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Machine Learning for Biometrics
Concepts, Algorithms, and Applications
Cognitive Data Science in Sustainable Computing

Machine Learning for

Biometrics
Concepts, Algorithms, and Applications

Edited by

Partha Pratim Sarangi

Assistant Professor, Computer Science and Engineering, Seemanta Engineering College,
Jharpokharia, Baripada, Odisha, India

Madhumita Panda
Assistant Professor, Master in Computer Applications, Seemanta Engineering College,
Jharpokharia, Baripada, Odisha, India

Subhashree Mishra
Assistant Professor, School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India

Bhabani Shankar Prasad Mishra

Associate Professor, School of Computer Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar,
Odisha, India
Dean, School of Computer Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Banshidhar Majhi
Director, IIITDM, Kancheepuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Series Editor
Arun Kumar Sangaiah
School of Computing Science and Engineering,Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT),
Vellore, India
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Contributors

Numbers in paraentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.
Sumitav Acharya (143), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National
Institute of Science and Technology, Berhampur, India
A. Anandh (105), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kamaraj College
of Engineering and Technology, Madurai, India
Saurabh Bilgaiyan (155), School of Computer Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
P.V.S.S.R. Chandra Mouli (65), Department of Computer Science, Central University
of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, India
Manisha P. Dale (1), MES College of Engineering, Savitribai Phule Pune University,
Pune, India
Rupam Das (155), School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT, Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, India
K. Devendran (87), Computer Science and Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Sachit Dhamija (155), School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT, Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, India
R. Jai Ganesh (129), K. Ramakrishnan College of Technology, Trichy, India
G.K. Kamalam (177), Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Vaishali H. Kamble (1), AISSMS IOIT, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
M. Kavitha (129), K. Ramakrishnan College of Technology, Trichy, India
P. Keerthika (87,177), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kongu
Engineering College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Chirag Kyal (29), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute
of Science and Technology, Berhampur, India
K. Logeswaran (177), Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
V.M. Manikandan (201), Computer Science and Engineering, SRM University-AP,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India
R. Manjula Devi (87,177), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kongu
Engineering College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India

xiii
xiv Contributors

Bhabani Shankar Prasad Mishra (47,155), School of Computer Engineering, KIIT

Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
Subhashree Mishra (47), School of Computer Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Samrat Mondal (217), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, India
H. Muthukrishnan (177), Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Muthulakshmi (105), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kamaraj
College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai, India
Madhumita Panda (47), Master of Computer Applications, Seemanta Engineering
College, Jharpokharia, India
Suryakanta Panda (217), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, India
Harsh Poddar (29), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National
Institute of Science and Technology, Berhampur, India
R. Ramya (105), Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Kamaraj College
of Engineering and Technology, Madurai, India
Motahar Reza (29,143), Department of Mathematics, GITAM Deemed to be
University, Hyderabad, India
C. Sagana (87), Computer Science and Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Sangeetha (87), Computer Science and Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Partha Pratim Sarangi (47,87), School of Computer Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, India
Priyanshu Sarmah (155), School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT, Deemed to be
University, Bhubaneswar, India
K. Sentamilselvan (177), Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
P. Suresh (87,177), Department of Information Technology, Kongu Engineering
College, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Venkatesh (105), Microland, Bengaluru, India
Dilip Kumar Yadav (65), Department of Computer Applications, National Institute of
Technology, Jamshedpur, India
Gaurav Yadav (65), Department of Computer Applications, National Institute of
Technology, Jamshedpur, India
Preface

The biometric systems automatically recognize the identity of a person by using

his/her physiological and behavioral characteristics. The improvement in sensor
technology attracts many researchers’ attention to introduce a number of new
biometric traits for providing privacy and security in various applications rang-
ing from industrial to healthcare systems. In the last decades, with the aim of
improving the recognition performance, a large number of machine learning
algorithms have been presented in numerous biometric applications. The signif-
icance of machine learning algorithm is to determine the identity of individuals
by associating biometric patterns with their respective enrolled users. However,
in high-security applications, security and recognition accuracy are major con-
cerns that can be addressed by designing multimodal biometric systems. As the
name depicts, multimodal biometrics incorporates two or more different bio-
metric characteristics (for example, fingerprint, iris, face, plamprint, etc.),
which works in the similar way like unimodal biometrics except an extra mod-
ule of information fusion. Due to the increasing number of biometric systems
and their applications, a profound amount of research and developments are still
required in this field of biometrics.
So far, a numerous biometric systems are exhibiting limited identification
rate or accuracy in unconstrained scenarios due to the poor quality of image
acquisition that includes poor contrast, varying illumination, and
noncooperation by users. These challenges encourage many researchers to work
in its diverse segments such as extracting discriminative features, employing
efficient classifiers, and fusion of information at different stages of the multi-
modal biometric systems. Furthermore, another direction of research is to pro-
vide security to the biometric information system in case of online mode of
identity recognition of individuals in many applications. This book covers
the most recent research progresses in the field of biometrics to enhance recog-
nition performance and security problems in several applications, such as online
transaction, e-commence, access control, law enforcement, boarder security,
healthcare, and so on.
In this book, we specifically address the current research progress in the
field of biometrics and biometric-based applications with the objective of
improving personal identity recognition performance. This book comprises
12 chapters, in which each chapter delivers the concepts and fundamentals of
a recent topic on biometrics, presents reviews on up-to-date methodologies,

xv
xvi Preface

reveals results, and compares with state-of-the-art, highlighting its effectiveness

in the recognition and future directions. Furthermore, the contents of this book
are organized according to the well-accepted biometric traits and a few novel
ones along with biometric security and recent applications, so that each chapter
can be read autonomously from the others. A concise and chapter-wise intro-
duction of this book is described below.
Chapter “Machine Learning Approach for longitudinal face recognition of
children” presents a novel application of identity recognition of children using
the face biometric trait. Face recognition of children below 6 years of age helps
to identify children for their healthcare services and investigation of missing
children. In this chapter, the authors developed a new face database in which
they collected face images of the individual over a period of time, especially
at a gap of few months, and named it as longitudinal face database. Extensive
experiments are performed using different machine learning classifiers such as
support vector machine (SVM), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), logistic regression
(LR), decision tree, Gaussian Naive Bayes, and convolutional neural networks
(CNN). Comparison of experimental results demonstrates the effectiveness and
superiority of the proposed method using CNN with improved accuracy.
Finally, the authors suggest to increase the database size and improvement in
the model as some possible research directions in future.
Chapter “TBFR: Thermal Biometric Face Recognition—A Noncontact Face
Biometry” proposes a novel thermal face recognition method to diminish the
effect of varying light intensity, poses, accessories, aging, etc. of the existing
face biometric systems. In this chapter, the authors fused face geometry features
with pretrained ResNet-50 features to improve recognition performance, and
experimental results revealed the proposed method to be more robust in com-
parison with the existing methods.
Chapter “Multimodal Biometric Recognition using Human Ear and Profile
Face: An Improved Approach” discusses an improved approach for ear biomet-
rics based on fusion of ear and profile face-handcrafted features at the feature-
level fusion and score-level fusion schemes. Recently, some convolutional neu-
ral network models have been proposed for ear biometrics, and their experiment
results show competent performance compared to state-of-the-art methods.
However, deep-learning-based biometrics applications need a large number
of training images, huge memory for data processing, and enormous computa-
tional complexity at the cost of improving the identification rate. In this chapter,
the authors focus on a multimodal approach based on ear and profile face, to
enhance the recognition performance with less processing complexity. Several
experiments with comparisons are performed to test the effectiveness and supe-
riority of the proposed approach.
Chapter “Statistical Measures for Palmprint Image Enhancement” provides
the overview of image enhancement methods and their quality measurements in
palmprint images. In the palmprint image enhancement techniques, the most
widely used databases are discussed with further details. However, the image
 Preface xvii

enhancement plays an important role in the preprocessing step of biometric sys-

tems to provide a better recognition performance in terms of accuracy and
identification rate.
In chapter “Retina Biometrics for Personal Authentication,” an attempt is
made to explore the retina biometrics using the ANFIS model. In this chapter,
ANFIS-based Retina Biometric Authentication System (ARBAS) for person’s
authentication and its significance are discussed. Besides, this chapter provides
readers with the required amount of knowledge to select suitable features’ set
and adequate techniques to develop robust research in this field.
Chapter “Gender Recognition from facial Images using Multi-Channel
Deep Learning Framework” demonstrates Multi-Channel Deep Learning
Framework based on an automated gender recognition approach. In this work,
the authors try to extract discriminative features from raw facial images from
GoogleNet. They fuse feature vectors obtained from two sources: first, feature
vectors are obtained from featured images generated from LDP filters and sec-
ond, feature vectors are directly obtained from raw facial images, and then both
are separately applied as inputs to GoogleNet. Finally, the feature sets are com-
bined together using CCA/DCA to provide input to SVM classifier for gender
recognition of the given input image. A series of experiments are conducted,
and a comprehensive explanation of experimental results is illustrated.
Chapter “Implementation of Cardiac Signal for Biometric Recognition from
Facial Video” discusses the Heartbeat Signal from Facial Video (HSFV) as a
biometric evidence for recognizing the identity of individuals. This chapter
impacts researchers to get motivation and knowledge toward working in a novel
direction in the field of biometrics.
Chapter “Real-Time Emotion Engagement Tracking of Students using
Human Biometric Emotion Intensities” describes an automatic method to detect
an absent-minded face present in a class using FAU (Facial Action Unit). Fur-
thermore, this chapter covers multiple aspects of tracking, ranging from the stu-
dent entering the classroom. Experimental results presented by the authors can
achieve excellent results for emotion detection and recognition of students’ face
images.
Chapter “Facial Identification Expression Based Attendance Monitoring
and Emotion Detection—A Deep CNN Approach” discusses the challenges
of taking attendance and gauging emotions of the students in a new online class-
room environment. In this chapter, with the help of advance machine learning
approach, the authors introduce an automatic biometric-based attendance and
facial expression recognition system.
Chapter “Contemporary Survey on Effectiveness of Machine and Deep
Learning Techniques for Cyber Security” reviews the practicality of biometrics
in cyber security based on efficient machine learning and deep learning tech-
niques. The objective of this survey is to provide an impact on readers to acquire
the fundamental concepts of biometric authentication and identification using
different machine learning techniques for cyber security systems.
xviii Preface

Chapter “A Secure Biometric Authentication System for Smart Environ-

ment using reversible Data Hiding through Encryption Scheme” introduces
the notion of reversible data hiding (RDH) scheme to achieve a secure online
biometric data communication. In a RDH-based encryption scheme, the bio-
metric images are encrypted by hiding the important information in an image.
In this chapter, the author presents a new model wherein the compressed finger-
print data is used as a secret message, and it will be embedded into the face
image through a reversible data hiding-based encryption scheme. In order to
maintain secure communication, encrypted image obtained after RDH scheme
is transmitted to the cloud service provider in a secure manner.
Chapter “An Efficient and Untraceable Authentication Protocol for Cloud
Based Healthcare System” provides Telecare Medical Information System
(TMIS), which is very important in pandemic situations, for example, Covid-
19. In this technique, the patient’s mobile device has a major role for commu-
nicating with doctors. Furthermore, mutual authentication and key agreement
scheme is required to protect vital information from any kind of mischief activ-
ities from adversaries in the insecure communication channel. In this chapter,
the authors propose a biometric hashing technique to provide secure authenti-
cation and key agreement for communication between the patient and
the doctor.
Finally, we hope that our readers including the graduate students, research
scholars, young researchers, academicians, and industrial professionals find the
contributed chapters in this book thought-provoking, and this piece of work will
motivate future research breakthrough to progress further advances in the
machine learning-based biometrics applications.

Partha Pratim Sarangi

Madhumita Panda
Subhashree Mishra
Bhabani Shankar Prasad Mishra
Banshidhar Majhi
Acknowledgments

The editors would like to gratefully acknowledge all of the contributors for con-
tinuous effort and timely submission of their chapters. This book would not
have been feasible without the cooperation of the chapter authors. All the chap-
ters have been reviewed for several rounds to facilitate the selection of final
chapters in our book. Valuable suggestions and guidance from the reviewers
helped the authors in refining individual chapters. Thanks also go to the
reviewers in enhancing the quality of the chapters of this book.
The editors would like to extend gratitude to Sonnini Ruiz Yura from
Elsevier for inspiration over the year. We would like to gratefully acknowledge
Andrae Akeh and Judith Clarisse Punzalan (Elsevier) for their patience during
the preparation of this book. In addition, we shall thank Swapna Srinivasan at
Elsevier for her sincere help and patience during the final preparation of this
book. Finally, we shall extend gratefulness to our family members and friends
for all their support.

xix
Chapter 1

Machine learning approach

for longitudinal face recognition
of children
Vaishali H. Kamblea and Manisha P. Daleb
a
AISSMS IOIT, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India, bMES College of Engineering,
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India

1 Introduction
Face of an individual is a popular and well-accepted biometric trait that can be
used to perform identity recognition of adults as well as children. Children are
the most valuable and jeopardy group in society; hence they should be under
supervision continuously. Security and healthcare of children is an important
aspect of all countries [1]. Automatic recognition of children using their face
is a useful investigative tool to help identify missing children. Though the
development of the face of a child starts in the mother’s womb from 3 months,
it is not proportional to the development of other parts of the body. Therefore,
recognition of children below 6 years is still an open research problem. Children
recognition using different modalities needs to be studied to solve the problems
related to security and healthcare. As per the literature survey, still there is not
even one commercial biometric system in use for recognition of toddlers. Var-
ious researchers have discussed about biometric recognition of adults; however,
very few papers on toddlers are available. A meager amount of work has been
traced in biometric identification of toddlers or children. It is most challenging
to recognize a toddler from his own single photograph after a few months. But,
in some instances, such as missing children, we have only the face image. So,
the recognition of children from their face image is very important. Facial
images can be acquired without users’ active involvement using ordinary cam-
eras from a distance. Also in survey, we noted that that most of the toddler’s
biometric recognition is in verification mode.
Sahar Siddique studied longitudinal face recognition using the Extended
Newborn Database and Children Multimodal Biometric Database. Identifica-
tion accuracy achieved using CNN is 62.7% and 85.1% on both the databases,

Machine Learning for Biometrics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85209-8.00011-0

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Machine learning for biometrics

respectively [2]. Rowden et al. studied the longitudinal face recognition of chil-
dren between 0 and 4 years of age. The same-session accuracy they achieved is
93% and cross-session accuracy 43% after 6 months [3]. Local Binary Pattern
(LBP) is widely used texture-based method for recognition of face biometrics
[4]. This method is also used for children face recognition [5,6].
This chapter is presenting a machine learning and deep learning approach
for face recognition of children. As per the literature review, the study of chil-
dren recognition with the help of their face modality started in 2010 in India
[5,6]. Most of the papers studied same-session face recognition. The meager
amount of work is carried out longitudinally, that is, images of the same subject
taken over a period of time. There are very few readily available databases for
newborns like FG-NET [7]. There are very few images of children below
5 years in these datasets. CMBD database of IIIT Delhi (India) [8] is one of
the children longitudinal face recognition databases, but due to security reasons
the face database is not publicly available [9]. Therefore, database collection is
the major task in infants and toddler’s recognition. For this study, the database
of 81 subjects for the same session and 48 subjects for the cross session is col-
lected. The span between the data acquisition sessions is 3–6 months. The major
stages of the proposed work are preprocessing of face images, which include
manually cropping of face images of size 120
120 and converting it into gray
scale. Feature extraction is based on principal component analysis and linear
discriminant analysis, and CNN is proposed. The classification of subjects is
done using machine learning classifiers on the children database of the same
session and cross session. Further, the work is extended using convolutional
neural network (CNN) in which we have proposed our own optimized model
with data augmentation used to compare the machine learning and deep learn-
ing classifiers on our database.
The major contributions of the proposed work are as follows.
1. Due to the nonavailability of reference databases for children below 6 years,
the collection of longitudinal databases of children faces itself is a great
challenge. In the proposed work, we have captured the face images of tod-
dlers with the mobile camera of resolution 20 MP, with consent from their
parents in two sessions. Time period between two sessions is 2 months to
1 year. In the same session, 730 images of 81 toddlers are taken. In the sec-
ond session, 485 images of 48 toddlers are captured.
2. In this chapter, we are proposing feature extraction using PCA, LDA, and
CNN approaches on the facial images and their comparative study. In PCA
and LDA approaches, we have applied different machine learning tech-
niques for classification of subjects, such as Support Vector Machine
(SVM), Logistic Regression (LR), Gaussian Naive Bayes, K-Nearest
Neighbors (KNN), Decision Tree, and Random Forest. In CNN, feature
extraction is done by convolution layers and classification is done by dense
layers.
 Machine learning approach Chapter 1 3

3. In this work, we implemented CNN from basic level to optimized level.

First, CNN is of three convolution layers for the same session and cross ses-
sion. Further, the CNN is modified in terms of data augmentation, and six-
layer convolution model is used with L2 kernel regularization and batch
normalization for enhancing the accuracy.
4. We compare the effectiveness of different feature extraction and classifica-
tion techniques in identification mode. Further, we optimize the CNN for
our children database to increase the accuracy. We compare the recognition
performance of the proposed CNN with the conventional PCA- and LDA-
based method using classification technique.

2 Face modality for children face recognition

Human beings can be recognized using its inherent biological feature’s analysis
and measurement. Science of recognizing human beings with the help of its bio-
logical features is called biometrics.
Biometric recognition is based on two prominent characteristics of human
beings:
(1) Physiological characteristics: face, fingerprint, iris, palmprint, footprint,
palm vein, ear, DNA, etc.
(2) Behavioral characteristics: voice, gait, signature, etc.
Indian biometrics market survey graph about the usage of different biometric
modalities for the year 2019 is shown in Fig. 1.
As per biometric market fingerprint is widely used for recognition of human
beings. Children’s fingerprints are tiny, and are not easy to capture. The second-
largest used biometric modality is face. Face images are easy to capture and

Indian Biometrics Market In US $ Million, 2019

54.8
27.8 80.5
307.4
Fingerprint Recognition
Facial Authentication
IRIS Recognition
Voice Recognition
Palm Recognition
Others
448.2
1679.4

FIG. 1 Indian biometric market share in US million [10].

4 Machine learning for biometrics

useful in the case of missing children. Therefore, we are using face biometrics
for recognition of children. An example of different biometrics of children from
our database is shown in Fig. 2.
Human face is a 3D model, we can recognize it by its features such as eyes,
shape of face, and color. Automatic face recognition is based on 2D photo-
graphs of a person. In 1964 and 1965, Woody Bledsoe, along with Helen Chan
and Charles Bisson, recognized human faces using computers for the first time.
Nowadays adult face recognition achieves very high accuracy in the range of
99.63% [11]. Face recognition of children is still an open challenge. All face
recognition algorithms evaluate on false negative identification rate (FNIR)
which is dependent on age. The FNIR of children is higher as compared to
adults or seniors. The comparison of FNIR and false positive identification rate
(FPIR) is given in Table 1 for various stages of child age.
Child face development: Studies from the paper by Farkas discuss that in
the first 2 years of a child face development, mouth width of child increases
whereas mouth height decreases. Mouth shape alters from “rosebud-like” to
a more adult type. Growth of facial features is very fast in the first year, less
rapid in the second year. Subsequent changes were slow and irregular from
the age of 3 to 9 years [12].

Face Footprint Fingerprint

FIG. 2 Different biometrics for recognition of children.

TABLE 1 Comparison of FNIR and FPIR of children for

different age.

Subjects FNIR FPIR

Babies 0.7 0.2
Kids 0.4 In between 0.2 and 0.05
Pre-teen 0.29 0.05
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and marbles, that half refuse and half yield to the sunshine,
Cleopatra-like, “their bluest veins to kiss”—the shadow, as it steals
back from them, revealing line after line of azure undulation, as a
receding tide leaves the waved sand; their capitals rich with
interwoven tracery, rooted knots of herbage, and drifting leaves of
acanthus and vine, and mystical signs, all beginning and ending in
the Cross; and above them, in the broad archivolts, a continuous
chain of language and of life—angels, and the signs of heaven, and
the labours of men, each in its appointed season upon the earth; and
above these, another range of glittering pinnacles, mixed with white
arches edged with scarlet flowers,—a confusion of delight, amidst
which the breasts of the Greek horses are seen blazing in their
breadth of golden strength, and the St. Mark’s Lion, lifted on a blue
field covered with stars, until at last, as if in ecstasy, the crests of the
arches break into a marble foam, and toss themselves far into the
blue sky in flashes and wreaths of sculptured spray, as if the
breakers on the Lido shore had been frost-bound before they fell,
and the sea-nymphs had inlaid them with coral and amethyst.
Between that grim cathedral of England and this, what an
interval! There is a type of it in the very birds that haunt them; for,
instead of the restless crowd, hoarse-voiced and sable-winged,
drifting on the bleak upper air, the St. Mark’s porches are full of
doves, that nestle among the marble foliage, and mingle the soft
iridescence of their living plumes, changing at every motion with the
tints, hardly less lovely, that have stood unchanged for seven
hundred years.
And what effect has this splendour on those who pass beneath
it? You may walk from sunrise to sunset, to and fro, before the
gateway of St. Mark’s, and you will not see an eye lifted to it, nor a
countenance brightened by it. Priest and layman, soldier and civilian,
rich and poor, pass by it alike regardlessly. Up to the very recesses
of the porches, the meanest tradesmen of the city push their
counters; nay, the foundations of its pillars are themselves the seats
—not “of them that sell doves” for sacrifice, but of vendors of toys
and caricatures. Round the whole square in front of the church there
is almost a continuous line of cafés, where the idle Venetians of the
middle classes lounge, and read empty journals; in its centre the
Austrian bands play during the time of vespers, their martial music
jarring with the organ notes,—the march drowning the miserere, and
the sullen crowd thickening around them,—a crowd which, if it had
its will, would stiletto every soldier that pipes to it. And in the
recesses of the porches, all day long, knots of men of the lowest
classes, unemployed and listless, lie basking in the sun like lizards;
and unregarded children,—every heavy glance of their young eyes
full of desperation and stony depravity, and their throats hoarse with
cursing,—gamble, and fight, and snarl, and sleep, hour after hour,
clashing their bruised centesimi upon the marble ledges of the
church porch. And the images of Christ and His angels look down
upon it continually.... Let us enter the church itself. It is lost in still
deeper twilight, to which the eye must be accustomed for some
moments before the form of the building can be traced; and then
there opens before us a vast cave hewn out into the form of a Cross,
and divided into shadowy aisles by many pillars. Round the domes
of its roof the light enters only through narrow apertures like large
stars; and here and there a ray or two from some far-away casement
wanders into the darkness, and casts a narrow phosphoric stream
upon the waves of marble that heave and fall in a thousand colours
along the floor. What else there is of light is from torches or silver
lamps, burning ceaselessly in the recesses of the chapels; the roof
sheeted with gold, and the polished walls covered with alabaster,
give back at every curve and angle some feeble gleaming to the
flames; and the glories round the heads of the sculptured saints flash
out upon us as we pass them, and sink again into the gloom. Under
foot and over head, a continual succession of crowded imagery, one
picture passing into another, as in a dream; forms beautiful and
terrible mixed together; dragons and serpents, and ravening beasts
of prey, and graceful birds that in the midst of them drink from
running fountains and feed from vases of crystal; the passions and
the pleasures of human life symbolized together, and the mystery of
its redemption; for the mazes of interwoven lines and changeful
pictures lead always at last to the Cross, lifted and carved in every
place and upon every stone; sometimes with the serpent of eternity
wrapt round it, sometimes with doves beneath its arms, and sweet
herbage growing forth from its feet; but conspicuous most of all on
the great rood that crosses the church before the altar, raised in
bright blazonry against the shadow of the apse. And although in the
recesses of the aisles and chapels, when the mist of the incense
hangs heavily, we may see continually a figure traced in faint lines
upon their marble, a woman standing with her eyes raised to
heaven, and the inscription above her, “Mother of God,” she is not
here the presiding deity. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always,
burning in the centre of the temple; and every dome and hollow of its
roof has the figure of Christ in the utmost height of it, raised in power,
or returning in judgment.
Nor is this interior without effect on the minds of the people. At
every hour of the day there are groups collected before the various
shrines, and solitary worshippers scattered through the darker
places of the church, evidently in prayer both deep and reverent,
and, for the most part, profoundly sorrowful. The devotees at the
greater number of the renowned shrines of Romanism may be seen
murmuring their appointed prayers with wandering eyes and
unengaged gestures; but the step of the stranger does not disturb
those who kneel on the pavement of St. Mark’s; and hardly a
moment passes, from early morning to sunset, in which we may not
see some half-veiled figure enter beneath the Arabian porch, cast
itself into long abasement on the floor of the temple, and then rising
slowly with more confirmed step, and with a passionate kiss and
clasp of the arms given to the feet of the crucifix, by which the lamps
burn always in the northern aisle, leave the church as if comforted....
It would be easier to illustrate a crest of Scottish mountain, with
its purple heather and pale harebells at their fullest and fairest, or a
glade of Jura forest, with its floor of anemone and moss, than a
single portico of St. Mark’s.... The balls in the archivolt project
considerably, and the interstices between their interwoven bands of
marble are filled with colours like the illuminations of a manuscript;
violet, crimson, blue, gold, and green alternately: but no green is
ever used without an intermixture of blue pieces in the mosaic, nor
any blue without a little centre of pale green; sometimes only a single
piece of glass a quarter of an inch square, so subtle was the feeling
for colour which was thus to be satisfied. The intermediate circles
have golden stars set on an azure ground, varied in the same
manner; and the small crosses seen in the intervals are alternately
blue and subdued scarlet, with two small circles of white set in the
golden ground above and beneath them, each only about half an
inch across (this work, remember, being on the outside of the
building, and twenty feet above the eye), while the blue crosses have
each a pale green centre....
The third cupola, that over the altar, represents the witness of
the Old Testament to Christ; showing him enthroned in its centre and
surrounded by the patriarchs and prophets. But this dome was little
seen by the people; their contemplation was intended to be chiefly
drawn to that of the centre of the church, and thus the mind of the
worshipper was at once fixed on the main groundwork and hope of
Christianity—“Christ is risen,” and “Christ shall come.” If he had time
to explore the minor lateral chapels and cupolas, he could find in
them the whole series of New Testament history, the events of the
Life of Christ, and the Apostolic miracles in their order, and finally the
scenery of the Book of Revelation; but if he only entered, as often
the common people do to this hour, snatching a few moments before
beginning the labour of the day to offer up an ejaculatory prayer, and
advanced but from the main entrance as far as the altar screen, all
the splendour of the glittering nave and variegated dome, if they
smote upon his heart, as they might often, in strange contrast with
his reed cabin among the shallows of the lagoon, smote upon it only
that they might proclaim the two great messages—“Christ is risen,”
and “Christ shall come.” Daily, as the white cupolas rose like wreaths
of sea-foam in the dawn, while the shadowy campanile and frowning
palace were still withdrawn into the night, they rose with the Easter
Voice of Triumph—“Christ is risen;” and daily, as they looked down
upon the tumult of the people, deepening and eddying in the wide
square that opened from their feet to the sea, they uttered above
them the sentence of warning,—“Christ shall come.”
And this thought may surely dispose the reader to look with
some change of temper upon the gorgeous building and wild
blazonry of that shrine of St. Mark’s. He now perceives that it was in
the hearts of the old Venetian people far more than a place of
worship. It was at once a type of the Redeemed Church of God, and
a scroll for the written word of God. It was to be to them, both an
image of the Bride, all glorious within, her clothing of wrought gold;
and the actual Table of the Law and the Testimony, written within and
without. And whether honoured as the Church or as the Bible, was it
not fitting that neither the gold nor the crystal should be spared in the
adornment of it; that, as the symbol of the Bride, the building of the
wall thereof should be of jasper, and the foundations of it garnished
with all manner of precious stones; and that, as the channel of the
World, that triumphant utterance of the Psalmist should be true of it
—“I have rejoiced in the way of thy testimonies, as much as in all
riches”? And shall we not look with changed temper down the long
perspective of St. Mark’s Place towards the sevenfold gates and
glowing domes of its temple, when we know with what solemn
purpose the shafts of it were lifted above the pavement of the
populous square? Men met there from all countries of the earth, for
traffic or for pleasure; but, above the crowd swaying forever to and
fro in the restlessness of avarice or thirst of delight, was seen
perpetually the glory of the temple, attesting to them, whether they
would hear or whether they would forbear, that there was one
treasure which the merchantmen might buy without a price, and one
delight better than all others, in the word and the statutes of God.
Not in the wantonness of wealth, not in vain ministry to the desire of
the eyes or the pride of life, were those marbles hewn into
transparent strength, and those arches arrayed in the colours of the
iris. There is a message written in the dyes of them, that once was
written in blood; and a sound in the echoes of their vaults, that one
day shall fill the vault of heaven,—“He shall return, to do judgment
and justice.” The strength of Venice was given her, so long as she
remembered this: her destruction found her when she had forgotten
this; and it found her irrevocably, because she forgot it without
excuse. Never had city a more glorious Bible. Among the nations of
the North, a rude and shadowy sculpture filled their temples with
confused and hardly legible imagery; but, for her the skill and the
treasures of the East had gilded every letter, and illumined every
page, till the Book-Temple shone from afar off like the star of the
Magi.

Stones of Venice (London, 1851–’3).

 THE TOWER OF LONDON.
WILLIAM HEPWORTH DIXON.

HALF a mile below London Bridge, on ground which was once a

bluff, commanding the Thames from St. Saviour’s Creek to St.
Olave’s Wharf, stands the Tower; a mass of ramparts, walls, and
gates, the most ancient and most poetic pile in Europe.
Seen from the hill outside, the Tower appears to be white with
age and wrinkled by remorse. The home of our stoutest kings, the
grave of our noblest knights, the scene of our gayest revels, the field
of our darkest crimes, that edifice speaks at once to the eye and to
the soul. Grey keep, green tree, black gate, and frowning battlement,
stand out, apart from all objects far and near them, menacing,
picturesque, enchaining; working on the senses like a spell; and
calling us away from our daily mood into a world of romance, like
that which we find painted in light and shadow on Shakespeare’s
page.
Looking at the Tower as either a prison, a palace, or a court,
picture, poetry, and drama crowd upon the mind; and if the fancy
dwells most frequently on the state prison, this is because the soul is
more readily kindled by a human interest than fired by an archaic
and official fact. For one man who would care to see the room in
which a council met or a court was held, a hundred men would like to
see the chamber in which Lady Jane Grey was lodged, the cell in
which Sir Walter Raleigh wrote, the tower from which Sir John
Oldcastle escaped. Who would not like to stand for a moment by
those steps on which Ann Boleyn knelt; pause by that slit in the wall
through which Arthur De la Pole gazed; and linger, if he could, in that
room in which Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley, searched the New
Testament together?
 The Tower has an attraction for us akin to that of the house in
which we were born, the school in which we were trained. Go where
we may, that grim old edifice on the Pool goes with us; a part of all
we know, and of all we are. Put seas between us and the Thames,
this Tower will cling to us like a thing of life. It colours Shakespeare’s
page. It casts a momentary gloom over Bacon’s story. Many of our
books were written in its vaults; the Duke of Orleans’ “Poesies,”
Raleigh’s “Historie of the World,” Eliot’s “Monarchy of Man,” and
Penn’s “No Cross, No Crown.”
Even as to the length of days, the Tower has no rival among
palaces and prisons; its origin, like that of the Iliad, that of the
Sphinx, that of the Newton Stone, being lost in the nebulous ages,
long before our definite history took shape. Old writers date it from
the days of Cæsar; a legend taken up by Shakespeare and the
poets, in favour of which the name of Cæsar’s Tower remains in
popular use to this very day. A Roman wall can even yet be traced
near some parts of the ditch. The Tower is mentioned in the Saxon
Chronicle, in a way not incompatible with the fact of a Saxon
stronghold having stood upon this spot. The buildings as we have
them now in block and plan were commenced by William the
Conqueror; and the series of apartments in Cæsar’s tower,—hall,
gallery, council-chamber, chapel,—were built in the early Norman
reigns, and used as a royal residence by all our Norman kings. What
can Europe show to compare against such a tale?
Set against the Tower of London—with its eight hundred years of
historic life, its nineteen hundred years of traditional fame—all other
palaces and prisons appear like things of an hour. The oldest bit of
palace in Europe, that of the west front of the Burg in Vienna, is of
the time of Henry the Third. The Kremlin in Moscow, the Doge’s
Palazzo in Venice, are of the Fourteenth Century. The Seraglio in
Stamboul was built by Mohammed the Second. The oldest part of
the Vatican was commenced by Borgia, whose name it bears. The
old Louvre was commenced in the reign of Henry the Eighth; the
Tuileries in that of Elizabeth. In the time of our Civil War Versailles
was yet a swamp. Sans Souci and the Escurial belong to the
Eighteenth Century. The Serail of Jerusalem is a Turkish edifice. The
palaces of Athens, of Cairo, or Tehran, are all of modern date.
Neither can the prisons which remain in fact as well as in history
and drama—with the one exception of St. Angelo in Rome—
compare against the Tower. The Bastile is gone; the Bargello has
become a museum; the Piombi are removed from the Doge’s roof.
Vincennes, Spandau, Spilberg, Magdeburg, are all modern in
comparison with a jail from which Ralph Flambard escaped so long
ago as the year 1100, the date of the First Crusade.
Standing on Tower Hill, looking down on the dark lines of wall—
picking out keep and turret, bastion and ballium, chapel and belfry—
the jewel-house, the armoury, the mounts, the casemates, the open
leads—the Bye-ward gate, the Belfry, the Bloody tower—the whole
edifice seems alive with story; the story of a nation’s highest
splendour, its deepest misery, and its darkest shame. The soil
beneath your feet is richer in blood than many a great battlefield; for
out upon this sod has been poured, from generation to generation, a
stream of the noblest life in our land. Should you have come to this
spot alone, in the early day, when the Tower is noisy with martial
doings, you may haply catch, in the hum which rises from the ditch
and issues from the wall below you—broken by roll of drum, by blast
of bugle, by tramp of soldiers—some echoes, as it were, of a far-off
time; some hints of a May-day revel; of a state execution; of a royal
entry. You may catch some sound which recalls the thrum of a
queen’s virginal, the cry of a victim on the rack, the laughter of a
bridal feast. For all these sights and sounds—the dance of love and
the dance of death—are part of that gay and tragic memory which
clings around the Tower.
 THE TOWER OF LONDON

From the reign of Stephen down to that of Henry of Richmond,

Cæsar’s tower (the great Norman keep, now called the White tower)
was a main part of the royal palace; and for that large interval of
time, the story of the White tower is in some sort that of our English
society as well as of our English kings. Here were kept the royal
wardrobe and the royal jewels; and hither came with their goodly
wares, the tiremen, the goldsmiths, the chasers and embroiderers,
from Flanders, Italy, and Almaigne. Close by were the Mint, the lions’
dens, the old archery-grounds, the Court of King’s Bench, the Court
of Common Pleas, the Queen’s gardens, the royal banqueting-hall;
so that art and trade, science and manners, literature and law, sport
and politics, find themselves equally at home.
Two great architects designed the main parts of the Tower;
Gundul the Weeper and Henry the Builder; one a poor Norman
monk, the other a great English king....
 Henry the Third, a prince of epical fancies, as Corffe, Conway,
Beaumaris, and many other fine poems in stone attest, not only
spent much of his time in the Tower, but much of his money in
adding to its beauty and strength. Adam de Lamburn was his master
mason; but Henry was his own chief clerk of the works. The Water
gate, the embanked wharf, the Cradle tower, the Lantern, which he
made his bedroom and private closet, the Galleyman tower, and the
first wall, appear to have been his gifts. But the prince who did so
much for Westminster Abbey, not content with giving stone and piles
to the home in which he dwelt, enriched the chambers with frescoes
and sculpture, the chapels with carving and glass; making St. John’s
chapel in the White tower splendid with saints, St. Peter’s church on
the Tower Green musical with bells. In the Hall tower, from which a
passage led through the Great hall into the King’s bedroom in the
Lantern, he built a tiny chapel for his private use—a chapel which
served for the devotion of his successors until Henry the Sixth was
stabbed to death before the cross. Sparing neither skill nor gold to
make the great fortress worthy of his art, he sent to Purbeck for
marble, and to Caen for stone. The dabs of lime, the spawls of flint,
the layers of brick, which deface the walls and towers in too many
places, are of either earlier or later times. The marble shafts, the
noble groins, the delicate traceries, are Henry’s work. Traitor’s gate,
one of the noblest arches in the world, was built by him; in short,
nearly all that is purest in art is traceable to his reign....
The most eminent and interesting prisoner ever lodged in the
Tower is Raleigh; eminent by his personal genius, interesting from
his political fortune. Raleigh has in higher degree than any other
captive who fills the Tower with story, the distinction that he was not
the prisoner of his country, but the prisoner of Spain.
Many years ago I noted in the State Papers evidence, then
unknown, that a very great part of the second and long imprisonment
of the founder of Virginia was spent in the Bloody tower and the
adjoining Garden house; writing at this grated window; working in the
little garden on which it opened; pacing the terrace on this wall,
which was afterwards famous as Raleigh’s Walk. Hither came to him
the wits and poets, the scholars and inventors of his time; Johnson
and Burrell, Hariot and Pett; to crack light jokes; to discuss rabbinical
lore; to sound the depths of philosophy; to map out Virginia; to study
the ship-builder’s art. In the Garden house he distilled essences and
spirits; compounded his great cordial; discovered a method
(afterwards lost) of turning salt water into sweet; received the visits
of Prince Henry; wrote his political tracts; invented the modern
warship; wrote his History of the World....
The day of Raleigh’s death was the day of a new English birth.
Eliot was not the only youth of ardent soul who stood by the scaffold
in Palace Yard, to note the matchless spirit in which the martyr met
his fate, and walked away from that solemnity—a new man.
Thousands of men in every part of England who had led a careless
life became from that very hour the sleepless enemies of Spain. The
purposes of Raleigh were accomplished, in the very way which his
genius had contrived. Spain held the dominion of the sea, and
England took it from her. Spain excluded England from the New
World, and the genius of that New World is English.
The large contest in the new political system of the world, then
young, but clearly enough defined, had come to turn upon this
question—Shall America be mainly Spanish and theocratic, or
English and free? Raleigh said it should be English and free. He
gave his blood, his fortune, and his genius, to the great thought in his
heart; and, in spite of that scene in Palace Yard, which struck men
as the victory of Spain, America is at this moment English and free.

Her Majesty’s Tower (London, 1869).

 THE CATHEDRAL OF ANTWERP.
WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY.

I WAS awakened this morning with the chime which the Antwerp
Cathedral clock plays at half hours. The tune has been haunting me
ever since, as tunes will. You dress, eat, drink, walk, and talk to
yourself to their tune; their inaudible jingle accompanies you all day;
you read the sentences of the paper to their rhythm. I tried uncouthly
to imitate the tune to the ladies of the family at breakfast, and they
say it is “the shadow dance of Dinorah.” It may be so. I dimly
remember that my body was once present during the performance of
that opera, while my eyes were closed, and my intellectual faculties
dormant at the back of the box; howbeit, I have learned that shadow
dance from hearing it pealing up ever so high in the air at night,
morn, noon.
How pleasant to lie awake and listen to the cheery peal, while
the old city is asleep at midnight, or waking up rosy at sunrise, or
basking in noon, or swept by the scudding rain which drives in gusts
over the broad places, and the great shining river; or sparkling in
snow, which dresses up a hundred thousand masts, peaks, and
towers; or wrapped round with thunder—cloud canopies, before
which the white gables shine whiter; day and night the kind little
carillon plays its fantastic melodies overhead. The bells go on
ringing. Quot vivos vocant, mortuos plangunt, fulgura frangunt; so on
to the past and future tenses, and for how many nights, days, and
years! While the French were pitching their fulgura into Chassé’s
citadel, the bells went on ringing quite cheerfully. While the scaffolds
were up and guarded by Alva’s soldiery, and regiments of penitents,
blue, black, and grey, poured out of churches and convents, droning
their dirges, and marching to the place of the Hôtel de Ville, where
heretics and rebels were to meet their doom, the bells up yonder
were chanting at their appointed half hours and quarters, and rang
the mauvais quart d’heure for many a poor soul. This bell can see as
far away as the towers and dikes of Rotterdam. That one can call a
greeting to St. Ursula’s at Brussels, ind toss a recognition to that one
at the town hall of Oudenarde, and remember how, after a great
struggle there a hundred and fifty years ago, the whole plain was
covered with flying French chivalry—Burgundy, and Berri, and the
Chevalier of St. George flying like the rest. “What is your clamour
about Oudenarde?” says another bell (Bob Major this one must be).
“Be still thou querulous old clapper! I can see over to Hougoumont
and St. John. And about forty-five years since, I rang all through one
Sunday in June, when there was such a battle going on in the
cornfields there as none of you others ever heard tolled of. Yes, from
morning service until after vespers, the French and English were all
at it, ding-dong!” And then calls of business intervening, the bells
have to give up their private jangle, resume their professional duty,
and sing their hourly chorus out of Dinorah.
What a prodigious distance those bells can be heard! I was
awakened this morning to their tune, I say. I have been hearing it
constantly ever since. And this house whence I write, Murray says, is
two hundred and ten miles from Antwerp. And it is a week off; and
there is the bell still jangling its shadow dance out of Dinorah. An
audible shadow, you understand, and an invisible sound, but quite
distinct; and a plague take the tune!
 CATHEDRAL OF ANTWERP

Who has not seen the church under the bell? Those lofty aisles,
those twilight chapels, that cumbersome pulpit with its huge
carvings, that wide grey pavement flecked with various light from the
jewelled windows, those famous pictures between the voluminous
columns over the altars which twinkle with their ornaments, their
votive little silver hearts, legs, limbs, their little guttering tapers, cups
of sham roses, and what not? I saw two regiments of little scholars
creeping in and forming square, each in its appointed place, under
the vast roof, and teachers presently coming to them. A stream of
light from the jewelled windows beams slanting down upon each little
squad of children, and the tall background of the church retires into a
greyer gloom. Pattering little feet of laggards arriving echo through
the great nave. They trot in and join their regiments, gathered under
the slanting sunbeams. What are they learning? Is it truth? Those
two grey ladies with their books in their hands in the midst of these
little people have no doubt of the truth of every word they have
printed under their eyes. Look, through the windows jewelled all over
with saints, the light comes streaming down from the sky, and
heaven’s own illuminations paint the book! A sweet, touching picture
indeed it is, that of the little children assembled in this immense
temple, which has endured for ages, and grave teachers bending
over them. Yes, the picture is very pretty of the children and their
teachers, and their book—but the text? Is it the truth, the only truth,
nothing but the truth? If I thought so, I would go and sit down on the
form cum parvulis, and learn the precious lesson with all my heart.
But I submit, an obstacle to conversions is the intrusion and
impertinence of that Swiss fellow with the baldric—the officer who
answers to the beadle of the British islands—and is pacing about the
church with an eye on the congregation. Now the boast of Catholics
is that their churches are open to all; but in certain places and
churches there are exceptions. At Rome I have been into St. Peter’s
at all hours: the doors are always open, the lamps are always
burning, the faithful are forever kneeling at one shrine or the other.
But at Antwerp it is not so. In the afternoon you can go to the church
and be civilly treated, but you must pay a franc at the side gate. In
the forenoon the doors are open, to be sure, and there is no one to
levy an entrance fee. I was standing ever so still, looking through the
great gates of the choir at the twinkling lights, and listening to the
distant chants of the priests performing the service, when a sweet
chorus from the organ-loft broke out behind me overhead, and I
turned round. My friend the drum-major ecclesiastic was down upon
me in a moment. “Do not turn your back to the altar during divine
service,” says he, in very intelligible English. I take the rebuke, and
turn a soft right-about face, and listen a while as the service
continues. See it I cannot, nor the altar and its ministrants. We are
separated from these by a great screen and closed gates of iron,
through which the lamps glitter and the chant comes by gusts only.
Seeing a score of children trotting down a side aisle, I think I may
follow them. I am tired of looking at that hideous old pulpit, with its
grotesque monsters and decorations. I slip off to the side aisle; but
my friend the drum-major is instantly after me—almost I thought he
was going to lay hands on me. “You mustn’t go there,” says he; “you
mustn’t disturb the service.” I was moving as quietly as might be, and
ten paces off there were twenty children kicking and chattering at
their ease. I point them out to the Swiss. “They come to pray,” says
he. “You don’t come to pray; you—” “When I come to pay,” says I, “I
am welcome,” and with this withering sarcasm I walk out of church in
a huff. I don’t envy the feelings of that beadle after receiving point
blank such a stroke of wit.

Roundabout Papers (London, 1863).

 THE TAJ MAHAL.
ANDRÉ CHEVRILLON.

IT is well known that the Taj is a mausoleum built by the Mogul

Shah-Jehan to the Begum Mumtaz-i-Mahal. It is a regular octagon
surmounted by a Persian dome, which is surrounded by four
minarets. The building, erected upon a terrace which dominates the
enclosing gardens, is constructed of blocks of the purest white
marble, and rises to a height of two hundred and forty-three feet. We
step from the carriage before a noble portico of red sandstone,
pierced by a bold arch and covered with white arabesques. After
passing through this arch, we see the Taj looming up before us eight
hundred metres distant. Probably no masterpiece of architecture
calls forth a similar emotion.
 THE TAJ MAHAL.

At the back of a marvellous garden and with all of its whiteness

reflected in a canal of dark water, sleeping inertly among thick
masses of black cypress and great clumps of red flowers, this
perfect tomb rises like a calm apparition. It is a floating dream, an
aërial form without weight, so perfect is the balance of the lines, and
so pale, so delicate the shadows that float across the virginal and
translucent stone. These black cypresses which frame it, this
verdure through the openings of which peeps the blue sky, and this
sward bathed in brilliant sunlight and on which the sharply-cut
silhouettes of the trees are lying,—all these real objects render more
unreal the delicate vision, which seems to melt away into the light of
the sky. I walk towards it along the marble bank of the dark canal,
and the mausoleum assumes sharper form. On approaching you
take more delight in the surface of the octagonal edifice. This
consists of rectangular expanses of polished marble where the light
rests with a soft, milky splendour. One would never imagine that so
simple a thing as surface could be so beautiful when it is large and
pure. The eye follows the ingenious and graceful scrolls of great
flowers, flowers of onyx and turquoise, incrusted with perfect
smoothness, the harmony of the delicate carving, the marble lace-
work, the balustrades of a thousand perforations,—the infinite
display of simplicity and decoration.
The garden completes the monument, and both unite to form this
masterpiece of art. The avenues leading to the Taj are bordered with
funereal yews and cypresses, which make the whiteness of the far-
away marble appear even whiter. Behind their slender cones thick
and massive bushes add richness and depth to this solemn
vegetation. The stiff and sombre trees, standing out in relief from this
waving foliage, rise up solemnly with their trunks half-buried in
masses of roses, or are surrounded by clusters of a thousand
unknown and sweet-scented flowers which are blossoming in great
masses in this solitary garden. He must have been an extraordinary
artist who conceived this place. Sweeps of lawn, purple-chaliced
flowers, golden petals, swarms of humming bees, and diapered
butterflies give light and joy to the gloom of the burial-ground. This
place is both luminous and solemn; it contains the amorous and
religious delights of the Mussulman paradise, and the poem in trees
and flowers unites with the poem in marble to sing of splendour and
peace.
The interior of the mausoleum is at first as dark as night, but
through this darkness a grille of antique marble is faintly gleaming, a
mysterious marble-lace, which drapes the tombs, and which seems
to wind and unwind forever, shedding on the splendour of the vault a
yellow light, which seems to be ancient, and to have rested there for
ages. And the pale web of marble wreathes and wreathes until it
loses itself in the darkness.
In the centre are the tombs of the lovers; two small sarcophagi
upon which a mysterious light falls, but whence it comes no one
knows. There is nothing more. They sleep here in the silence,
surrounded by perfect beauty which celebrates their love that has
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