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Arduino-Based Embedded
Systems
 Arduino-Based Embedded
Systems
Interfacing, Simulation, and LabVIEW GUI

Rajesh Singh
Anita Gehlot
Bhupendra Singh
Sushabhan Choudhury
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1380-6078-4 (Hardback)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-315-16288-1 (ebook)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
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have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Singh, Rajesh (Electrical engineer), author. | Gehlot, Anita, author.

| Singh, Bhupendra, author. | Choudhury, Sushabhan, author.
Title: Arduino-based embedded systems : interfacing, simulation, and LabVIEW
GUI / Rajesh Singh, Anita Gehlot, Bhupendra Singh and Sushabhan Choudhury.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017029926 | ISBN 9781138060784 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315162881 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Embedded computer systems--Programming. | Arduino
(Programmable controller)--Programming. | LabVIEW.
Classification: LCC TK7895.E42 S548 2018 | DDC 006.2/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017029926

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................... xiii

About the Authors ................................................................................................xv

Section I Introduction

1. Introduction to Arduino ................................................................................3

1.1 Arduino Uno .......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Arduino Mega ....................................................................................... 4
1.3 Arduino Nano .......................................................................................5

2. Steps to Write a Program with Arduino Integrated

Development Environment ..........................................................................7
2.1 Steps to Install Arduino Integrated Development Environment..... 7
2.2 Basic Commands for Arduino .......................................................... 11

3. Steps to Design a Proteus Simulation Model ......................................... 13

4. Introduction to LabVIEW GUI .................................................................. 19

4.1 Steps to Design LabVIEW GUI.......................................................... 19
4.2 Building the Front Panel ....................................................................22
4.3 Building the Block Diagram .............................................................. 23
4.4 Virtual Instrument Software Architecture ..................................... 24
4.4.1 Components Used to Design LabVIEW GUI ..................... 25

5. LabVIEW Interfacing with the Proteus Simulation Software ............ 29

5.1 Virtual Serial Port Emulator .............................................................. 29

Section II Arduino and I/O Devices

6. Arduino and Display Devices .................................................................... 37

6.1 Arduino and Light Emitting Diode.................................................. 37
6.1.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 38
6.1.2 Program ................................................................................... 40
6.1.3 Proteus Simulation Model .................................................... 40
6.2 Arduino and Liquid Crystal Display ............................................... 41
6.2.1 Circuit Diagram .....................................................................42
6.2.2 Program ...................................................................................43
6.2.3 Proteus Simulation Model ....................................................44

v
vi Contents

7. Arduino and Digital Input/Output Devices ........................................... 45

7.1 Push Button and Light Emitting Diode/Liquid
Crystal Display ................................................................................ 45
7.2 Push Button–Digital “LOW” ............................................................. 47
7.2.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 47
7.2.2 Program ................................................................................... 49
7.2.3 Proteus Simulation Model .................................................... 50
7.3 Push Button–Digital “HIGH” ............................................................ 51
7.3.1 Program ................................................................................... 53
7.3.2 Proteus Simulation Model ....................................................54
7.4 Fire Sensor and Light Emitting Diode/Liquid Crystal Display ...... 55
7.4.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 57
7.4.2 Program ................................................................................... 59
7.4.3 Proteus Simulation Model .................................................... 60
7.5 Passive Infrared Sensor and Light Emitting Diode/Liquid
Crystal Display .................................................................................... 61
7.5.1 Circuit Diagram .....................................................................63
7.5.2 Program ...................................................................................63
7.5.3 Proteus Simulation Model ....................................................65
7.6 Alcohol Sensor and Light Emitting Diode/Liquid
Crystal Display .................................................................................... 67
7.6.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 69
7.6.2 Program ................................................................................... 71
7.6.3 Proteus Simulation Model .................................................... 72

8. Arduino and Analog Devices..................................................................... 75

8.1 Ultrasonic Sensor and Liquid Crystal Display ............................... 75
8.2 Ultrasonic Sensor—Serial Out .......................................................... 76
8.2.1 Circuit Diagram .....................................................................77
8.2.2 Program ................................................................................... 79
8.2.3 Proteus Simulation Model ....................................................80
8.3 Ultrasonic Sensor—PWM Out .......................................................... 81
8.3.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 81
8.3.2 Program ...................................................................................83
8.3.2.1 Ultrasonic Sensor—PWM OUT ...........................83
8.3.3 Proteus Simulation Model ....................................................84
8.4 Temperature Sensor and Liquid Crystal Display...........................85
8.5 Temperature Sensor-Analog Out ...................................................... 86
8.5.1 Circuit Diagram ..................................................................... 86
8.5.1.1 Temperature Sensor Analog Out ......................... 86
8.5.2 Program ................................................................................... 88
8.5.2.1 Program LM35—Analog Out ............................... 88
8.5.3 Proteus Simulation Model .................................................... 88
Contents vii

8.6 Humidity/Temperature Sensor—Serial Out ................................90

8.6.1 Circuit Diagram ................................................................. 91
8.6.1.1 Temperature Sensor (Serial Out) ................... 91
8.6.2 Program .............................................................................. 93
8.6.2.1 Temp/Humidity Sensor—Serial Out............ 93
8.7 Light-Dependent Resistor with Liquid Crystal Display ............. 94
8.8 Light-Dependent Resistor—Analog Out ....................................... 94
8.8.1 Circuit Diagram ................................................................. 96
8.8.2 Program .............................................................................. 98
8.8.2.1 Light-Dependent Resistor—Analog Out ...... 98
8.8.3 Proteus Simulation Model................................................ 99
8.9 Light Intensity Sensor—I2C Out .................................................. 100
8.9.1 Circuit Diagram ............................................................... 101
8.9.2 Program ............................................................................ 103
8.9.2.1 LDR TWI (I2C) Out........................................ 103
8.10 Servo Motor and the Liquid Crystal Display.............................. 103
8.10.1 Circuit Diagram ...............................................................105
8.10.2 Program ............................................................................107
8.10.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 107

9. Arduino and Motors/Actuators................................................................ 109

9.1 DC Motor ......................................................................................... 109
9.1.1 Circuit Diagram ............................................................... 111
9.1.2 Program ............................................................................ 113
9.1.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 114
9.2 Stepper Motor .................................................................................. 115
9.2.1 Circuit Diagram ............................................................... 117
9.2.2 Program ............................................................................ 119
9.2.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 120
9.3 AC Motor with Relay ...................................................................... 121
9.3.1 Circuit Diagram ...............................................................122
9.3.2 Program ............................................................................124
9.3.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 124

Section III Arduino and Wireless Communication

10. Arduino and Wireless Communication ................................................. 129

10.1 RF Modem (2.4 GHz) ...................................................................... 129
10.1.1 Circuit Diagram ............................................................... 131
10.1.1.1 Transmitter Section ....................................... 131
10.1.1.2 Receiver Section ............................................. 132
viii Contents

10.1.2 Program ............................................................................ 134

10.1.2.1 Transmitter Program ..................................... 134
10.1.2.2 Receiver Program .......................................... 134
10.1.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 135
10.2 Global System for Mobile Modem ................................................ 136
10.2.1 Circuit Diagram ............................................................... 138
10.2.2 Program ............................................................................ 140
10.2.2.1 Main Program ................................................ 140
10.2.3 Proteus Simulation Model.............................................. 142

Section IV Projects

11. 2.4 GHz RF Modem-Based Security System for Restricted Area ..... 145
11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 145
11.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 146
11.3 Program ............................................................................................ 149
11.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 149
11.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 150
11.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 151
11.5 LabVIEW GUI ................................................................................. 152

12. Campus Fire Monitoring System with a 2.4 GHz RF Modem .......... 155
12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 155
12.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 156
12.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 156
12.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 157
12.3 Program ............................................................................................ 158
12.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 158
12.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 159
12.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 160
12.5 LabVIEW GUI ................................................................................. 161

13. Light-Dependent Resistor-Based Light Intensity Control System .......165

13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 165
13.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 167
13.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 167
13.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 167
13.3 Program ............................................................................................ 168
13.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 168
13.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 169
13.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 170
13.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 171
Contents ix

14. DC Motor Control System with LabVIEW GUI ................................... 173

14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 173
14.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 175
14.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 175
14.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 175
14.3 Program ............................................................................................ 178
14.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 178
14.3.2 Receiver Program ............................................................ 180
14.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 181
14.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 183

15. Stepper Motor Control System with LabVIEW GUI ........................... 185
15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 185
15.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 187
15.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 187
15.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 187
15.3 Program ............................................................................................ 190
15.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 190
15.3.2 Receiver Program ............................................................ 191
15.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 193
15.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 195

16. Accelerometer-Based Laboratory Automation System ....................... 197

16.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 197
16.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 199
16.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 199
16.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 199
16.3 Program ............................................................................................ 202
16.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 202
16.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 203
16.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 205

17. Temperature Monitoring System Using RF Modem .......................... 207

17.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 207
17.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 208
17.2.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 208
17.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 209
17.3 Program ............................................................................................ 211
17.3.1 Transmitter Section ......................................................... 211
17.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 211
17.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 212
17.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 213
x Contents

18. Emergency Hooter in the Case of a Disaster......................................... 215

18.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 215
18.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 217
18.2.1 Sensor Node ..................................................................... 217
18.2.2 Server................................................................................. 218
18.3 Program ............................................................................................ 220
18.3.1 Sensor Node .....................................................................220
18.3.2 Server ................................................................................. 221
18.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 224
18.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 226

19. LabVIEW GUI-Based Wireless Robot Control System....................... 229

19.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 229
19.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 231
19.2.1 Transmitter Section..........................................................231
19.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 231
19.3 Program ............................................................................................234
19.3.1 Transmitter Program ....................................................... 234
19.3.2 Receiver Program ............................................................ 235
19.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 237
19.5 LabVIEW GUI .................................................................................. 237

20. Home Automation System Using DTMF............................................... 239

20.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 239
20.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 240
20.3 Program ............................................................................................ 243
20.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 246

21. RFID Card-Based Attendance System ................................................... 247

21.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 247
21.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 248
21.2.1 Steps to Read RFID Reader ............................................ 248
21.2.1.1 Program to Extract the Code .......................... 250
21.2.2 Connections...................................................................... 250
21.3 Program ............................................................................................ 252

22. Global System for Mobile-Based Emergency System ......................... 255

22.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 255
22.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 256
22.3 Program ............................................................................................ 259
22.3.1 Program to Write the Message.......................................259
22.3.2 Program to Read the Message ....................................... 260
22.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 272
Contents xi

23. Coordinate Display System Using GPS ................................................. 275

23.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 275
23.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 277
23.2.1 Transmitter Section..........................................................277
23.2.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 278
23.3 Program ............................................................................................ 280
23.3.1 Transmitter Section..........................................................280
23.3.2 Receiver Section ............................................................... 281
23.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 283

24. Fingerprint-Based Attendance System .................................................. 285

24.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 285
24.1.1 Types of Function ............................................................ 285
24.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 286
24.3 Program ............................................................................................ 288
24.3.1 Finger Print Circuit ‘Test Program’ ...............................288
24.3.2 Main Program ................................................................. 290

25. Wireless Irrigation System for Agricultural Field ............................... 293

25.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 293
25.2 Circuit Diagram .............................................................................. 295
25.2.1 Remote Control ................................................................295
25.2.2 Sensor Node ..................................................................... 295
25.3 Program ............................................................................................ 298
25.3.1 Remote Control ................................................................298
25.3.2 Sensor Node ..................................................................... 299
25.4 Proteus Simulation Model ............................................................. 303

Index .....................................................................................................................305
Preface

The primary objective of writing this book is to provide a platform for

beginners to get started with the Arduino-based embedded system and who
need a basic knowledge of programming and interfacing of the devices.
The aim of this book is to explain the basic steps to get started with the
Arduino and to develop an understanding of the interfacing, programming,
and simulation of the designed systems.
This book comprises 25 chapters and is divided into 4 sections. Section I of
this book is about the introduction to the basic software that is required to
get started with the Arduino. Section II is about interfacing of display devices
and basic input/output devices such as sensors and motors. Section III is about
the interfacing of basic communication modules such as RF modem and
global system for mobile (GSM). Section IV includes examples of Arduino-
based projects. This book is intended to serve the students of B.Tech/B.E,
M.Tech/M.E, PhD scholars, and who need the basic knowledge to develop a
real-time system using the Arduino.
We acknowledge the support from Sunrom technologies, Robosoft
systems, and Robokits India for using their product images and data to
demonstrate and explain the working of the systems. We thank Taylor &
Francis/CRC Press for encouraging our idea about this book and the sup-
port to efficiently manage the project.
We are grateful to the honorable chancellor Dr. S.J Chopra, Utpal Ghosh
(President & CEO, UPES), Dr. Srihari (Vice-chancellor, University of Petroleum
and Energy Studies (UPES)), Dr. Kamal Bansal (Dean, CoES, UPES), Dr.
Suresh Kumar (Director, UPES), and Dr. Piyush Kuchhal (Associate Dean,
UPES) for their support and constant encouragement. In addition, we are
thankful to our families, friends, relatives, colleagues, and students for their
moral support and blessings.
Although the circuits and programs mentioned in the text are tested on
real hardware but in case of any mistake we extend our sincere apologies.
Any suggestions to improve in the contents of the book are always welcome
and will be appreciated and acknowledged.

Rajesh Singh
Anita Gehlot
Bhupendra Singh
Sushabhan Choudhury

xiii
About the Authors

Dr. Rajesh Singh is currently associated with

the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun, India, as an associate professor and
with additional responsibility as Head, Institute
of Robotics Technology (R&D). He has been
awarded a gold medal in MTech and honors
in his BTech. His area of expertise includes
embedded systems, robotics, and wireless sen-
sor networks. He has organized and conducted
a number of workshops, summer internships,
and expert lectures for students as well as
faculty. He has 12 patents in his account. He has published approximately
100 research papers in refereed journals/conferences.
Under his mentorship, students have participated in national/international
competitions, including Texas Instruments Innovation Challenge in Delhi
and Laureate award of excellence in robotics engineering in Spain. Twice in
the last 4 years he has been awarded with a certificate of appreciation from
the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies for his exemplary work. He
received a certificate of appreciation for mentoring the projects submitted to
the Texas Instruments India Innovation Challenge Design Contest 2015 from
Texas Instruments. He has been honored with a young investigator award
at the International Conference on Science and Information in 2012. He has
published a book titled Embedded System based on Atmega Microcontroller with
the NAROSA publishing house. He is an editor to a special issue published
by the Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing (AISC) book series,
Springer titled Intelligent Communication, Control and Devices 2016.

xv
xvi About the Authors

Anita Gehlot has more than 10 years of teaching

experience with an area of expertise in embed-
ded systems and wireless sensor networks. She
has 10 patents in her account. She has published
more than 50 research papers in both refereed
journals and conferences. She has organized a
number of workshops, summer internships,
and expert lectures for students. She has been
awarded with a certificate of appreciation from
the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun, India, for her exemplary work. She
has coauthored a book titled Embedded System
based on Atmega Microcontroller with the NAROSA
publication house.

Bhupendra Singh is the managing director of

Schematics Microelectronics and provides
product design and R&D support to industries
and universities. He has completed BCA,
PGDCA, MSc (CS), MTech, and has more than
11 years of experience in the field of computer
networking and embedded systems.
About the Authors xvii

Dr. S. Choudhury is the head of the Department

of Electronics, Instrumentation, and Control at
the University of Petroleum and Energy
Studies, Dehradun, India. He has 26 years of
teaching experience and he earned his PhD
from the University of Petroleum and Energy
Studies, MTech (Gold Medalist) from Tezpur
Central University, Tezpur, India, and earned
his BE degree from National Institute of
Technology Silchar, India. He has published
more than 70 papers in various national/
international conferences/journals and has filed 10 patents. His area of
interest is Zigbee-based wireless networks. Dr. Choudhury has been
selected as the outstanding scientist of the twenty-first century by the
Cambridge Biographical Centre, Cambridge, UK. He has also been selected
in the who’s who of the world in science by Marquis Who’s Who, New
Providence, New Jersey. He has coauthored a book titled Embedded System
based on Atmega Microcontroller with the NAROSA publishing house. He is
an editor to a special issue published by the AISC book series, Springer,
titled Intelligent Communication, Control and Devices 2016.
 Section I

Introduction
1
Introduction to Arduino

Arduino is a user-friendly open-source platform. Arduino has an onboard

microcontroller and an integrated development environment (IDE) is used
to program it. Arduino board can be programmed directly from the PC
using FTDI which is easy compared to other similar platforms.
The advantages are as follows:

Low cost: Arduino boards are of relatively low cost as compared to other
microcontroller platforms.
Cross-platform: The Arduino software (IDE) is compatible with the
Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems.
User friendly: The Arduino software (IDE) is user friendly and easy to
use for beginners and very flexible for skilled programmers.
Open source: The Arduino is an open-source software and can be pro-
grammed with C, C++, or AVR-C languages. So, a variety of mod-
ules can be designed by the users.

Arduino platform comprises a microcontroller. It can be connected to a PC

through a USB cable. It is freely accessible and can be easily downloaded.
It can also be modified by a programmer. Different versions of Arduino
boards are available in the market depending on the user requirement.

1.1 Arduino Uno

The Arduino/Genuino Uno has an onboard ATmega328 microcontroller.
It has onboard six analog input ports (A0–A5). Each pin can operate at 0–5 V.
It has 14 digital input/output (I/O) pins out of which 6 are PWM output, 6 ana-
log inputs, 2 KB SRAM, 1 KB EEPROM, and operates at 16 MHz of frequency
(Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1).

3
4 Arduino-Based Embedded Systems

FIGURE 1.1
Arduino Uno board.

TABLE 1.1
Pin Description of Arduino Uno
Pin Description

Vin The external voltage to the Arduino board

+5 V +5 V regulated output
3.3 V On board 3.3 V supply
GND Ground
IOREF Provides the voltage reference and select appropriate power source
Serial Transmits and receives serial data, Pins: 0(Rx) 1(Tx)
External interrupts Trigger an interrupt on low value, Pins: 2 and 3
PWM Provides 8 bit PWM output, Pins: 3,5,6,9,10,11
SPI Supports SPI communication, Pins: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO),
and 13 (SCK)
LED LED driven by Pin 13
TWI Supports TWI communication, Pins: A4 (SDA), A5 (SCL)
AREF Reference voltage for the analog inputs
Reset It is used to reset the onboard microcontroller

1.2 Arduino Mega

The Arduino Uno has onboard ATmega2560 microcontroller. It has onboard
16 analog inputs, 54 digital I/O, USB connection, 4 UART, power jack, and
a reset button. It operates at 16 MHz frequency. The board can be operated
with 5–12 V of external power; if supplied more than this, it can damage the
board. It has onboard 256 KB flash memory, 8 KB SRAM, and 4 KB EEPROM
(Figure 1.2 and Table 1.2).
Introduction to Arduino 5

FIGURE 1.2
Arduino Mega board.

TABLE 1.2
Pin Description of Arduino Mega
Pin Description

Vin The external voltage to the Arduino board

+5 V +5 V regulated output
3.3 V Onboard 3.3 V supply
GND Ground
IOREF Provides the voltage reference and select an appropriate power
source
Serial0 Transmits and receives serial data, Pins: 0(Rx) 1(Tx)
Serial1 Transmits and receives serial data, Pins: 19(Rx) 18(Tx)
Serial2 Transmits and receives serial data, Pins: 17(Rx) 16(Tx)
External interrupts Trigger an interrupt on low value, Pins: 2 (interrupt0), 3 (interrupt1),
18 (interrupt5), 19 (interrupt4), and 20 (interrupt2)
PWM Provides 8 bit PWM output, Pins: 2–13 and 44–46
SPI Supports SPI communication, Pins: 53 (SS), 51 (MOSI), 50 (MISO),
and 52 (SCK)
LED LED driven by Pin 13
TWI Supports TWI communication, Pins: 20 (SDA), 21 (SCL)
AREF Reference voltage for the analog inputs
Reset It is used to reset the onboard microcontroller

1.3 Arduino Nano

The Arduino/Genuino Nano has onboard ATmega328 microcontroller. It has
onboard 8 analog and 14 digital I/O ports and 6 PWM of 8 bit. Each pin
can operate at 0–5 V. It has onboard 32 KB flash memory, 2 KB SRAM, 1 KB
EEPROM, and operates at 16 MHz of frequency (Figure 1.3 and Table 1.3).
6 Arduino-Based Embedded Systems

FIGURE 1.3
Arduino Nano board.

TABLE 1.3
Pin Description of Arduino Nano
Pin Description

Vin The external voltage to the Arduino board

+5 V +5 V regulated output
3.3 V Onboard 3.3 V supply
GND Ground
IOREF Provides the voltage reference and select an appropriate power
source
Serial Transmits and receives serial data, Pins: 0(Rx) 1(Tx)
External interrupts Trigger an interrupt on low value, Pins: 2 & 3
PWM Provides 8 bit PWM output, Pins: 3,5,6,9,10,11
SPI Supports SPI communication, Pins: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO),
and 13 (SCK)
LED LED driven by Pin 13
I2C Supports TWI communication, Pins: A4 (SDA), A5 (SCL)
AREF Reference voltage for the analog inputs
Reset It is used to reset the onboard microcontroller
2
Steps to Write a Program with Arduino
Integrated Development Environment

This chapter describes the steps to write and compile a program with
Arduino integrated development environment (IDE). The Arduino IDE is an
open-source software which makes it user friendly for writing the code and
then upload directly on Arduino board.

2.1 Steps to Install Arduino Integrated

Development Environment
Step 1: Install Arduino IDE and open the Window
To begin, install the Arduino Programmer, IDE. Figure 2.1 shows the
opened window Arduino IDE.
Step 2: Choose suitable version of Arduino
Arduino has many versions such as Uno, Mega, and Nano. The most
common is the Arduino Uno. Before starting the program find out
the suitable version of Arduino board for the project. Set the board type
and the USB serial port of board in the Arduino IDE. Figure 2.2 shows
the steps to select the type of Arduino. Click on “Tool,” and then click
on “board.” Figure 2.2 shows the selection of “Arduino Uno.”
Step 3: Write and compile the program
Write program as per requirement of the project. Then “RUN” the
program. Figure 2.3 shows the compilation of the program.

FIGURE 2.1
Window Arduino IDE.

7
8 Arduino-Based Embedded Systems

FIGURE 2.2
Window to select type of Arduino.

FIGURE 2.3
Compile the program.
Steps to Write a Program with Arduino IDE 9

Step 4: Connect Arduino with the PC

Connect Arduino to the USB port of the PC with USB cable. Every
Arduino has a different serial-port address (e.g., COM2 and COM4),
so it is required to recognize the port for the different Arduino and
select it in the IDE.
To check the port where the Arduino is connected, make right
click on the “PC,” then go to manager; a window will open. Then
double click on the “Device Manager.” A window as shown in
Figure 2.4 will open. Click on the ports (COM&LPT) and the port at
which the device is connected can be found. Figure shows “COM6”
is port for the device.
Now click on the “Tool” heading of the Arduino IDE window.
Go to port and select the same port number, which was found at the
device manager (select COM1 or COM2 etc.). Figure 2.5 shows the
“COM6” as serial port of board.
Step 5: Upload program in Arduino
Uploaded the new program to Arduino. Figure 2.6 shows how to
upload the program.

FIGURE 2.4
Window to check port of Arduino.
10 Arduino-Based Embedded Systems

FIGURE 2.5
The serial port of board.

FIGURE 2.6
Window to upload the program in Arduino.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Literary
values, and other papers
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Title: Literary values, and other papers

Author: John Burroughs

Release date: July 23, 2024 [eBook #74104]

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Original publication: Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company,

1902

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LITERARY VALUES

AND OTHER PAPERS

BY

JOHN BURROUGHS

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
 The Riverside Press, Cambridge
1902
COPYRIGHT 1902 BY JOHN BURROUGHS
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Published December, 1902

 CONTENTS
PAGE

I. Literary Values 1
II. Analogy—True and False 27
III. Style and the Man 52
IV. Criticism and the Man 80
V. Recent Phases of Literary Criticism 109
VI. “Thou shalt not preach” 134
VII. Democracy and Literature 151
VIII. Poetry and Eloquence 161
IX. Gilbert White again 168
X. Lucid Literature 180
XI. “Mere Literature” 186
XII. Another Word on Emerson 191
XIII. Thoreau’s Wildness 197
XIV. Nature in Literature 203
XV. Suggestiveness 205
XVI. On the Re-reading of Books 216
XVII. The Spell of the Past 232
XVIII. The Secret of Happiness 244
LITERARY VALUES
 I
LITERARY VALUES
I

T HE day inevitably comes to every writer when he must take his

place amid the silent throngs of the past, when no new work
from his pen can call attention to him afresh, when the partiality of
his friends no longer counts, when his friends and admirers are
themselves gathered to the same silent throng, and the spirit of the
day in which he wrote has given place to the spirit of another and a
different day. How, oh, how will it fare with him then? How is it
going to fare with Lowell and Longfellow and Whittier and Emerson
and all the rest of them? How has it fared with so many names in
the past, that were, in their own day, on all men’s tongues? Of the
names just mentioned, Whittier and Emerson shared more in a
particular movement of thought and morals of the times in which
they lived than did the other two, and to that extent are they in
danger of dropping out and losing their vogue. Both had a
significance to their own day and generation that they can hardly
have to any other. The new times will have new soul maladies and
need other soul doctors. The fashions of this world pass away—
fashions in thought, in style, in humor, in morals, as well as in
anything else.
As men strip for a race, so must an author strip for this race with
time. All that is purely local and accidental in him will only impede
him; all that is put on or assumed will impede him—his affectations,
his insincerities, his imitations; only what is vital and real in him, and
is subdued to the proper harmony and proportion, will count. A
malformed giant will not in this race keep pace with the lesser but
better-built stripling. How many more learned and ponderous tomes
has Gilbert White’s little book left behind! Mere novelty, how short-
lived is that! Every age will have its own novelties. Every age will
have its own hobbies and hobbyists, its own clowns, its own follies
and fashions and infatuations. What every age will not have in the
same measure is sanity, proportion, health, penetration, simplicity.
The strained and overwrought, the fantastic and far-fetched, are
sure to drop out. Every pronounced style, like Carlyle’s, is sure to
suffer. The obscurities and affectations of some recent English poets
and novelists are certain to drag them down. Browning, with his
sudden leaps and stops, and all that Italian rubbish, is fearfully
handicapped.
Things do not endure in this world without a certain singleness and
continence. Trees do not grow and stand upright without a certain
balance and proportion. A man does not live out half his days
without a certain simplicity of life. Excesses, irregularities, violences,
kill him. It is the same with books—they, too, are under the same
law; they hold the gift of life on the same terms. Only an honest
book can live; only absolute sincerity can stand the test of time. Any
selfish or secondary motive vitiates a work of art, as it vitiates a
religious life. Indeed, I doubt if we fully appreciate the literary value
of the staple, fundamental human virtues and qualities—probity,
directness, simplicity, sincerity, love. There is just as much room and
need for the exercise of these qualities in the making of a book as in
the building of a house, or in a business career. How conspicuous
they are in all the enduring books—in Bunyan, in Walton, in Defoe,
in the Bible! It is they that keep alive such a book as “Two Years
before the Mast,” which Stevenson pronounced the best sea-story in
the language, as it undoubtedly is. None of Stevenson’s books have
quite this probity and singleness of purpose, or show this effacement
of the writer by the man. It might be said that our interest in such
books is not literary at all, but purely human, like our interest in
“Robinson Crusoe,” or in life and things themselves. The experience
itself of a sailor’s life, however, would be to most of us very prosy
and distasteful. Hence there is something in the record, something in
the man behind the record, that colors his pages, and that is the
source of our interest. This personal element, this flavor of character,
is the salt of literature. Without it, the page is savorless.
II
It is curious what an uncertain and seemingly capricious thing
literary value is. How often it refuses to appear when diligently
sought for, labored for, prayed for; and then comes without call to
some simple soul that never gave it a thought. Learning cannot
compass it, rhetoric cannot compass it, study cannot compass it.
Mere wealth of language is entirely inadequate. It is like religion:
often those who have it most have it least, and those who have it
least have it most. In the works of the great composers—Gibbon, De
Quincey, Macaulay—it is a conscious, deliberate product. Then, in
other works, the very absence of the literary motive and interest
gives an æsthetic pleasure.
One is surprised to read the remark of the “Saturday Review” on the
published letters of Whitman,—letters that have no extrinsic literary
value whatever, not one word of style,—namely, that few books are
so well calculated to “purge the soul of nonsense;” and the remark
of the fastidious Henry James on the same subject, that, with all
their enormities of the common, the letters are positively delightful.
Here, again, the source of our interest is undoubtedly in the
personal revelation,—the type of man we see through the letters,
and not in any wit or wisdom lodged in the letters themselves.
One reader seeks religious or moral values alone in the works he
reads; another seeks scientific or philosophical values; another,
artistic and literary values; others, again, purely human values. No
one, I think, would read Scott or Dickens for purely artistic values,
while, on the other hand, it seems to me that one would go to Mr.
James or to Mr. Howells for little else. One might read Froude with
pleasure who had little confidence in him as an historian, but one
could hardly read Freeman and discount him in the same way; one
might have great delight in Ruskin, who repudiated much of his
teaching.
I suppose one comes to like plain literature as he comes to like plain
clothes, plain manners, simple living. What grows with us is the
taste for the genuine, the real. The less a writer’s style takes thought
of itself, the better we like it. The less his dress, his equipage, his
house, concern themselves about appearances, the more we are
pleased with them. Let the purpose be entirely serious, and let the
seriousness be pushed till it suggests the heroic; that is what we
crave as we grow older and tire of the vanities and shams of the
world.
To have literary value is not necessarily to suggest books or
literature; it is to possess a certain genuineness and seriousness that
is like the validity of real things. See how much better literature
Lincoln’s speech at Gettysburg is than the more elaborate and
scholarly address of Everett on the same occasion. General Grant’s
“Memoirs” have a higher literary value than those of any other
general in our Civil War, mainly because of the greater simplicity,
seriousness, and directness of the personality they reveal. There is
no more vanity and make-believe in the book than there was in the
man. Any touch of the elemental, of the veracity and singleness of
the natural forces, gives value to a man’s utterances, and Lincoln
and Grant were undoubtedly the two most elemental men brought
out by the war. The literary value of the Bible, doubtless, arises
largely from its elemental character. The utterances of simple,
unlettered men—farmers, sailors, soldiers—often have great force
and impressiveness from the same cause; there are in them the
virtue and seriousness of real things. One great danger of schools,
colleges, libraries, is that they tend to kill or to overlay this elemental
quality in a man—to make the poet speak from his culture instead of
from his heart. “To speak in literature with the perfect rectitude and
insouciance of the movement of animals and the unimpeachableness
of the sentiment of trees in the woods and grass by the roadside, is
the flawless triumph of art;” and who so likely to do this as the
simple, unbookish man? Hence Sainte-Beuve says the peasant
always has style.
In fiction the literary value resides in several different things, as the
characterization, the action, the plot, and the style; sometimes more
in one, sometimes more in another. In Scott, for instance, it is found
in the characters and the action; the style is commonplace. In
George Eliot, the action, the dramatic power, is the weakest factor.
In Mr. Howells we care very little for the people, but the art, the
style, is a perpetual delight. In Hawthorne our pleasure, again, is
more evenly distributed. In Poe the plot and the style interest us. In
Dickens it is the character and the action. The novelist has many
strings to his bow, and he can get along very well without style, but
what can the poet, the historian, the essayist, the critic, do without
style—that is, without that vital, intimate, personal relation between
the man and his language which seems to be the secret of style?
The true poet makes the words his own; he fills them with his own
quality, though they be the common property of all. This is why
language, in the hands of the born writer, is not the mere garment
of thought, not even a perfectly adjusted and transparent garment,
as a French writer puts it. It is a garment only as the body is the
garment of the soul. This is why a writer with a style loses so much
in a translation, while with the ordinary composer translation is little
more than a change of garments.
I should say that the literary value of the modern French writers and
critics resides more in their style than in anything else, while with
the German it resides least in the style; in the English it resides in
both thought and style. The French fall below the English in lyric
poetry, because, while the Frenchman has more vanity, he has less
egoism, and hence less power to make the universe speak through
him. The solitude of the lyric is too much for his intensely social
nature, while he excels in the light dramatic forms for this very
reason. He has more power of intellectual metamorphosis.
Apart from style and the other qualities I have mentioned, is another
gift, the gift of narration—the story-teller’s gift, which novelists have
in varying degrees. Probably few of them have this talent in so large
a measure as Wilkie Collins had it, yet this power does not of itself
seem sufficient to save his work from oblivion. Still apart from these
qualities, and of high literary worth, and apart from the
attractiveness of the subject matter, is the power to interest. Can
you interest me in what you have to say, by your manner of saying
it? This is one of the most intimate and personal gifts of all. No
matter what the subject, some writers, like some speakers, catch
our attention at once, and hold it to the end. They appear to be
telling us some important bit of news which they are in a hurry to be
delivered of. No time or words are wasted. There is something
special and imminent in the look and tone. The sentences are
definitely aimed. The man knows what he wants to say and is
himself interested in it. His mind is not somnolent or stagnant; the
style is specific and direct—no benumbing effects of vague and
featureless generalizations. The thoughts move, they make a
current, and the reader quickly yields himself to it. How soon we tire
of the mumbling, soliloquizing style, where the writer seems talking
to himself. He must talk to his reader and must catch his eye.
Then those dead-level sentences that seem to return forever into
themselves, that have no direction or fall, that do not point and
hurry to some definite conclusion,—we soon yawn over these too.
What rare power the late Henry George had to invest his subject
with interest! What a current in his book “Progress and Poverty”!—
While it seems to me that in his “Social Evolution” Benjamin Kidd
suffers from the want of this talent; I do not get the full force of his
periods at the first reading.
III
Literature abounds in attempts to define literature. One of the most
strenuous and thorough-going definitions I have seen has lately
been published by one of our college professors—it is a most
determined attempt to corral the whole subject. “Nothing belongs to
real literature,” says the professor, “unless it consists of written
words that constitute a carrying statement which makes sense,
arranged rhythmically, euphoniously, and harmoniously, and so
chosen as to connote an adequate number of ideas and things, the
suggestion of which will call up in the reader sustained emotions
which do not produce undue tension, and in which the element of
pleasure predominates, on the whole, over that of pain. Practically,”
the writer goes on to say, “every word of this description should be
kept in our minds, so that we may consciously apply it as a test to
any piece of writing about the literary character of which we are in
doubt.”
Fancy a reader, in his quest for the real article, going about with this
drag-net of a paragraph in his mind. Will the definition or description
bear turning around upon itself? Is it a good sample of literary art?
The exactness and literalness of science are seldom permissible in
literature. That a definition of anything may have literary value it
must possess a certain indirect and imaginative character, as when
Carlyle defined poetry as the heroic of speech. Contrast with the
above John Morley’s definition of literature: “All the books—and they
are not so many—where moral truth and human passion are touched
with a certain largeness, sanity, and attraction of form.” This is much
better literature, because the language is much more flexible and
imaginative. It imparts more warmth to the mind; it is more
suggestive, while as a literary touchstone it is just as available.
Good literature may be a much simpler thing than our teachers
would lead us to believe. The prattle of a child may have rare literary
value. The little Parisian girl who, when asked by a lady the price of
the trinkets she offered for sale, replied, “Judge for yourself,
madam; I have tasted no food since yesterday,” expressed herself
with consummate art. If she had said simply, “Whatever your
ladyship pleases to give,” her reply would have been graceful, but
commonplace. By the personal turn which she gave it, she added
almost a lyrical touch. When Thackeray changed the title of one of
his novels from “Scenes from Town Life,” or some such title, to
“Vanity Fair,” he achieved a stroke of art. It is said that a now
famous line of Keats was first written thus:

“A thing of beauty is a continual joy.”

How the effect of the line was heightened by the change of one
word, and itself became “a joy forever.” Poe, too, altered two lines of
his with like magical effect, when for

“To the beauty of fair Greece,

And the grandeur of old Rome,”

he wrote:

“To the glory that was Greece,

And the grandeur that was Rome.”

The phrase “well of pure English” conveys the same idea as “well of
English undefiled,” but how much greater the artistic value of the
latter than of the former! Thus the literary value of a sentence may
turn upon a single word.
The everyday speech of the people is often full of the stuff of which
literature is made. No poet could invent better epithets and phrases
than abound in the common vernacular. The sayings and proverbs of
a people are also, for the most part, of the pure gold of literature.
One trouble with all definitions of literature is that they proceed
upon the theory that literature is a definite something that may be
determined by definite tests like gold or silver, whereas it is more like
life or nature itself. It is not so much something as the visible
manifestation of something; it assumes infinite forms, and is of
infinite degrees of potency. There is great literature, and there is
feeble and commonplace literature: a romance by Hawthorne and a
novel by Haggard; a poem by Tennyson and a poem by Tupper; an
essay by Emerson and an essay by John Foster—all literature, all
touching the emotions and the imagination with varying degrees of
power, and yet separated by a gulf. There are no degrees of
excellence in gold or silver, but there are all degrees of excellence in
literature. How hard it is to tell what makes a true poem, a lasting
poem! When one asks himself what it is, how many things arise,
how hard to narrow the list down to a few things! Is it beauty? Then
what is beauty? One meets with beautiful poems every day that he
never thinks of or recurs to again. It is certain that without one thing
there is no real poetry—genuine passion. The fire came down out of
heaven and consumed Elijah’s offering because Elijah was sincere.
Plan and build your poem never so deftly, mankind will not
permanently care for it unless it has genuine feeling. It must be
impassioned.
The genus Literature includes many species, as novels, poems,
essays, histories, etc., but our business with them all is about the
same—they are books that we read for their own sake. We read the
papers for the news, we read a work of science for the facts and the
conclusions, but a work of literature is an end in and of itself. We
read it for the pleasure and the stimulus it affords us, apart from any
other consideration. It exhibits such a play of mind and emotion
upon the facts of life and nature as results in our own mental and
spiritual enrichment and edification.
Another thing is true of the best literature: we cannot separate our
pleasure and profit in the subject-matter from our pleasure and
profit in the personality of the writer. We do not know whether it is
Hawthorne himself that we most delight in, or his style and the
characters and the action of his romance. One thing is quite certain:
where there is no distinct personal flavor to the page, no stamp of a
new individual force, we soon tire of it. The savor of every true
literary production comes from the man himself. Hence, without
attempting a formal definition of literature, one may say that the
literary quality seems to arise from a certain vital relation of the
writer with subject-matter. It is his subject; it blends with the very
texture of his mind; his relation to it is primary and personal, not
secondary and mechanical. The secret is not in any prescribed
arrangement of the words—it is in the quality of mind or spirit that
warms the words and shines through them. A good book, says
Milton, is the precious life-blood of a master spirit. Unless there is
blood in it, unless the vital currents of a rare spirit flow through it
and vivify it, it has not the gift of life.
In all good literature we have a sense of touching something alive
and real. The writer uses words not as tools or appliances; they are
more like his hand or his eye or his ear—the living, palpable body of
his thought, the incarnation of his spirit.
The true writer always establishes intimate and personal relations
with his reader. He comes forth, he is not concealed; he is immanent
in his words, we feel him, our spirits touch his spirit.
Style in letters is a quality of mind—a certain flavor imparted to
words by the personality back of them. Pass language through one
mind and it is tasteless and colorless; pass it through another, and it
acquires an entirely new value and significance and gives us a
unique pleasure. In the one case the sentences are artificial; in the
other they bud and sprout out of the man himself as naturally as the
plants and trees out of the soil.
There is nothing else in the world so sensitive and chameleon-like as
language; it takes on at once the hue and quality of the mind that
uses it. See how neutral and impersonal, or old and worn and faded
the words look in the pages of some writers, then see how drastic or
new and individual they become when a mind of another type
marshals them into sentences. What vigor and life in them! they
seem to have been newly coined since we last met them. It is the
test of a writer’s real worth—does the language tarnish, as it were,
in his hand, or is it brightened and freshened in his use?
A book may contain valuable truths and sound sentiments of
universal appeal, but if the literary coinage is feeble, if the page is
not strongly individualized, freshly and clearly stamped by the
purpose of the writer, it cannot take rank as good literature. To
become literature, truth must be perpetually reborn, reincarnated,
and begin life anew.
A successful utterance always has value, always has truth, though in
its purely intellectual aspects it may not correspond with the truth as
we see it. I cannot accept all of Ruskin’s views upon our civilization
or all of Tolstoi’s upon art, yet I see that they speak the truth as it
defines itself to their minds and feelings. A counter-statement may
be equally true. The struggle for existence goes on in the ideal world
as well as in the real. The strongest mind, the fittest statement,
survives for the time being. That a system of philosophy or religion
perishes or is laid aside is not because it is not or was not true, but
because it is not true to the new minds and under the new
conditions. It no longer expresses what the world thinks and feels. It
is outgrown. Was not Calvinism true to our fathers? It is no longer
true to us because we were born at a later day in the world. With
regard to truths of science, we may say, once a truth always a truth,
because the world of fact and of things is always under the same
law, but the truth of sentiments and emotions changes with
changing minds and hearts. The tree of life, unlike all other trees,
bears different fruit to each generation. What our fathers found
nourishing and satisfying in religion, in art, in philosophy, we find
tasteless and stale. Every gospel has its day. The moral and
intellectual horizon of the race is perpetually changing.
IV
In our modern democratic communities the moral sense is no doubt
higher than it was in the earlier ages, while the artistic or æsthetic
sense is lower. In the Athenian the artistic sense was far above the
moral; in the Puritan the reverse was the case. The Latin races seem
to have a greater genius for art than the Teutonic, while the latter
excel in virtue. In this country, good taste exists in streaks and
spots, or sporadically here and there. There does not seem to be
enough to go around, or the supply is intermittent. One writer has it
and another has it not, or one has it to-day and not to-morrow; one
moment he writes with grace and simplicity, the next he falls into
crudenesses or affectations. There is not enough leaven to leaven
the whole lump. Some of our most eminent literary men, such as
Lowell and Dr. Holmes, are guilty of occasional lapses from good
taste, and probably in the work of none of them do we see the
thorough ripening and mellowing of taste that mark the productions
of the older and more centralized European communities. One of our
college presidents, writing upon a serious ethical subject, allows
himself such rhetoric as this: “Experiment and inference are the
hook and line by which Science fishes the dry formulas out of the
fluid fact. Art, on the other hand, undertakes to stock the stream
with choice specimens of her own breeding and selection.” We can
hardly say of such metaphors what Sainte-Beuve said of
Montaigne’s, namely, that they are of the kind that are never
“detached from the thought,” but that they “seize it in its very
centre, in its interior, and join and bind it.”
V
The keener appreciation in Europe of literature as a fine art is no
doubt the main reason why Poe is looked upon over there as our
most noteworthy poet. Poe certainly had a more consummate art
than any other American singer, and his productions are more
completely the outcome of that art. They are literary feats. “The
Raven” was as deliberately planned and wrought out as is any piece
of mechanism. Its inspiration is verbal and technical. “The truest
poetry is most feigning,” says Touchstone, and this is mainly the
conception of poetry that prevails in European literary circles. Poe’s
poetry is artistic feigning, like good acting. It is to that extent
disinterested. He does not speak for himself, but for the artistic
spirit. He has never been popular in this country, for the reason that
art, as such, is far less appreciated here than abroad. The stress of
life here is upon the moral and intellectual elements much more than
upon the æsthetic. We demand a message of the poet, or that he
shall teach us how to live. Poe had no message but that of art; he
made no contribution to our stock of moral ideas; he made no
appeal to the conscience or manhood of the race; he did not touch
the great common workaday mind of our people. He is more akin to
the Latin than to the Anglo-Saxon. Hence his deepest impression
seems to have been made upon the French mind. In all our New
England poets the voice of humanity, of patriotism, of religious
ideas, of strenuous moral purpose, speaks. Art is subordinated to
various human passions and emotions. In Poe alone are these
emotions subordinated to art. In Poe alone is the effort mainly a
verbal and technical one. In him alone is the man lost in the artist.
To evoke music from language is his constant aim. No other
American poet approaches him in this kind of verbal mastery, in this
unfettered creative technical power. In ease, in splendor, in audacity,
he is like a bird. One may understand and admire him and not be
touched by him. To be moved to anything but admiration is foreign
to pure art. Would one make meat and drink of it? Our reading is
selfish, we seek our own, we are drawn to the book that is going our
way. Can we appreciate beyond our own personal tastes and needs?
Can we see the excellence of the impersonal and the disinterested?
We want to be touched in some special and intimate way; but art
touches us in a general and impersonal way. No one could take to
himself Shakespeare, or Milton’s “Lycidas,” or Keats’s odes as
directed especially to his own personal wants and aspirations. We
forget ourselves in reading these things, and share for the time the
sentiment of pure art, which lives in the universal. How crude the art
of Whittier compared with that of Poe, and yet Whittier has touched
and moved his countrymen, and Poe has not. There is much more of
the substance of character, of patriotism, of strenuous New England
life, in the one than in the other. “Snow-Bound” is a metrical
transcript from experience; not a creation of the imagination, but a
touched-up copy from the memory. We cannot say this of “The
Bells” or “The Raven,” or of the work of Milton or Keats or Tennyson.
Whittier sings what he feels; it all has a root in his own experience.
The great poet feigns the emotion and makes it real to us.
We complain of much current verse that it has no feeling. The
trouble is not that the poets feign, but that the feigning is feeble; it
begets no emotion in us. It simulates, but does not stimulate.
It is not Wordsworth’s art that makes him great; it is his profound
poetic emotion when in the presence of simple, common things.
Tennyson’s art, or Swinburne’s art, is much finer, but the poetic
emotion back of it is less profound and elemental.
Emerson’s art is crude, but the stress of his poetic emotion is great;
the song is burdened with profound meanings to our moral and
spiritual nature. Poe has no such burden; there is not one crumb of
the bread of life in him, but there is plenty of the elixir of the
imagination.
This passion for art, so characteristic of the Old World, is seen in its
full force in such a writer as Flaubert. Flaubert was a devotee of the
doctrine of art for art’s sake. He cared nothing for mere authors, but
only for “writers;” the work must be the conscious and deliberate
product of the author’s literary and inventive powers, and in no way
involve his character, temperament, or personality. The more it was
written, the more it savored of deliberate plan and purpose,—in
other words, the less it was the product of fate, race, or of anything
local, individual, inevitable,—the more it pleased him. Art, and not
nature, was his aspiration. And this view has more currency in
Europe than in this country. In some extreme cases it becomes what
one may fairly call the art disease. Baudelaire, for instance, as
quoted by Tolstoi, expressed a preference for a painted woman’s
face over one showing its natural color, “and for metal trees and a
theatrical imitation of water, rather than real trees and real water.”
Thus does an overweening passion for art degenerate into a love for
the artificial for its own sake. In the cultivation of letters there seems
always to be a danger that we shall come to value things, not for
their own sake, but for the literary effects that may be wrought out
of them. The great artist, I take it, is primarily in love with life and
things, and not with art. On these terms alone is his work fresh and
stimulating and filled with good arterial blood.
VI
Teaching literature is like teaching religion. You can give only the dry
bones of the matter in either case. But the dry bones of theology are
not religion, and the dry bones of rhetoric are not literature. The
flesh-and-blood reality is alone of value, and this cannot be taught, it
must be felt and experienced.
The class in literature studies an author’s sentence-structure and
paragraphing, and doubtless could tell the author more about it than
he knows himself. The probabilities are that he never thought a
moment about his sentence-structure or his paragraphing. He has
thought only of his subject-matter and how to express himself
clearly and forcibly; the structure of his sentences takes care of
itself. From every art certain rules and principles may be deduced,
but the intelligent apprehension of those rules and principles no
more leads to mastery in that art, or even helps to mastery in it,
than a knowledge of the anatomy and the vital processes of the
stomach helps a man to digest his dinner, or than the knowledge of
the gunsmith helps make a good marksman. In other words the
science of any art is of little use to him who would practice that art.
To be a fiddler you must fiddle and see others fiddle; to be a painter
you must paint and study the painting of others; to be a writer you
must write and familiarize yourself with the works of the best
authors. Studying an author from the outside by bringing the light of
rhetoric to bear upon him is of little profit. We must get inside of
him, and we can only get inside of him through sympathy and
appreciation. There is only one way to teach literature, only one vital
way, and that is by reading it. The laboratory way may give one the
dry bones of the subject, but not the living thing itself. If the
teacher, by his own living voice and an occasional word of comment,
can bring out the soul of a work, he may help the student’s
appreciation of it; he may, in a measure, impart to him his own
larger and more intelligent appreciation of it. And that is a true
service.
Young men and young women actually go to college to take a course
in Shakespeare or Chaucer or Dante or the Arthurian legends. The
course becomes a mere knowledge course, as Professor Corson
suggests. My own first acquaintance with Milton was through an
exercise in grammar. We parsed “Paradise Lost.” Much of the current
college study of Shakespeare is little better than parsing him. The
minds of the pupils are focused upon every word and line of the
text, as the microscope is focused upon a fly’s foot in the laboratory.
The class probably dissects a frog or a star-fish one day, and a great
poet the next, and it does both in about the same spirit. It falls upon
one of these great plays like hens upon a bone in winter: no
meaning of word or phrase escapes it, every line is literally picked to
pieces; but of the poet himself, of that which makes him what he is,
his tremendous dramatic power, how much do the students get?
Very little, I fear. They have had an intellectual exercise and not an
emotional experience. They have added to their knowledge, but
have not taken a step in culture. To dig into the roots and origins of
the great poets is like digging into the roots of an oak or a maple,
the better to increase your appreciation of the beauty of the tree.
There stands the tree in all its summer glory; will you really know it
any better after you have laid bare every root and rootlet? There
stand Chaucer, Shakespeare, Dante, Homer. Read them, give
yourself to them, and master them if you are man enough. The
poets are not to be analyzed, they are to be enjoyed; they are not to
be studied, but to be loved; they are not for knowledge, but for
culture—to enhance our appreciation of life and our mastery over its
elements. All the mere facts about a poet’s work are as chaff
compared with the appreciation of one fine line or fine sentence.
Why study a great poet at all after the manner of the dissecting-
room? Why not rather seek to make the acquaintance of his living
soul and to feel its power?
The mere study of words, too,—of their origin and history, or of the
relation of your own language to some other,—how little that avails!
As little as a knowledge of the making and tempering of a sword
would help a man to be a good swordsman. What avails in literature
is a quick and delicate sense of the life and individuality of words—“a
sense practiced as a blind man’s touch,” or as a musician’s ear, so
that the magic of the true style is at once felt and appreciated; this,
and an equally quick and delicate sense of the life and individuality
of things. “Is there any taste in the white of an egg?” No more is
there in much merely correct writing. There is the use of language
as the vehicle of knowledge, and there is the use of it as an
instrument of the imagination. In Wordsworth’s line,

“The last to parley with the setting sun,”

in Whitman’s sentence,
 “Oh, waves, I have fingered every shore with you,”

in Emerson’s description of an Indian-summer day, “the day,

immeasurably long, sleeps over the broad hills and warm, wide
fields”—in these and such as these we see the imaginative use of
words.
Most of the Dantean and Homeric and Shakespearean scholarship is
the mere dust of time that has accumulated upon these names. In
the course of years it will accumulate upon Tennyson, and then we
shall have Tennysonian scholars and learned dissertations upon
some insignificant detail of his work. Think of the Shakespeareana
with which literature is burdened! It is mostly mere shop litter and
dust. In certain moods I think one may be pardoned for feeling that
Shakespeare is fast becoming a curse to the human race. Of mere
talk about him, it seems, there is to be no end. He has been the host
of more literary parasites probably than any other name in history.
He is edited and re-edited as if a cubit could be added to his stature
by marginal notes and comments. On the contrary, the result is, for
the most part, like a mere growth of underbrush that obscures the
forest trees. The reader’s attention is being constantly diverted from
the main matter—he is being whipped in the face by insignificant
twigs. Criticism may prune away what obscures a great author, but
what shall we say when it obstructs the view of him by a multitude
of unimportant questions?
The main aim of the teacher of literature should be to train and
quicken the student’s taste—his sense of the fitness and proportion
of things—till he can detect the true from the false, or the excellent
from the common. There is but one way to learn to detect the
genuine from the counterfeit in any department of life, and that is by
experience. Familiarize the student with the works of the real
masters of literature and you have safeguarded him against the
pretenders. After he has become acquainted with the look and the
ring of the pure gold he is less likely to be imposed upon by the
counterfeit. The end here indicated cannot be reached by analysis,
or by a course in rhetoric and sentence structure, or by a
microscopical examination of the writer’s vocabulary, but by direct
sympathetic intercourse with the best literature, through the living
voice, or through your own silent perusal of it. The great Dantean
and Shakespearean scholar is usually the outcome of a mental habit
that would make Dante and Shakespeare impossible.
So eminent a critic as Frederic Harrison is reported as praising this
sentence from the new British author Maurice Hewlett: “In the milk
of October dawns her calm brows had been dipped.” The instructor
in literature should be able to show his class why this is not good
literature. The suggestion of brows dipped in milk is not a pleasant
one. One cannot conceive of any brow the beauty of which would be
enhanced by it, even by the milk of October dawns, if there were
anything in October dawns that in the remotest way suggested milk.
Mr. Hewlett is so in love with a crisp style that he describes his
heroine as lying white and twisting on a couch, crisping and
uncrisping her little hands.
Such things come from straining after novelty. They proceed from an
unripe taste. Men of real genius and power are at times guilty of
such lapses, or go astray in quest of novel images. Walter Bagehot
sometimes did. Writing of Sydney Smith, his rhetoric shows its teeth
in this fashion: “Writers, like teeth, are divided into incisors and
grinders; Sydney Smith was a molar. He did not run a long sharp
argument into the interior of a question; he did not, in the common
phrase, go deeply into it; but he kept it steadily under the contact of
a strong, capable, jawlike understanding, pressing its surface,
effacing its intricacies, grinding it down.” Such a comparison has the
merit of being vivid; it also has the demerit of an unworthy alliance,
—it marries the noble and the ignoble. You cannot lift mastication up
to the level of intellectual processes, and to seriously compare the
two is to degrade the latter. Sydney Smith himself could not have
been guilty of such bad taste.
Let me finish this chapter with a bit of prose from Ben Jonson.
“Some words are to be culled out for ornament and color, as we
gather flowers to strow houses or make garlands; but they are
better when they grow to our style; as in a meadow where, though
the mere grass and greenness delight, yet the variety of flowers
doth heighten and beautify.”
 II
ANALOGY—TRUE AND FALSE

I HAVE never seen any thorough examination of the grounds of

analogy. The works on logic make but slight reference to them,
yet the argument from analogy is one of the most frequent forms of
argument, and one of the most convincing. It is so much easier to
captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure than to move the
judgment with sound reasons,—so much easier to be rhetorical than
to be logical.
We say that seeing is believing; the rhetorician makes us see the
thing; his picture appeals to the mind’s visual sense, hence his
power over us, though his analogies are more apt to be false than
true. We love to see these agreements between thoughts and
things, or between the subjective and the objective worlds, and a
favorite thought with profound minds in all ages has been the
identity or oneness which runs through creation.
“A vast similitude interlocks all,” says Whitman, “spans all the objects
of the universe and compactly holds and encloses them.”
Everywhere in Nature Emerson said he saw the figure of a disguised
man. The method of the universe is intelligible to us because it is
akin to our own minds. Our minds are rather akin to it and are
derived from it. Emerson made much of this thought. The truth here
indicated is undoubtedly the basis of all true analogy—this unity, this
oneness of creation; but the analogies that “are constant and
pervade Nature” are probably not so numerous as Emerson seemed
to fancy. Thus one can hardly agree with him that there is “intent” of
analogy between man’s life and the seasons, because the seasons
are not a universal fact of the globe, and man’s life is. The four
seasons are well defined in New England, but not in Ecuador.
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