoidal, Exponential, and DC Signals *
Ideal and Practical
Sources Controlled Sources
*

3 Linear Circuit Analysis M.D. Ciletti, J.D. Irwin, A.D. Kraus, N. Balabanian,
T.A. Bickart, S.-P. Chan, N.S. Nise............................................................................................... 3-1
Voltage and Current Laws Node and Mesh Analysis Network Theorems Power and
* * *

Energy Three-Phase Circuits Graph Theory Two-Port Parameters and Transformations

* * *

4 Passive Signal Processing W.J. Kerwin.................................................................................... 4-1

Introduction *
Low-Pass Filter Functions *
Low-Pass Filters *
Filter Design

5 Nonlinear Circuits J.L. Hudgins, T.F. Bogart, Jr., T.E. Ali, M. Basunia, K. Mayaram........ 5-1
Diodes and Rectifiers *
Limiter (Clipper) *
Distortion

6 Laplace Transform R.C. Dorf, D.E. Johnson ........................................................................... 6-1

Definitions and Properties *
Applications

7 State Variables: Concept and Formulation W.-K. Chen ...................................................... 7-1

Introduction State Equations in Normal Form The Concept of State and State Variables and
* *

Normal Tree Systematic Procedure in Writing State Equations State Equations for Networks
* *

Described by Scalar Differential Equations Extension to Time-Varying and Nonlinear Networks

*

8 The z-Transform R.C. Dorf ...................................................................................................... 8-1

Introduction Properties of the z-Transform
* *
Unilateral z-Transform *
z-Transform
Inversion Sampled Data
*

9 T-P Equivalent Networks R.C. Dorf....................................................................................... 9-1

Introduction *
Three-Phase Connections *
Wye,Delta Transformations

10 Transfer Functions of Filters R.C. Dorf ............................................................................... 10-1

Introduction Ideal Filters The Ideal Linear-Phase Low-Pass Filter Ideal Linear-Phase
* * *

Bandpass Filters Causal Filters Butterworth Filters Chebyshev Filters

* * *

11 Frequency Response P. Neudorfer.......................................................................................... 11-1

Introduction *
Frequency-Response Plotting *
A Comparison of Methods

12 Stability Analysis F. Szidarovszky, A.T. Bahill ...................................................................... 12-1

Introduction Using the State of the System to Determine Stability Lyapunov Stability
* *

Theory Stability of Time-Invariant Linear Systems BIBO Stability Bifurcations

* * * *

Physical Examples

13 Computer Software for Circuit Analysis and Design

J.G. Rollins, S. Balkir, P. Bendix ................................................................................................. 13-1
Analog Circuit Simulation *
Parameter Extraction for Analog Circuit Simulation

I-1
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Passive Components

Michael Pecht 1.1 Resistors.............................................................................. 1-1

University of Maryland Resistor Characteristics Resistor Types
*

1.2 Capacitors and Inductors .................................................... 1-11

Pradeep Lall Capacitors Types of Capacitors Inductors
* *

Auburn University
1.3 Transformers ..................................................................... 1-27
Types of Transformers Principle of
Glen Ballou
*

Transformation Electromagnetic Equation Transformer

* *

Ballou Associates
Core Transformer Losses Transformer
* *

C. Sankaran Connections Transformer Impedance

*

Electro-Test 1.4 Electrical Fuses................................................................... 1-33

Ratings Fuse Performance Selective
* *

Nick Angelopoulos Coordination Standards Products Standard — Class H

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Hoffman Engineering HRC Trends

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1.1 Resistors
Michael Pecht and Pradeep Lall
The resistor is an electrical device whose primary function is to introduce resistance to the flow of electric
current. The magnitude of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the resistor. A larger
resistance value indicates a greater opposition to current flow.
The resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that arises when a current of one ampere is
passed through a resistor subjected to one volt across its terminals.
The various uses of resistors include setting biases, controlling gain, fixing time constants, matching and
loading circuits, voltage division, and heat generation. The following sections discuss resistor characteristics
and various resistor types.

Resistor Characteristics
Voltage and Current Characteristics of Resistors
The resistance of a resistor is directly proportional to the resistivity of the material and the length of the
resistor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of current flow.
The resistance R of a resistor is given by

rl
R¼ ð1:1Þ
A
where r is the resistivity of the resistor material (O·cm), l is the length of the resistor along direction of current
flow (cm), and A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to current flow (cm2) (Figure 1.1). Resistivity is an
inherent property of materials. Good resistor materials typically have resistivities between 2 · 10 6 and
200 · 10 6 O·cm.

1-1
1-2 Circuits, Signals, and Speech and Image Processing

The resistance can also be defined in terms of sheet resistivity.

If the sheet resistivity is used, a standard sheet thickness is assumed
and factored into resistivity. Typically, resistors are rectangular in
shape; therefore the length l divided by the width w gives the number
of squares within the resistor (Figure 1.2). The number of squares
multiplied by the resistivity is the resistance.

FIGURE 1.1 Resistance of a rectangular

l cross-section resistor with cross-sectional
Rsheet ¼ rsheet ð1:2Þ
W area A and length L.

where rsheet is the sheet resistivity (O/square), l is the length of resistor (cm), w is the width of the resistor
(cm), and Rsheet is the sheet resistance (O).
The resistance of a resistor can be defined in terms of the voltage drop across the resistor and current
through the resistor related by Ohm’s law:

V
R¼ ð1:3Þ
I

where R is the resistance (O), V is the voltage across the resistor (V), and I is the current through the resistor
(A). Whenever a current is passed through a resistor, a voltage is dropped across the ends of the resistor.
Figure 1.3 depicts the symbol of the resistor with the Ohm’s law relation.
All resistors dissipate power when a voltage is applied. The power dissipated by the resistor is represented by

V2
P¼ ð1:4Þ
R

where P is the power dissipated (W), V is the voltage across the resistor (V), and R is the resistance (O). An
ideal resistor dissipates electric energy without storing electric or magnetic energy.
Resistor Networks
Resistors may be joined to form networks. If resistors are joined in series, the effective resistance (RT) is the
sum of the individual resistances (Figure 1.4).

X
n
RT ¼ Ri ð1:5Þ
i¼1

FIGURE 1.3 A resistor

with resistance R having a
current I flowing through it
will have a voltage drop of
FIGURE 1.2 Number of squares in rectangular resistor. IR across it.
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 202. The influence of such authority is especially evident in the
selection of harmonious shades of colour for dress, etc. Cf. Miss
Shinn, op. cit., p. 95.

203. On the nature of the early feeling for dress see Perez, L’Art et
la Poésie chez l’Enfant.

204. See Perez, L’Art et la Poésie chez l’Enfant, p. 90 f.

205. Op. cit., p. 103.

206. An excellent sketch of the growth of our feeling for the

romantic and sublime beauty of mountains is given by Mr. Leslie
Stephen in one of the most delightful of his works, The Playground
of Europe.

207. Op cit., p. 115 ff.

208. Mind, iii., p. 393.

209. Notes on the Development of a Child, i., p. 71 f.

210. See Romanes, Animal Intelligence, pp. 311 and 453 ff. The
only exception is a photograph which is said to have been ‘large,’ p.
453.

211. Op. cit., i., p. 74.

212. Professor Petrie reminds me that a like absence of the

perception of position shows itself in the way in which letters are
drawn in early Greek and Phœnician writings.

213. Op. cit., i., p. 72.

214. Romanes, op. cit., p. 453.

215. Op. cit., ii., p. 104.

 216. Quoted by Perez, op. cit., p. 216.

217. Op. cit., pp. 215, 216.

218. See Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 106, 107.

219. The whole subject of the attitude of the child-mind towards

dress and ornament is well dealt with by Perez, op. cit., chap. i.

220. Preyer places the first imitative movement in the fourth

month (op. cit., cap. 12). Baldwin, however, dates the first
unmistakable appearance in the case of his little girl in the ninth
month (Mental Development, p. 131).

221. Virginibus Puerisque, ‘Child’s Play’.

222. The telling of stories to other children does not, I conceive,

fall under my definition of play. It is child-art properly so called.

223. Virginibus Puerisque, ‘Child’s Play’.

224. According to Mr H. Rutgers Marshall art-activity takes its rise

in the instinct to attract others (Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics).

225. Grosse, Anfänge der Kunst, p. 48.

226. The child’s feeling for climax shown in these is further

illustrated in a charming story taken down by Miss Shinn, but
unfortunately too long to quote here. See Overland Monthly, vol.
xxiii., p. 19.

227. Perez deals with children’s literary compositions in the work

already quoted (chap. ix.). Cf. Paola Lombroso, op. cit., cap. viii. and
ix.
 X.
THE YOUNG DRAUGHTSMAN.
 First Attempts to Draw.
A child’s first attempts at drawing are pre-artistic and a kind of
play, an outcome of the instinctive love of finding and producing
semblances of things illustrated in the last essay. Sitting at the table
and covering a sheet of paper with line-scribble he is wholly self-
centred, ‘amusing himself,’ as we say, and caring nothing about the
production of “objective values”.
Yet even in the early stages of infantile drawing the social element
of art is suggested in the impulse of the small draughtsman to make
his lines indicative of something to others’ eyes, as when he bids his
mother look at the ‘man,’ ‘gee-gee,’ or what else he fancies that he
has delineated.[228] And this, though crude enough and apt to shock
the æsthetic sense of the matured artist by its unsightliness, is
closely related to art, forming, indeed, in a manner a preliminary
stage of pictorial design.
We shall therefore study children’s drawings as a kind of rude
embryonic art. In doing this our special aim will be to describe and
explain childish characteristics. This, again, will compel us to go to
some extent into the early forms of observation and imagination. It
will be found, I think, that the first crude drawings are valuable as
throwing light on the workings of children’s minds. Perhaps, indeed,
it may turn out that these spontaneous efforts of the childish hand
to figure objects are for the psychologist a medium of expression of
the whole of child-nature, hardly less instructive than that of early
speech.
In carrying out our investigation of children’s drawings we shall
need to make a somewhat full reference to the related phenomena,
the drawings of modern savages and those of early art. While
important points of difference will disclose themselves the
resemblances are important enough to make a comparison not only
profitable but almost indispensable.
 I have thought it best to narrow the range of the inquiry by
keeping to delineations of the human figure and of animals,
especially the horse. These are the favourite topics of the child’s
pencil, and examples of them are easily obtainable.
As far as possible I have sought spontaneous drawings of quite
young children, viz., from between two and three to about six.[229] In
a strict sense of course no child’s drawing is absolutely spontaneous
and independent of external stimulus and guidance. The first
attempts to manage the pencil are commonly aided by the mother,
who, moreover, is wont to present a model drawing, and, what is
even more important at this early stage, to supply model-
movements of the arm and hand. In most cases, too, there is some
slight amount of critical inspection, as when she asks, ‘Where is
papa’s nose?’ ‘Where is doggie’s tail?’ Yet perfect spontaneity, even if
obtainable, is not necessary here. The drawings of men and
quadrupeds of a child of five and later disclose plainly enough the
childish fashion, even though there has been some slight amount of
elementary instruction. Hence I have not hesitated to make use of
drawings sent me by kindergarten teachers. I may add that I have
used by preference the drawings executed by children in elementary
schools, as these appear to illustrate the childish manner with less of
parental interference than is wont to be present in a cultured home.
A child’s drawing begins with a free aimless swinging of the pencil
to and fro, which movements produce a chaos of slightly curved
lines. These movements are purely spontaneous, or, if imitative, are
so only in the sense that they follow at a considerable distance the
movements of the mother’s pencil.[230] They may be made expressive
or significant in two ways. In the first place, a child may by varying
the swinging movements accidentally produce an effect which
suggests an idea through a remote resemblance. A little boy when
two years and two months, was one day playing in this wise with the
pencil, and happening to make a sort of curling line, shouted with
excited glee, ‘Puff, puff!’ i.e., smoke. He then drew more curls with a
rudimentary intention to show what he meant. In like manner when
a child happens to bend his line into something like a closed circle or
ellipse he will catch the faint resemblance to the rounded human
head and exclaim, ‘Mama!’ or ‘Dada!’
But intentional drawing or designing does not always arise in this
way. A child may set himself to draw, and make believe that he is
drawing something when he is scribbling. This is largely an imitative
play-action following the direction of the movements of another’s
hand. Preyer speaks of a little boy who in his second year was asked
when scribbling with a pencil what he was doing and answered
‘writing houses’. He was apparently making believe that his jumble of
lines represented houses.[231] Almost any scribble may in this earliest
stage take on a meaning through the play of a vigorous childish
imagination.
The same play of imagination is
noticeable in the child’s first
endeavours to draw an object from
memory when he is asked to do so.
Thus a little girl in her fourth year
referred to by Mr. E. Cooke when
asked to draw a cat produced a
longish irregularly curved line crossed
by a number of shorter lines, which
strange production she proceeded
quite complacently to dignify by the
Fig. 1 (a) and (b). name ‘cat,’ naming the whiskers, legs,
and tail (Fig. 1 (a); compare the
slightly fuller design in Fig. 1 (b)).[232]
Here it is evident we have a phase of childish drawing which is
closely analogous to the symbolism of language. The representation
is arbitrarily chosen as a symbol and not as a likeness. This element
of a non-imitative or symbolic mode of representation will be found
to run through the whole of childish drawing.
Even this chaotic scribble shows almost from the beginning germs
of formative elements, not merely in the fundamental line-elements,
but also in the loops, and in the more abrupt changes of direction or
angles. A tendency to draw a loop-like rudimentary contour soon
emerges, and thus we get the transition to a possible outlining of
objects. Miss Shinn gives a good example of an ovoid loop drawn by
her niece in her hundred and ninth week.[233] With practice the child
acquires by the second or third year the usual stock in trade of the
juvenile draughtsman, and can draw a sort of straight line, curved
lines, a roughish kind of circle or oval, as well as dots, and even fit
lines together at angles.[234] When this stage is reached we begin to
see attempts at real though rude likenesses of men, horses and so
forth. These early essays are among the most curious products of
the child-mind. They follow standards and methods of their own;
they are apt to get hardened into a fixed conventional manner which
may reappear even in mature years. They exhibit with a certain
range of individual difference a curious uniformity, and they have
their parallels in what we know of the first crude designs of the
untutored savage.
 First Drawings of the Human Figure.
It has been wittily observed by an Italian writer on children’s art
that they reverse the order of natural creation in beginning instead
of ending with man.[235] It may be added that they start with the
most dignified part of this crown of creation, viz., the human head. A
child’s first attempt to represent a man proceeds, so far as I have
observed, by drawing the front view of his head. This he effects by
means of a clumsy sort of circle with a dot or two thrown in by way
of indicating features in general. A couple of lines may be inserted as
a kind of support, which do duty for both trunk and legs. The
circular or ovoid form is, I think, by far the most common. The
square head in my collection appears only very occasionally and in
children at school, who presumably have had some training in
drawing horizontal and vertical lines. The accompanying example
(Fig. 2) is the work of a Jamaica girl of five, kindly sent me by her
teacher.
This first attempt to outline the human form is, no doubt,
characterised by a high degree of arbitrary symbolism. The use of a
rude form of circle to set forth the human head reminds one of the
employment by living savage tribes of the same form as the symbol
of a house (hut?), a wreath, and so forth.[236] Yet there is a measure
of resemblance even in this abstract symbolism: the circle does
roughly resemble the contour of the head: as, indeed, the square or
rectangle may be said less obviously to do when hair and whiskers
and the horizontal line of the hat break the curved line.
But it is not the mere contour which represents the face: it is a
circle picked out with features. These, however vaguely indicated,
are an integral part of the facial scheme. This is illustrated in the fact
that among the drawings by savages and others collected by General
Pitt-Rivers, one, executed by an adult negro of Uganda, actually
omits the contour, the human head being represented merely by an
 arrangement of dark patches and
circles for eyes, ears, etc. (Fig. 3).[237]
Coming now to the mode of
representing the features, we find at
an early stage of this schematic
delineation an attempt to differentiate
and individualise features, not only by
giving definite position but by a rough
imitation of form. Thus we get the
vertical line as indicating the direction
of the nose, the horizontal line that of
the mouth, and either a rounded dot
or a circular line as representative of
the curved outline of the eye—whether
that of the iris, of the visible part of
Fig. 2. the eyeball, or of the orbital cavity. A
precisely similar scheme appears in the
drawings of savages.[238]
At first the child is grandly indifferent to completeness in the
enumeration of features. Even ‘the two eyes, a nose and a mouth’
are often imperfectly represented. Thus when dots are used we may
have one or more specks ranging, according to M. Perez, up to five.
[239]
The use of a single dot for facial feature in general has its
parallel in the art of savage tribes.[240] It is, however, I think, most
common to introduce three dots in a triangular arrangement,
presumably for eyes and mouth,—a device again which reappears in
the art of uncivilised races.[241] Even when the young draughtsman
has reached the stage of distinguishing the features he may be quite
careless about number and completeness. Thus a feature may be
omitted altogether. This funnily enough happens most frequently in
the case of that one which seems to us ‘grown-ups’ most self-
assertive and most resentful of indignity, viz., the nose. These moon-
faces with two eyes and a mouth are very common among the first
drawings of children. The mouth, on the other hand, is much less
frequently omitted. The same thing seems to hold good of the
drawings of savages.[242] The eyes are rarely omitted. The single dot
 may perhaps be said to stand for ‘eye’.
Some drawings of savages have the
two eyes and no other feature, as in
the accompanying example from
Andree, plate 3 (Fig. 4 (a)). On the
other hand, a child will, as we have
seen, sometimes content himself with
one eye. This holds good not only
where the dot is used but after
something like an eye-circle is
introduced, as in the accompanying
drawing by a Jamaica girl of seven
(Fig. 4 (b)).
In these first attempts to sketch out
a face we miss a sense of relative
position and of proportion. It is
astonishing what a child on first
attempting to draw a human or animal
form can do in the way of dislocation
or putting things into the wrong place.
The little girl mentioned by E. Cooke
on trying, about the same age, to
draw a cat from a model actually put
the circle representing the eye outside
Fig. 3. that of the head. With this may be
compared the drawings of Von den
Steinen and other Europeans made by
his Brazil Indian companions, in which what was distinctly said by
the draughtsman to be the moustache was in more than one
instance set above the eyes (Fig. 4 (c)). When dots are inserted in
the linear scheme they are apt at first to be thrown in anyhow. The
two eyes, I find, when these only are given, may be put one above
the other as well as one by the side of the other, and both
arrangements occur in the drawings of the same child. And much
later when greater attention to position is observable there is a
general tendency to put the group of features too high up, i.e., to
 make the forehead or brain
region too small in
proportion to the chin region
(cf. above, Fig. 2, p. 336).
[243]

The want of proportion is

still more plainly seen in the
treatment of the several
features. The eye, as
already remarked, is apt to
be absurdly large. In the
drawing of Mr. Cooke’s little
girl mentioned above it is
actually larger than the head
Fig. 4 (a). Fig. 4 (b).
outside which it lies. This

enlargement continues to appear

frequently in later drawings, more
particularly when one eye only is
introduced, as in the accompanying
drawing by a boy in his seventh year
(Fig. 5 (a); cf. above, Fig. 4 (b)). The
mouth is apt to be even more
disproportionate, the child appearing
to delight in making this appalling
feature supreme, as in the following
examples, both by boys of five (Fig. 5
(b) and (c)). The ear, when it is added,
is apt to be enormous, and generally
the introduction of new details as ears, Fig. 4 (c).—Moustache =
hair, hands, is wont to be emphasised horizontal line above curve
by an exaggeration of their magnitude. of cap.
Very interesting is the gradual
artistic evolution of the features. Here,
as in organic evolution, there is a process of specialisation, the
primordial indefinite form taking on more of characteristic
 comple
xity. In
the
case of
the eye,
for
exampl
e, we
may
often
trace a Fig. 5 (a).
gradual
Fig. 5 (b).
develop
ment, the dot being displaced
Fig. 5 (c).
by a small circle or ovoid, this
last supplemented by a second
[244]
circle outside the first, or by one or by two arches, the former
placed above, the latter above and below the circle. The form
remains throughout an abstract outline or scheme, there being no
attempt to draw even the lines—e.g., those of the lid-margins—
correctly, or to indicate differences of light and dark, save in the case
where a central black dot is used. In this schematic treatment so
striking and interesting a feature as the eye-lash only very rarely
finds a place. A similar schematic treatment of the eye in the use of
a dot, a dot in a circle, and two circles, is observable in the drawings
of savages and of Egyptian and other archaic art.[245]
The evolution of the mouth is particularly interesting. It is wont to
begin with a horizontal line (or what seems intended for such) which
is frequently drawn right across the facial circle. But a transition
soon takes place to a more distinctive representation. This is
naturally enough carried out by the introduction of the characteristic
and interesting detail, the teeth. This may be done, according to M.
Perez, by keeping to the linear representation, the teeth being
indicated by dots placed upon the horizontal line. In all the cases
observed by me the teeth are introduced in a more realistic fashion
in connexion with a contour to suggest the parted lips. The contour
—especially the circular or ovoid—occasionally appears by itself
without teeth, but the teeth seem to be soon added. The
commonest forms of tooth-cavity I have met with are a narrow
rectangular and a curved spindle-shaped slit with teeth appearing as
vertical lines (see the two drawings by boys of six and five, Fig. 6 (a)
and (b)). These two forms are improved upon and more likeness is
introduced by making the dental lines shorter, as in Fig. 5 (c) (p.
340). With this may be compared a drawing by a boy of five (Fig. 6
(c)), where however we see a movement from realism in the
direction of a freer decorative treatment.

Fig. 6 (c).
Fig. 6 (a). Fig. 6 (b).

A somewhat similar process of evolution is noticeable in the case

of the nose, though here the movement is soon brought to a
standstill. Thus the vertical line gives place to an angle, which may
point to the side, as in the drawing of a country-boy between three
and four (Fig. 7 (a)), but more frequently, I think, points upwards,
as in the drawing of a boy of six (Fig. 7 (b)). This in its turn leads to
an isosceles triangle with an acute angle at the apex, as in the
drawing of a boy of six (Fig. 7 (c)). In a few cases a long spindle-
shaped or rectangular form similar to that of the mouth is employed,
as in a drawing of a nervous child of six (Fig. 7 (d)). Refinements are
introduced now and again by an attempt at the nostrils, as in the
accompanying curious drawing by a seven-years-old Jamaica girl
(Fig. 7 (e)).[246]

Fig. 7 (d).
Fig. 7 (b).

Fig. 7 (a).

Fig. 7 (c). Fig. 7 (e).

The introduction of other features, more especially ears and hair,

must, according to my observations, be looked on as occasional only,
and as a mark of an advance to a more naturalistic treatment.
Differences of treatment occur here too. Thus the ears, which are
apt to be absurdly large, are now inserted inside the head circle,
now outside it. The hair appears now as a dark cap of horizontal
strokes, now as a kind of stunted fringe, now as a bundle or wisp on
one side, which may either fall or stand on end (see above, Fig. 7
(d), and the accompanying drawing by a girl of nearly four, Fig. 8
(a)). These methods of
representation are
occasionally varied by a more
elaborate line-device, as a
curly looped line similar to
that employed for smoke, as
in the annexed drawing by a
girl of seven (Fig. 8 (b)).
As implied in this account
of the facial features, a good
deal of convention-like
agreement of method is
enlivened by a measure of Fig. 8 (a).
diversity of treatment.
Perhaps one of the most Fig. 8 (b).
striking instances of daring
originality is seen in the
attempt by a girl of four—who was subjected to a great
deal of instruction—to give separate form to the chin
(Fig. 9). This may be compared with the attempt of the
Uganda negro to indicate symbolically the cheeks (see
above, p. 336, Fig. 3).
As I have remarked, to the child bent on representing Fig. 9.
‘man’ the head or face is at first the principal thing,
some early drawings contenting themselves with this.
But in general the head receives some support. The simplest device
here is the abstract mode of representation by two supporting lines,
which do duty for legs and body. These are for the most part parallel
(see above, p. 336, Fig. 2), though occasionally they are united at
the top, making a kind of target figure. This same arrangement,
fixing the head on two upright lines, meets us also in the rude
designs of savages, as may be seen in the accompanying rock
inscription from Schoolcraft (Fig. 10).[247]
The comparative indifference of the child to the body or trunk is
seen in the obstinate persistence of this simple scheme of head and
legs, to which two arms attached to the sides of the head are often
 added. A child will complete the drawing of the
head by inserting hair or a cap, and will even add
feet and hands, before he troubles to bring in the
trunk (see above, p. 336, Fig. 2, and p. 342, Fig.
7 (d), also the accompanying drawing by a boy
of six, Fig. 11 (a)). With this neglect of the trunk
Fig. 10. by children may be compared the omission of it—
as if it were a forbidden thing—in one of General
Pitt-Rivers’ drawings, executed by a Zulu woman
(Fig. 11(b)).
From this common way of
spiking the head on two forked
or upright legs there is one
important deviation. The
contour of the head may be
left incomplete, and the upper
occipital part of the curve be
run on into the leg-lines, as in
the accompanying example by
a Jamaica girl of seven (Fig.
12). I have met with no
example of this among English
Fig. 11 (b). children.
Fig. 11 (a). The drawing of the trunk
may commence in one of two
ways. With English children it
appears often to emerge as an expansion or prolongation of the
head-contour, as in the accompanying drawings of the front and side
view (Fig. 13 (a) and (b)).[248] Or, in the second place, the leg-
scheme may be modified, either by drawing a horizontal line across
them and so making a rectangle, as in the accompanying drawing by
a boy of six, or by shading in the upper part of the space, as in the
other figure by a girl of five (Fig. 13 (c) and (d)). A curious and
interesting variant of this second mode of introducing the trunk is to
be found in the drawings of Von den Steinen’s Brazilians, where the
leg-lines are either kept parallel for a while and then made to
diverge, or are pinched in below what
may be called the pelvis, though not
completely joined (Fig. 13 (e) and (f)).

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13 (b). Fig. 13 (d).

Fig. 13 (c).
Fig. 13 (a).

When the trunk is distinctly marked off, it is apt to remain small in

proportion to the head, as in the following two drawings by boys of
about five (Fig. 14 (a) and (b)). As to its shape, it is most commonly
circular or ovoid like the head. But the square or rectangular form is
also found, and in the case of certain children it is expressly stated
 that this came later. A triangular
cape-like form also appears now
and again, as in the accompanying
drawing by a boy of six (Fig. 14
(c)).[249] The treatment of the form
of trunk often varies in the
drawings of the same child.

Fig. 13 (e) and (f).

Fig. 14 (b).

Fig. 14 (a). Fig. 14 (c).

At this stage there is no attempt to show the joining on of the

head to the trunk by means of the neck. The oval of the head is
either laid on the top of that of the trunk, or more commonly cuts
off the upper end of the latter. The neck, when first added, is apt to
take the exaggerated look of caricature. It may be represented by a
single line, by a couple of parallel lines, or by a small oval or circle,
as in the accompanying drawings by a girl of six and a boy of five
respectively (Fig. 15 (a) and (b); cf. above, p. 342, Fig. 7 (b)).
It is noticeable that there is sometimes a double body, two oval
contours being laid one upon the other. In certain cases this looks
very like an expansion of the neck, as in the accompanying drawing
by the same boy
that drew the
round neck above
(Fig. 16 (a)). In
other cases the
arrangement
plainly does not
aim at
differentiating the
neck, since this
part is separately
dealt with (Fig. 16 Fig. 15 (a). Fig. 15 (b).
(b)). Here it may
possibly mean a
crude attempt to
indicate the
division of the
trunk at the waist,
as brought out
especially by
female attire, as
may be seen in
the accompanying
drawing where the
dots for buttons
on each oval seem
to show that the Fig. 16 (c).
body is signified Fig. 16 (a). Fig. 16 (b).
(Fig. 16 (c); cf.
above, p. 342, Fig.
7 (c)).[250] This, along with the triangular cape-shape of the trunk, is
one of the few illustrations of the effect of dress on the first childish
treatment of the figure. As a rule, this primitive art is a study of
nature in so far as the artificial adjuncts of dress are ignored, and
the rounded forms of the body are, though crudely enough no
doubt, hinted at.
 Coming now to the arms we find that their introduction is very
uncertain. To the child, as also to the savage, the arms are what the
Germans call a Nebensache—side-matter (i.e., figuratively as well as
literally), and are omitted in rather more than one case out of two.
After all, the divine portion, the head, can be supported very well
without their help.
The arms, as well as the legs, being the thin
lanky members, are commonly represented by
lines. The same thing is noticeable in the
drawings of savages.[251] The arms appear in the
front view of the figure as stretched out
horizontally, or, at least, reaching out from the
sides; and their appearance always gives a
certain liveliness to the figure, an air of joyous
self-proclamation, as if they said in their gesture-
language, ‘Here I am’ (see above, p. 339, Fig. 5
(a), and the accompanying drawing of a boy of
six, Fig. 17).
Fig. 17. In respect of shape and structure a process of
evolution may be observed. In certain cases the
abstract linear representation gives place to
contour, the arm being drawn of a certain thickness. But I find that
the linear representation of the arm often persists after the legs
have received contour, this being probably another illustration of the
comparative neglect of the arm; as in the accompanying drawing by
a boy of five (Fig. 18 (a)). The primal rigid straightness yields later
on to the freedom of an organ. Thus an attempt is made to
represent by means of a curve the look of the bent arm, as in the
accompanying drawings by boys of five (Fig. 18 (b) and (c)). In
other cases the angle of the elbow is indicated. This last comes
comparatively late in children’s drawings, which here, too, lag behind
the crudest outline sketches of savages.
 Fig. 18 (a).
Fig. 18 (c).—A miner.
Fig. 18 (b).

The mode of insertion or

attachment of the arms is
noteworthy. Where they are added
to the trunkless figure they appear
as emerging either from the sides
of the head, as in the
accompanying drawing by a boy of
two and a half years, or from the
point of junction of the head and Fig. 19.
legs (Fig. 19; cf. above, p. 342,
Fig.7 (d) and (e)). In the case of
savage drawings wanting the trunk the arm is also inserted at this
point of junction (see above, pp. 344, 346, Figs. 10 and 13 (f)).[252]
After the trunk has been added, the mode of insertion varies still
more. In a not inconsiderable number of cases the arms spring from
the bottom of the head-circle, and sometimes even from the median
region, as before the trunk appeared (cf. above, p. 346, Fig. 14 (b)).
In the last case the most grotesque arrangements occur, as if the
arms might sprout at any point of the surface.[253] In the majority of
cases, however, and certainly among the better drawings, the arms
spring from the side of the trunk towards the median level (cf.
above, p. 341, Fig. 6 (a)).
The length of the arm is frequently exaggerated. This adds to the
self-expansive and self-proclamatory look of the mannikin, as may
be seen in the accompanying drawings by boys of five and of six
respectively (Fig. 20 (a) and (b)).

Fig. 20 (b).
Fig. 20 (a).

This arrangement of the arms stretched straight out, or less

commonly pointing obliquely upwards or downwards, continues until
the child grows bold enough to represent actions. When this stage is
reached their form and length may be materially modified, as also
their position.[254]
The arm in these childish drawings early develops the interesting
adjunct of a hand. Like other features this is apt at first to be
amusingly forced into prominence by its size, and not infrequently by
heaviness of stroke as well.
The treatment of the hand illustrates the process of artistic
evolution, the movement from a bold symbolism in the direction of a
more life-like mode of representation. Thus one of the earliest and
rudest devices I have met with, though in a few cases only, is that of
drawing strokes across the line of the arm by way of digital symbols.
Here we have merely a clumsy attempt to convey the abstract idea
of branching or bifurcation. These cross-strokes are commonly
continued upwards so that
the whole visible part of
the arm becomes tree-like.
It is an important step from
this to the drawing of twig-
like lines which bifurcate
with the line of the arm
(Fig. 21 (a) and (b)).
It is a still more
significant advance in the
process of evolution when
the digital bifurcations are
Fig. 21 (a).—Humpty Dumpty on
placed rightly, being the wall. Fig. 21 (b).
concentrated in a bunch-
like arrangement at the
extremity of the arm-line. Here, again, various modes of treatment
disclose themselves, marking stages in the development of the
artist.
The simplest device would seem to be to draw one short line on
either side of the termination of the arm-line so as to produce a rude
kind of bird’s foot form. This may be done clumsily by drawing a
stroke across at right angles to the line of the arm, or better by two
independent strokes making acute angles with this line. These two
modes of delineation manifestly represent a restriction of the two
varieties of diffuse or dispersed treatment of the fingers already
illustrated. Both forms occur among children’s drawings. They may
be found among the drawings of savages as well.[255]
In this terminal finger-arrangement the number of finger-lines
varies greatly, being, in the cases observed by me, frequently four
and five, and sometimes even as great as ten. It varies, too, greatly
in the drawings of the same child, and in some cases even in the
two hands of the same figure, showing that number is not attended
to, as may be seen in the two annexed drawings, both by boys of
five (Fig. 22 (a) and (b)). The idea seems to be to set forth a
multiplicity of branching fingers, and multiplicity here seems to mean
three or more. The same way of representing the hand by a claw-
form, in which the number of fingers is three or more, reappears in
the drawings of savages (cf. above, p. 339, Fig. 4 (c)).[256]
An important advance on
these crude devices is seen
where an attempt is made
to indicate the hand and
the relation of the fingers
to this. One of the earliest
of these attempts takes the
form of the well-known
toasting-fork or rake hand.
Fig. 22 (a). Fig. 22 (b). Here a line at right angles
to that of the arm
symbolically represents the
hand, and the fingers are set forth by the prongs or teeth (see
above, p. 341, Fig. 6 (a), and p. 349, Fig. 18 (a)). Number is here as
little attended to as in the radial arrangements. It is worth noting
that this schema seems to be widely diffused among children of
different nationalities, and occurs in the drawings of untaught adults.
I have not, however, noticed any example of it among savage
drawings.
Another way of bringing in the hand along with the fingers is by
drawing a dark central patch or knob. This not infrequently occurs
without the fingers as the symbol for hand. It becomes a complete
symbol by arranging finger-lines after the pattern of a burr about
this (see above, p. 347, Fig. 15 (a)).
A further process of artistic evolution occurs when the fingers take
on contour. This gives a look of branching leaves to the hand. The
leaf-like pattern may be varied in different ways, among others by
taking on a floral aspect of petal-like fingers about a centre, as in
the two annexed drawings by boys of six (Fig. 23 (a) and (b); cf.
above, p. 350, Fig. 20 (a)).
One curious arrangement by which a thickened arm is made to
expand into something like a fan-shaped hand appears with
considerable frequency. It is zoologically interesting as being a kind
of rough representation of the fundamental typical form from which
hand, fin, and wing
may be supposed to
have been evolved.
Here the arm sinks
into insignificance, the
whole limb taking on
the aspect of a
prolonged hand, save
where the artist
resorts to the device
of making the double
organ go across the
body (Fig. 24 (a) and
(b)). Fig. 23 (b).
The legs come in Fig. 23 (a).
for very much the
same variety of treatment as
the arms. The abstract straight
line here, as already pointed
out, soon gives place to the
pair of lines representing
thickness. They are for the
most part parallel and drawn
at some distance one from the
other, though in certain cases
Fig. 24 (a). Fig. 24 (b). there is a slight tendency to
give to the figure the look of
the ‘forked biped’ (cf. above, p.
342, Fig. 7 (c)). In a large proportion of cases there is a marked
inclination of the legs, as indeed of the whole figure, which seems to
be falling backwards (see above, pp. 340, 352, Figs. 5 (c) and 22
(b)). In many instances, in front and profile view alike, one of the
legs is drawn under the body, leaving no room for the second, which
is consequently pushed behind, and takes on the look of a tail (see
above, p. 352, Fig. 22 (b)s).
 Both legs are regularly shown alike in front and
in profile view. Yet even in this simple case
attention to number may sometimes lapse. Among
the drawings collected by me is one by a boy of
five representing the monster, a three-legged
‘biped’ (Fig. 25).[257]
The shape of the leg varies greatly. With some
children it is made short and fat. It develops a
certain amount of curvature long before it develops
a knee-bend. This is just what we should expect.
Fig. 25. The standing figure needs straight or
approximately straight legs as its support. When
the knee-bend is introduced it is very apt to be
exaggerated (cf. above, Fig. 24 (b)). This becomes still more
noticeable at a later stage, where actions, as running, are
attempted.
The treatment of the foot shows a process
of evolution similar to that seen in the
treatment of the hand. At first a bald abstract
indication or suggestion is noticeable, as
where a short line is drawn across the
extremity of the leg. In place of this a
contour-form, more especially a circle or
knob, may be used as a designation. Very
interesting here is the differentiation of
treatment according as the booted or naked
foot is represented. Children brought up in a
civilised community like England, though they
sometimes give the naked foot (see p. 342,
Fig. 26 (a).
Fig. 7 (d), where the claw pattern is
adopted), are naturally more disposed to
envisage the foot under its boot-form. Among the drawings of the
Jamaica children, presumably more familiar with the form of the
naked foot, I find both the toasting-fork and the burr arrangement,
as also a rude claw, or birch-like device used for the foot (see above,
pp. 336, 338, 345, Figs. 2, 4 (b), and 12). The toasting-fork
arrangement appears in General Pitt-Rivers’ collection of savage
drawings. Also a bird’s foot treatment often accompanies a similar
treatment of the hand in the pictographs of savage tribes, and in the
drawings of Von den Steinen’s Brazilians (see above, pp. 338, 339,
Fig. 4 (a) and (c)).
An attempt to represent the booted
foot seems to be recognisable in the
early use of a triangular form, as in
the accompanying drawing by a small
artist of five (Fig. 26 (a)).[258] Very
curious is the way in which the child
seeks to indicate the capital feature
of the boot, the division of toe and
heel. This is very frequently done by
continuing the line of the leg so as to
make a single or a double loop-
pattern, as in the following (Fig. 26
Fig. 26 (b). (b), (c); cf. above, p. 342, Fig. 7 (b)).
Fig. 26 (c). A tendency to a more restrained and
naturalistic treatment is sometimes
seen (see above, p. 354, Fig. 24 (a)
and (b)). It may be added that the notch between toe and heel is
almost always exaggerated. This may be seen by a glance at Figs.
17 and 22 (a), pp. 348, 352. The same thing is noticeable in a
drawing by a young Zulu in General Pitt-Rivers’ collection.
 Front and Side View of Human Figure.
So far, I have dealt only with the treatment of the front view of
the human face and figure. New and highly curious characteristics
come into view when the child attempts to give the profile aspect.
This comes considerably later than the early lunar representation of
the full face.
Children still more than adults are interested in the full face with
its two flashing and fascinating eyes. ‘If,’ writes a lady teacher of
considerable experience in the Kindergarten, ‘one makes drawings in
profile for quite little children, they will not be satisfied unless they
see two eyes; and sometimes they turn a picture round to see the
other side.’ This reminds one of a story told by Catlin of the Indian
chief, who was so angry at a representation of himself in profile that
the unfortunate artist was in fear of his life.
At the same time children do not rest content with this front view.
There is, I believe, ample reason to say that, quite apart from
teaching, they find their own way to a new mode of representing the
face and figure which, though it would be an error to call it a profile
drawing, has some of the characteristics of what we understand by
this expression.
The first clear indication of an attempt to give the profile aspect of
the face is the introduction of the angular line of the side view of the
nose into the contour. The little observer is soon impressed by the
characteristic, well-marked outline of the nose in profile; and as he
cannot make much of the front view of the organ, he naturally
begins at an early stage, certainly by the fifth year, to vary the
scheme of the lunar circle, broken at most by the ears, by a
projection answering to a profile nose.
This change is sometimes made without any other, so that we get
what has been called the mixed scheme, in which the eyes and
mouth retain their front-view aspect. This I find very common
among children of five. It may be found—even in the trunkless figure
—along with a linear mouth (see above, pp. 340-
344, Figs. 5 (c) and following, also 11 (a)). The
nasal line is, needless to say, treated with great
freedom. There is commonly a good deal of
exaggeration of size. In certain cases the nose is
added in the form of a spindle to the completed
circle (Fig. 27; cf. above, p. 340, Fig. 5 (c)).
It may well seem a puzzle to us how a normal
child of five or six can complacently set down
this irrational and inconsistent scheme of a
human head. We must see what can be said by
way of explanation later on. It is to be noticed,
further, that in certain cases the self- Fig. 27.
contradiction goes to the point of doubling the
nose. That is to say, although the interesting new feature, the profile
nose, is introduced, earlier habit asserts itself so that the vertical
nasal line appears between the two eyes (see above, p. 349, Fig. 18
(c)).
The further process of differentiation of the profile from the
primitive full-face scheme is effected in part by adding other features
than the nose to the contour. Thus a notch for the mouth appears in
some cases below the nasal projection (Fig. 28 (a)), though the
grinning front view is apt to hold its own pertinaciously. A beard,
especially the short ‘imperial,’ as it used to be called, shooting out
like the nose from the side, also helps to mark profile.[259] Less
frequently an ear, and in a very few cases, hair, are added on the
hinder side of the head, and assist the impression of profile.
Adjuncts, especially the pipe, and sometimes the peak of the cap,
contribute to the effect, as in the accompanying drawing by a boy of
six (Fig. 28 (b); cf. above, Figs. 6 (a), 18 (c), and 24 (b), pp. 341,
349, 354).[260]
At the same time the front features themselves undergo
modification. The big grinning mouth is dropped and one of the eyes
omitted. The exact way in which this occurs appears to vary with
different children. In certain cases it is clear that the front view of
the mouth cavity disappears, giving place to a rough attempt to
 render a side view,
before the second eye
is expunged; and in one
case I have detected a
survival of the two eyes
in what otherwise
would be a consistent
profile drawing of head
and figure (Fig. 29 (a);
cf. above, p. 349, Fig.
18 (b)). This late
survival of the two eyes
agrees with the results
of observation on the
drawings of the
Fig. 28 (b). uncultured adult. One
of General Pitt-Rivers’
Fig. 28 (a).
African boys inserted
the two eyes in a profile
drawing. Von den Steinen’s Brazilians drew by preference the full
face, so that we cannot well judge as to how they would have
treated the profile. Yet it is curious to note that in what is clearly a
drawing of a side view of a fish one of these Brazilians introduces
both eyes (Fig. 29 (b)). The insertion of two eyes is said by some
never to occur in the drawings of savages on stone, hide, etc.[261]
But I have come across what seems to me a clear example of it, and
this in a fairly good sketch of a profile view of the human figure on
an Indian vase (Fig. 29 (c)).[262] Yet this late retention of the two
eyes in profile, though the general rule in children’s drawings, is
liable to exceptions. Thus I have found a child retaining the big front
view of the mouth along with a single eye.