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A First Course in Differential Equations Modeling and
Simulation 2nd Edition Carlos A. Smith (Author) Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Carlos A. Smith (Author); Scott W. Campbell (Author)
ISBN(s): 9781482257236, 1482257238
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 27.54 MB
Year: 2016
Language: english
  
 

   

Smith
A First
MATHEMATICS/ENGINEERING

Campbell
 

“Short chapters and clear writing make the text very understandable, enabling students  

Course in
 
to grasp what’s important and to apply the concepts to problem solutions simply through  

A First Course in Differential Equations,

reading!”  
 
—Susan Schneider, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA  
 
 

Differential
“The greatest strength of the book is that it … camouflages mathematics into real-world
science and engineering problems. Students learn the mathematics without knowing they  

are learning mathematics at all.”

—Edward Waller, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Canada

Modeling, and Simulation

Equations,
 
 
   
A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation shows how differential  
 
 
equations arise from applying basic physical principles and experimental observations to    

Modeling,
 
engineering systems. Avoiding overly theoretical explanations, the textbook also discusses  
 
 
classical and Laplace transform methods for obtaining the analytical solution of differential
 
equations. In addition, the authors explain how to solve sets of differential equations where  
 
analytical solutions cannot easily be obtained.

and
 

Incorporating valuable suggestions from mathematicians and mathematics professors, the

Second Edition:
• Expands the chapter on classical solutions of ordinary linear differential equations to

•
include additional methods
Increases coverage of response of first- and second-order systems to a full, stand-alone
chapter to emphasize its importance
Simulation
Second Edition
• Includes new examples of applications related to chemical reactions, environmental  
   
engineering, biomedical engineering, and biotechnology    
 
• Contains new exercises that can be used as projects and answers to many of the end-of-  
   
chapter problems
   

• Features new end-of-chapter problems and updates throughout  

Thus, A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation, Second Edition
provides students with a practical understanding of how to apply differential equations in
 
  Carlos A. Smith
 
modern engineering and science.
  Scott W. Campbell

Second
K24086 Edition
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 A First Course in
Differential Equations,
Modeling,
and Simulation
Second Edition
 A First Course in
Differential Equations,
Modeling,
and Simulation
Second Edition

Carlos A. Smith
University of South Florida, Tampa, USA

Scott W. Campbell
University of South Florida, Tampa, USA
MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission. The MathWorks does
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This book is dedicated to the Lord my God, for his daily blessings have made this work possible.

To the love of my life and of the entire family, my wife, Cristina (“Mimi”)

To the Livingstons—Tim, Cristina, Sophia, and Christopher

To the Smiths—Carlos, Jennifer, Alex, Nicolas, and Kara K.

To the Smiths in Miami—Rene, Terina, Eddy, Mikey, Miriam,

Stephanie, Sabrina, Lucas, Kelly, and Finn

To my school “De La Salle,” to my teachers for having taught me the principles

in life, “God, country, and family,” and to my classmates, and several

previous graduates, for their friendship and being great role models.

And to my dearest homeland—Cuba.

Carlos A. Smith

Dedicated to my mother, Ruth, and late father, Robert, who gave me the opportunities

they didn’t have. And to my wife and best friend, Gwendolyn, for helping me to make use

of them. Finally, to Boris Vuksanovich and Roger Smith, my junior high and high school

math teachers, for making mathematics challenging, doable, and most of all, fun.

I’d also like to add my thanks to Carlos Smith, for being the driving

force behind both this book and the course that inspired it.

Scott W. Campbell
Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Authors............................................................................................................................................xv

1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 An Introductory Example............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Differential Equations...................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Initial and Boundary Conditions...................................................................7
1.2.2 Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations...............................................9
1.3 Modeling....................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Forcing Functions........................................................................................................ 11
1.5 Book Objectives............................................................................................................ 15
1.6 Summary....................................................................................................................... 15

2. Objects in a Gravitational Field.......................................................................................... 19

2.1 An Example................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Antidifferentiation: Technique for Solving First-Order Ordinary
Differential Equations................................................................................................. 21
2.3 Back to Section 2.1........................................................................................................22
2.4 Another Example......................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Separation of Variables: Technique for Solving First-Order Ordinary
Differential Equations................................................................................................. 24
2.6 Back to Section 2.4........................................................................................................ 25
2.7 Equations, Unknowns, and Degrees of Freedom.................................................... 26
2.8 Partial Fraction Expansion.......................................................................................... 29
2.8.1 Unrepeated Real Roots................................................................................... 31
2.8.2 Repeated Real Roots....................................................................................... 32
2.9 Summary.......................................................................................................................34

3. Classical Solutions of Ordinary Linear Differential Equations................................. 41

3.1 Examples of Differential Equations........................................................................... 41
3.1.1 Bioengineering: Chapter 8............................................................................. 41
3.1.2 Mechanical Translational: Chapter 6...........................................................42
3.1.3 Fluid System: Chapter 8.................................................................................42
3.1.4 Thermal System: Chapter 9...........................................................................43
3.1.5 Electrical Circuit: Chapter 10........................................................................44
3.2 Definition of a Linear Differential Equation............................................................ 45
3.3 Integrating Factor Method.......................................................................................... 46
3.3.1 Development of the Integrating Factor Method......................................... 49
3.4 Solution of Homogeneous Differential Equations.................................................. 50
3.4.1 Characteristic Equation.................................................................................. 50
3.4.2 Roots of the Characteristic Equation............................................................54
3.4.3 Qualitative System Response........................................................................ 56

vii
viii Contents

3.5 Solution of Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations........................................... 59

3.5.1 Homogeneous Solution (Natural Response)
and Nonhomogeneous Solution (Forced Response).................................. 60
3.5.2 Undetermined Coefficients........................................................................... 61
3.5.3 Multiple Forcing Functions........................................................................... 74
3.6 Variation of Parameters............................................................................................... 75
3.6.1 Second-Order Systems................................................................................... 75
3.6.2 Higher-Order Systems...................................................................................84
3.7 Handling Nonlinearities and Variable Coefficients............................................... 87
3.7.1 Taylor Series..................................................................................................... 88
3.7.2 Linearization of Nonlinear Differential Equations...................................90
3.8 Transient and Final Responses.................................................................................. 96
3.9 Summary....................................................................................................................... 99

4. Laplace Transforms............................................................................................................. 111

4.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform....................................................................... 112
4.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform............................................ 115
4.2.1 Linearity Property........................................................................................ 115
4.2.2 Real Differentiation Theorem..................................................................... 116
4.2.3 Real Integration Theorem............................................................................ 117
4.2.4 Real Translation Theorem............................................................................ 117
4.2.5 Final Value Theorem.................................................................................... 118
4.2.6 Complex Differentiation Theorem............................................................. 119
4.2.7 Complex Translation Theorem................................................................... 119
4.2.8 Initial Value Theorem................................................................................... 119
4.3 Solution of Differential Equations Using Laplace Transform............................. 122
4.3.1 Inversion by Partial Fraction Expansion................................................... 124
4.3.1.1 Unrepeated Real Roots................................................................. 125
4.3.1.2 Repeated Real Roots..................................................................... 127
4.3.1.3 Complex Roots............................................................................... 129
4.3.2 Handling Time Delays................................................................................. 149
4.4 Transfer Functions..................................................................................................... 151
4.5 Algebraic Manipulations Using Laplace Transforms........................................... 154
4.6 Deviation Variables.................................................................................................... 156
4.7 Summary..................................................................................................................... 162

5. Response of First- and Second-Order Systems............................................................. 169

5.1 First-Order Systems................................................................................................... 169
5.1.1 Step Function Input...................................................................................... 173
5.1.2 Sinusoidal Function Input........................................................................... 176
5.1.3 Transfer Function.......................................................................................... 178
5.2 Second-Order Systems.............................................................................................. 178
5.2.1 Step Function Input...................................................................................... 181
5.2.1.1 Types of Stable Systems................................................................ 182
5.2.1.2 Underdamped Response.............................................................. 183
5.2.1.3 Undamped Response.................................................................... 185
5.2.2 Sinusoidal Function Input........................................................................... 185
5.2.3 Transfer Function.......................................................................................... 187
Contents ix

5.3 Examples..................................................................................................................... 187

5.4 Some Concluding Remarks...................................................................................... 192
5.5 Summary..................................................................................................................... 193

6. Mechanical Systems: Translational................................................................................. 199

6.1 Mechanical Law, System Components, and Forces.............................................. 199
6.1.1 Mechanical Law............................................................................................ 199
6.1.2 System Components..................................................................................... 200
6.1.2.1 Springs............................................................................................ 200
6.1.2.2 Dashpots (Pistons or Dampers)................................................... 201
6.1.2.3 Ideal Pulley..................................................................................... 202
6.1.3 Forces.............................................................................................................. 203
6.2 Types of Systems........................................................................................................ 205
6.2.1 Undamped System........................................................................................ 205
6.2.2 Damped System............................................................................................ 209
6.3 D’Alembert’s Principle and Free Body Diagrams................................................. 212
6.4 Examples..................................................................................................................... 215
6.5 Vertical Systems.........................................................................................................225
6.6 Summary..................................................................................................................... 228

7. Mechanical Systems: Rotational...................................................................................... 239

7.1 Mechanical Law, Moment of Inertia, and Torque................................................. 239
7.1.1 Mass Moment of Inertia...............................................................................240
7.1.2 Torque............................................................................................................. 242
7.2 Torsion Springs........................................................................................................... 245
7.3 Rotational Damping.................................................................................................. 247
7.4 Gears............................................................................................................................ 251
7.5 Systems with Rotational and Translational Elements..........................................254
7.6 Summary..................................................................................................................... 256

8. Mass Balances...................................................................................................................... 269

8.1 Conservation of Mass................................................................................................ 269
8.1.1 Multicomponent Systems............................................................................ 272
8.1.2 Types of Processes........................................................................................ 274
8.2 Flow Rates and Concentrations............................................................................... 274
8.3 Elements and Experimental Facts........................................................................... 277
8.3.1 Flow Element................................................................................................. 277
8.3.2 Liquid Service................................................................................................ 278
8.3.3 Gas Service..................................................................................................... 279
8.4 Examples..................................................................................................................... 280
8.5 Expressions for Mass Transport and Chemical Reactions................................... 287
8.5.1 Mass Transport.............................................................................................. 287
8.5.2 Chemical Reactions...................................................................................... 289
8.5.2.1 Half-Life.......................................................................................... 291
8.5.3 Batch Processes............................................................................................. 291
8.5.3.1 Batch Separation............................................................................ 292
8.5.3.2 Batch Reactor.................................................................................. 294
x Contents

8.6 Additional Examples................................................................................................. 295

8.7 Application to Bioengineering Processes...............................................................305
8.7.1 Compartmental Modeling........................................................................... 306
8.7.2 Biological Reactions......................................................................................308
8.7.3 Fermentation.................................................................................................. 315
8.8 Final Comments......................................................................................................... 319
8.9 Summary..................................................................................................................... 320
References.............................................................................................................................. 320

9. Thermal Systems................................................................................................................. 335

9.1 Conservation of Energy............................................................................................ 335
9.2 Modes of Heat Transfer............................................................................................. 336
9.3 Conduction.................................................................................................................. 336
9.4 Convection.................................................................................................................. 338
9.5 Conduction and Convection in Series..................................................................... 339
9.6 Accumulated or Stored Energy................................................................................ 341
9.7 Some Examples...........................................................................................................343
9.8 Heat Transfer in a Flow System............................................................................... 351
9.9 Thermal Effects in a Reactive System..................................................................... 355
9.10 Boundary Value Problems in Heat Transfer.......................................................... 357
9.11 Summary..................................................................................................................... 372

10. Electrical Systems................................................................................................................ 379

10.1 Some Definitions and Conventions......................................................................... 379
10.2 Electrical Laws, Components, and Initial Conditions.......................................... 380
10.2.1 Electrical Laws.............................................................................................. 380
10.2.2 Electrical Components................................................................................. 382
10.2.3 Initial Conditions.......................................................................................... 386
10.3 Examples of Electrical Circuits................................................................................ 387
10.3.1 Undamped Circuit (Natural Frequency and Resonance)....................... 398
10.4 Additional Examples................................................................................................. 402
10.5 Energy and Power...................................................................................................... 414
10.5.1 Resistors......................................................................................................... 415
10.5.2 Capacitors....................................................................................................... 416
10.5.3 Inductors........................................................................................................ 416
10.6 RC Circuits as Filters................................................................................................. 426
10.6.1 High-Pass Filter............................................................................................. 428
10.6.2 Low-Pass Filter.............................................................................................. 431
10.7 Summary.....................................................................................................................433

11. Numerical Simulation........................................................................................................445

11.1 Numerical Solution of Differential Equations.......................................................445
11.2 Euler’s Method for First-Order Ordinary Differential Equations......................446
11.3 Euler’s Method for Second-Order Ordinary Differential Equations................. 447
11.4 Step Size....................................................................................................................... 449
11.5 More Sophisticated Methods.................................................................................... 450
11.6 Representation of Differential Equations by Block Diagrams............................ 451
11.6.1 Basic Blocks.................................................................................................... 451
11.6.2 Guidelines for Constructing Block Diagrams.......................................... 453
Contents xi

11.6.3 Some Additional Examples......................................................................... 455

11.6.4 Some Additional Source Blocks.................................................................. 458
11.6.4.1 Step Block....................................................................................... 459
11.6.4.2 Sine Wave....................................................................................... 459
11.7 Additional Examples................................................................................................. 460
11.8 Summary..................................................................................................................... 467
Reference................................................................................................................................ 467

Answers to Selected Problems................................................................................................. 481

Preface

This second edition continues being student oriented and maintains the same objective as
in the first edition, that of making differential equations as meaningful as possible from an
engineering and science point of view. Equally, we hope to provide students the necessary
tools to facilitate future courses and engineering practice.
The book presents the classical methods to obtain the analytical solution of the differen-
tial equations, as well as Laplace transforms. We seek to make the presentation readable,
simple, and practical for motivating the student to learn the methods. For a large set of
equations, or when the equations are nonlinear, the use of the analytical solution methods
may be cumbersome. In these cases, numerical solution (using the computer) may be the
easiest way, or only way, to arrive at a solution. We call simulation the procedure of solving
a set of equations using computer methods. The book discusses simulation and presents a
typical software package for the solution of the models developed. The book also presents
several mathematical models of different engineering systems to show the reader how dif-
ferential equations arise from applying basic physical principles and experimental obser-
vations to systems of interest to engineers.
Using simple physics, Chapters 1 and 2 introduce dynamic modeling, the definition of
differential equations, two simple methods for obtaining their analytical solution, and a
method to follow when modeling. These chapters are used to introduce the subject and
to motivate the readers for great things to come. Chapter 3 presents the classical methods
for solving differential equations. The chapter also discusses in detail the meaning and
engineering importance of the roots of a characteristic equation. The Laplace transform
method is presented in Chapter 4. The meaning of the transfer function is introduced, as
well as the power of Laplace transforms for obtaining the analytical solution of coupled
differential equations. Chapter 5 presents the response of first- and second-order differen-
tial equations. Chapters 6 through 10 present the modeling of translational and rotational
mechanical systems, fluid systems, thermal systems, and electrical systems. All of these
chapters follow the same structure in that the basic physical law applicable in each case
is first presented, followed by the applicable element equations and physical facts, and
finally, several examples. Chapter 11 discusses simulation, with many examples developed
in previous chapters.
The material can be covered in an order and degree of completion that is tailored to
the pedagogical philosophy of the instructor. Certainly, it can be covered in the order it
is presented where the students will develop the full set of mathematical skills before
applying them to physical systems. On the other hand, for instructors who believe that
applications should be mixed in with the mathematics, other options are possible. For
instance, one of us (SWC) begins with the introductory material of Chapters 1 and 2 and
then moves to Chapter 9 on thermal systems. In parallel with these, the simulation meth-
ods of Chapter 11 are covered. Then the mathematical methods of Chapter 3 are covered
before applying these concepts to the translational and electrical systems of Chapters 6
and 10. Finally, Laplace transforms (Chapter 4) are covered, along with their applications to
previously covered application areas. Some problems and examples (e.g., those requiring
solution of coupled equations by Laplace transforms) have to be deferred until later with
this approach, but others, such as those involving simulations, can be moved up.

xiii
xiv Preface

We have been very fortunate to have had the comments and recommendations of several
peers—Professors Willie Moreno and Karim Nohra, both from the University of South
Florida, Tampa; Fabio Castrillon, from Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana in Medellin,
Colombia; Hernan Dario Alvarez from Universidad Nacional in Medellin, Colombia; Ivan
Dario Gil from Universidad Nacional in Bogota, Colombia; and Marco E. Sanjuan from
Universidad del Norte, in Barranquilla, Colombia.

Carlos A. Smith
Scott W. Campbell
Tampa, Florida

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Authors

Scott W. Campbell has been on the faculty of the Department of Chemical and Biomedical
Engineering at the University of South Florida, Tampa, since 1986. He has authored or
coauthored more than 60 technical peer-reviewed articles, mostly in the area of thermo­
dynamics, and has received numerous teaching awards at the department, college, univer-
sity, and state levels. Recently, Professor Campbell has been collaborating with mathematics
faculty on application-based teaching of calculus and with College of Education faculty on
the training of middle school science and math teachers.

Carlos A. Smith is a professor emeritus of chemical engineering at the University of South

Florida (USF). He has been on the faculty at the University of South Florida for 43 years,
serving in different capacities. Professor Smith has lectured in Europe and many coun-
tries in Latin America. He is the coauthor of three editions of a textbook in process control
and the author of another book on the same subject. The books have been translated into
Spanish and Portuguese.

xv
1
Introduction

This chapter looks to motivate you to read and study this book. We hope to open your
mind to a fascinating and practical engineering tool, and do so by introducing the topics
of the book using a simple, commonsense example. The example shows the use of basic
differentials learned in calculus courses and introduces differential equations and their
analytical and numerical solutions (simulation), as well as the subject of mathematical
modeling.

1.1 An Introductory Example

Consider the tank in Figure 1.1, where two streams enter the tank and mix, and a single
stream exits through a valve.
Let us suppose that the process is at a state when nothing is changing, that is, the same
amount of flow exits out as comes in, and of course the liquid level is constant; we refer to
this condition as steady state, or say that the system is “at rest.” At this steady operation
we can write

Flow1 + Flow2 = Flow3 (1.1)

or

Flow1 + Flow2 − Flow3 = 0 (1.2)

Note that we can also word the above equation as

∑ Flows in − ∑ Flows out = 0 (1.3)

Let us now use the following notation:

w1 = Flow1; w2 = Flow2; w3 = Flow3

and the units of each term are kg/min. w’s are used in this book to express mass flow rates
(mass/time). So, we can write

w1 + w2 − w 3 = 0 (1.4)

Equations 1.1 through 1.4 are algebraic equations.

1
2 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

kg kg
Flow1, Flow2,
min min

h, m kg
Flow3,
min
m, kg

FIGURE 1.1
Mixing tank.

Let us suppose that w1 = 200 kg/min and w2 = 100 kg/min; Equation 1.4 indicates that

200 + 100 − w3 = 0

and

w3 = 300 kg/min

If w2 changes to 200 kg/min, Equation 1.4 indicates that now w3 = 400 kg/min.
The outlet flow of liquid through the valve depends, among other things, on the liquid
level in the tank, h as indicated in the figure, which we often refer to as the head of liquid.
This dependence, or relation, may be expressed as

w3 = CV h (1.5)

where CV is called the valve coefficient, and it is what the engineer calculates when siz-
ing the valve. For this particular example, assume CV = 166.7 kg/m1/2 · min. Substituting
Equation 1.5 into Equation 1.4 gives

w1 + w2 − 166.7 h = 0 (1.6)

For the steady operation, Equation 1.6 provides the necessary liquid level to deliver the
outlet flow,

200 + 100 − 166.7 h = 0

h = 3.24 m
Introduction 3

If w2 becomes 200 kg/min, the new necessary level to deliver 400 kg/min is

200 + 200 − 166.7 h = 0

h = 5.76 m

So, Equation 1.4 provides the new outlet flow, and Equation 1.6 provides the liquid level
in the tank necessary to deliver the new outlet flow. These equations describe the liquid in
the tank; they are the mathematical model of the tank.
When flow w2 changes from 100 kg/min to 200 kg/min, the level in the tank must change
from 3.24 m to 5.76 m. Although the change in inlet flow may be very close to instanta-
neous, the change in level is not instantaneous. It takes some amount of time in going
from the initial level to the new, or final, level. The model given by Equation 1.6 does not
provide, or is not related to, the time it takes to accomplish the change. This model only
provides the level required to produce the new output flow. If the time to reach the new
level is important, then another model is needed.
The new model needs to describe how fast the level in the tank changes when any of the inlet
flows, or both, change. To see how this equation develops, consider Equation 1.3 again,

∑ Flows in − ∑ Flows out = 0

or, noting that the flows are specifically mass flows,

∑ Rate of mass − ∑ Rate of mass = 0 (1.7)

entering system exiting system

The expression rate of mass refers to flows in units of mass/time (kg/min in this exam-
ple). Equation 1.7 only refers to the streams entering and exiting the system (the tank in
this case); it does not account for the mass inside the system. Thus, it does not describe
what happens to the mass or liquid level in the tank when the entering and exiting streams
are not equal to each other. To account for this mass inside the process, and develop the
desired model, we rewrite Equation 1.7 as

∑ Rate of mass − ∑ Rate of mass = Rate of change of mass (1.8)

entering system exiting system accumulated in system

Applying this equation to the tank,

dm
w1 + w 2 − w 3 = (1.9)
dt

where m is the mass inside the tank (accumulated) as indicated in Figure 1.1.
4 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

As we have learned in calculus, the derivative dy/dx means the change of y with respect
to x. So, the term dm/dt means the change of the mass in the tank (m) with respect to time (t),
or in other words, how fast the mass in the tank changes or the rate of change of the mass in the
tank. A positive derivative indicates that the mass in the tank is increasing because there
is more mass entering the tank than exiting; a negative derivative indicates that the mass
in the tank is decreasing, or depleting, because there is more mass exiting the tank than
entering.
The mass of liquid accumulated in the tank is given by the volume of liquid times its
density (mass/volume). The volume of liquid is given by the level of liquid times the cross-
sectional area of the tank. All of this is mathematically written as

m = ρV = ρ Ah (1.10)

where
ρ = density of fluid—assumed constant in this example at 1000 kg/m3
V = volume of liquid in tank, m3
A = cross-sectional area of tank—assumed constant at 0.146 m2

and from Equation 1.10,

dm dh
= ρA (1.11)
dt dt

Substituting Equations 1.5 and 1.11 into Equation 1.9,

dh
w1 + w2 − CV h = ρA (1.12)
dt

or

dh
ρA + CV h = w1 + w2 (1.13)
dt

or

dh
146 + 166.7 h = w1 + w2 (1.14)
dt

Equation 1.13 is a differential equation, and its solution describes the liquid level in the
tank as a function of the inlet flows; Equation 1.12 is the same differential equation writ-
ten a bit differently. The solution of these equations gives the liquid level h as a function of time
when w1 and w2 change. Figure 1.2 shows the level response when w2 changes from 100 to
200 kg/min at t = 5 min. The input flow w2 changes as a step change (instantaneously),
but it takes some time for the level to go from its original to its final value. Note that the
solution or response provides the final height of liquid after a very long time, that is, as
time gets very large, which the same information is provided by Equation 1.6. Thus, the
solution of the differential equation describes how the level in the tank changes as a function of
time, including its final steady value. The differential equation provides more information
than the algebraic equation.
Introduction 5

250

200
Flow2, kg/min

150

100

50
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, min

5.5

5
Level h, m

4.5

3.5

3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time, min

FIGURE 1.2
Response of level in tank.

1.2 Differential Equations
Up to this moment in your study of engineering and science you have become quite famil-
iar with algebraic equations, for example,

x3 + 3x2 + 4x = 3t2 + 4t (1.15)

From this equation we can solve for x at any t. We could repeat this for different values of
t and make a graph of x versus t.
Many natural and man-made phenomena and systems cannot be described by algebraic
equations, or the description provided by algebraic equations is not complete (as in the
6 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

example in Section 1.1). In these cases, differential equations (DEs) may provide the required
description; an example of a differential equation is

d 3 x(t) d 2 x(t) dx(t)

3
+3 +4 + x(t) = F(t) (1.16)
dt dt 2 dt

Note that the variable x that is differentiated must be a function of t; otherwise, the differ-
ential would be zero. That is the reason for writing x(t). What often happens is that because
obviously x is a function of t, we drop the t term and simply write

d3 x d2 x dx
3
+ 3 2
+4 + x = F(t) (1.17)
dt dt dt

A differential equation is an equation containing one or more derivatives of an unknown function

and perhaps the function itself. In Equation 1.16, x(t), or x in Equation 1.17, is the unknown
function; in Equation 1.13, h is the unknown function.
The unknown function is called the dependent variable; the variable by which this depen-
dent variable is differentiated by, t in Equations 1.13, 1.16, and 1.17, is called the independent
variable; note that all appearances of the dependent variable are on the left side of the equal
sign. The function on the right-hand side of the equal sign, F(t) in Equations 1.16 and 1.17, or
w1 and w2 in Equation 1.13, is called the forcing function because once it changes, it “forces”
the dependent variable to change.
It is common in mathematics to use primes (′) or dots ( · ) to represent derivatives, that is,

dx d2 x
= x′ = x ; = x′′ = x ; etc.
dt dt 2

In this book we may use the prime notation for derivatives. Therefore, we could have
written Equation 1.16 as

x‴ + 3x″ + 4x′ + x = F(t)

and for Equation 1.13,

ρ Ah′ + CV h = w1 + w2

The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative in the equation. For example,
Equation 1.17 is a third-order differential equation, and Equation 1.13 is a first-order dif-
ferential equation.
To summarize,
Order (3) Dependent variable x
Forcing function
d 3x 2
+ 3 d 2x + 4 dx + x = F(t)
dt 3 dt dt
Independent variable t
Introduction 7

1.2.1 Initial and Boundary Conditions

A differential equation by itself is not enough to provide the complete solution. Consider
the following equation from physics and mathematics:

dx
=v (1.18)
dt

where x is position, t is time, and v is velocity. Assuming v is constant at 10 m/s,

∫ dx = ∫ v dt
x = vt + C = 10t + C (1.19)

and a possible graph of this solution is shown in Figure 1.3.

Both lines, and many others, in Figure 1.3b satisfy Equation 1.18. Actually, Equation 1.19 repre-
sents a family of solutions, depending on the value of C, which satisfies the differential equation.
To know which curve, and value of C, is the correct one for the physical situation at hand,
a value of x at some time t must be known. Usually, on the basis of the physics of the situ-
ation, x at t = 0 is specified, or known, and indicated as x(0). That is,

x t= 0 = x(0) (1.20)

where the vertical line after the x denotes “evaluated at.” This specification is called an
initial condition. Thus, the complete mathematical model requires the differential equation
and the initial condition, or

dx
=v (1.21)
dt

and

x t= 0 = x(0) (1.22)

dx
= v, x, m
dt m/s

10 10
x=4

x=0
Time, s Time, s
(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.3
Graph of Equation 1.18.
8 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

We call this an initial value problem, and it can now be solved applying the initial condi-
tion in Equation 1.19,

x(0) = 10(0) + C ⇒ C = x(0)

or

x = x(0) + 10t

In obtaining Equation 1.19 we made use of indeterminate integrals. We can also use the
limits of integration to obtain the final solution,

x t t

∫ dx = ∫ v dt = ∫ 10 dt
x( 0) 0 0
⇒ x x
x( 0) = 10 t t
0

x − x(0) = 10(t − 0)

x = x(0) + 10t (1.23)

For an nth-order differential equation, n initial conditions are needed to complete the
model. That is, for Equation 1.16, the following initial conditions, x″(0), x′(0), and x(0),
are necessary—an initial condition for each of the first n – 1 derivatives and one for the
unknown function itself.
For example, consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure 1.4. Chapter 10 shows that
the differential equation that describes the voltage drop vC across the capacitor when the
switch is closed is Equation 10.27b,

d 2 vC dv
3.75 × 10−6 + 3.0 × 10−4 C + vC = vS
dt 2 dt

To obtain the solution of this second-order differential equation, two initial conditions
are required. If originally the capacitor is discharged, we state this as vC(0) = 0 V; that is,
at t = 0, there is no voltage drop across the capacitor—this is the first initial condition. If

t=0
E1,V E2,V
+ −
R=2Ω
+
i, A
+

vS = 10 V vC C = 150 Fµ
− −
E3,V

E4,V − +
L = 25 mH

FIGURE 1.4
RLC circuit.
Introduction 9

dvC
originally the circuit is at rest or in a steady condition, this is stated as = 0 V/s (volts/
dt t= 0
second); this is the second initial condition. This statement of the first derivative of vC equal
dv
to zero makes sense. Remember that writing C = 0 is shorthand for saying the rate of
dt t= 0
change of vC at t = 0. Because originally vC is steady, that is, nothing is changing, the rate of
dvC
change of vC at t = 0 equals 0 V/s, or = 0 V/s.
dt
Thus, if in any system the dependent variable is at a steady value (at rest) before the forc-
ing function changes, we state that at that moment,

d(dependent variable)
=0
dt t= 0

It is simple to realize that if this is the case, the higher derivatives of the dependent
dx
variables are also 0. Think about it; use the example of displacement x, velocity , and
2
d x dt
acceleration 2 to help you understand.
dt
It is important to realize how the physical system conditions are used to write the initial
conditions. Remember, in developing the equations describing physical systems, the math-
ematics must reflect the physical conditions and all the terms must have units that make
sense. We will remind you of this fact in future chapters.
The independent variable of the differential equations we have shown in this first chap-
ter has been time t. This will be the case in almost all the equations discussed in this book
because it is the most common. There are some times, however, when other independent
variables are used. For example, in several fields of engineering, differential equations
describing the dependent variable as a function of distance from some point develop. For
instance, the differential equation could be

dT
5 + 3T = 2 q
dl

where T is temperature along a length l of a solid pipe, and q is the energy entering the
pipe. In this case, the dependent variable T is a function of l. To obtain the complete solu-
tion, we need to know the value of T at some l. The term initial condition that we have used
to describe this value implies the value of the dependent variable at some time t. So, to
avoid this implication, when the independent variable is not time, we use the term bound-
ary condition to refer to this value needed to obtain the solution.

1.2.2 Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations

Before continuing with new material, we would like to state once more that the dependent
variable must be a function of the independent variable; otherwise, the differential is zero.
To stress this fact, many books would write Equation 1.13 as

d h(t)
ρA + CV h(t) = w1 (t) + w2 (t) (1.24)
dt
10 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

Insulation

Tin Tout

x=0 x=L

FIGURE 1.5
Well-insulated pipe.

Writing h(t), the equation explicitly shows that the dependent variable h is a function
of the independent variable, t, and by writing w1(t) and w2(t), the equation also explicitly
shows that the forcing functions are a function of time. Often, however, as we said earlier,
writers skip that step; that is, they write Equation 1.13 instead of Equation 1.24. In this book
we will not explicitly show the functionality; that is, we will most often write Equation 1.13
and not Equation 1.24.
The dependent variable in the differential equations discussed so far is a function of
only one independent variable; for example, in the case of the mixing tank in Section 1.1,
the level h is only a function of time t. These differential equations are called ordinary dif-
ferential equations (ODEs).
Sometimes the dependent variable may be a function of more than one independent
variable. Consider Figure 1.5 showing a well-insulated long pipe in which a liquid flows.
At the initial steady condition the temperature of the liquid is the same all along the pipe;
let us call this temperature Tinitial, and of course at that condition, Tin = Tinitial.
Suppose now that at some time, t = 0, the inlet temperature Tin increases by 30°C. The
liquid temperature inside the pipe starts increasing at some rate (not instantaneously) to
its final value, but not at the same time all along the pipe. That is, the temperature next
to the entrance starts changing before the temperature at 0.1 L starts changing, and this
temperature at 0.1 L starts changing before the temperature at 0.2 L starts changing, and
so on. That means that the temperature along the pipe, call it T, is a function of—depends
on—time t and distance x down the pipe; we say that T(t, x). In this case, the differential
equation modeling the temperature in the pipe will contain partial derivatives of T(t, x)
∂T (t , x) ∂T (t , x)
such as and . These equations are called partial differential equations (PDEs).
∂x ∂t
For a first-order PDE the initial condition is of the form T(t = 0) = Tinitial for all x, and T(x =
0) = Tinitial for t.
This book focuses only on ODEs. We raise the issue here because sometimes the ODEs
we develop and solve contain simplifying assumptions, without which we would require
PDEs. You will learn more about the assumptions, and when they are applicable, in your
later engineering and science courses.

1.3 Modeling
As we have seen in the previous sections, modeling in the context of this book refers to
mathematical modeling. Specifically, a mathematical model is an equation, or set of equa-
tions, that describes a system. Actually, engineering and science students have been writ-
ing mathematical models since physics courses. At that time, the models were simple,
and most often composed of a single equation. As we progress through engineering and
Introduction 11

science, the models become a bit more complex and composed of several equations. The
fact is that engineering and science students have been developing mathematical models
almost from day one!
Note the steps taken in developing the model, Equation 1.13; these are the typical steps
in developing any model. First, we started using a basic physical law; in the example
shown this was Equation 1.8, which, although we did not name it, is the law of conserva-
tion of mass (we will visit it again in Chapter 8). We then continued with other necessary
equations, such as Equations 1.5 and 1.10, which we referred to as process components or
phenomena occurring. Thus, in developing a model, we start from a basic physical law,
also sometimes referred to as governing equation, followed by equations describing phe-
nomena taking place, physical elements, and so forth. We will stress this procedure in
every modeling chapter.
Note also that the resulting model, Equation 1.13, was obtained substituting Equations
1.5 and 1.10 into Equation 1.9. Equation 1.13 contains only one unknown, the liquid level h;
the flow rates of streams 1 and 2 are not considered unknowns because it is up to the user
to decide how to change them. Sometimes, in more extensive models, these substitutions
may result in a rather large and complex single equation. It is better in these cases not to
substitute the equations and consider the entire set of equations as the model. For example,
in the mixing tank process we could have said that the model for the tank was composed
of Equation 1.9—always the basic law as the first equation—and Equations 1.5 and 1.10; in
this case, there are three equations with three unknowns, w3, m, and h.
We have referred to Equation 1.6 as the model of the tank shown in Figure 1.1. However,
Equation 1.12 is also another model of the tank. The difference is that the solution of
Equation 1.12 provides the response of the level as a function of time, while Equation 1.6
only provides the level at the end of time, once the steady conditions are reached again. We
refer to models described by differential equations when time is the independent variable
as dynamic models; we refer to models described by algebraic equations, when time is not
involved in the models, as steady-state models.

1.4 Forcing Functions
Let us look in more detail at differential equations and to what we have referred to as
forcing functions; we use the example of the tank in Section 1.1. The resulting model is
Equation 1.13, or

dh (1.13)
ρA + CV h = w1 + w2
dt

Now suppose that originally there is no flow into the tank, that is, w1 = w2 = 0 kg/min.
In this case,

dh
ρA 166.7 h = 0
dt

Because the system is at a steady condition, dh/dt = 0 m/min (meters/minute) the equa-
tion indicates h = 0 m. Obviously, with h = 0 m, w3 is also 0 kg/min (there is no flow rate
12 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

out which makes sense). If nothing happens, the level h will stay at the value of 0 m. So, in
order for h (the dependent variable in the example) to change, something must happen—or
force it. In this system, the input flows w1 and w2 are what could change, and this is why
we refer to them as forcing functions.
Let us extend this discussion a bit more and return to the original system when w1 =
200 kg/min, w2 = 100 kg/min, and h = 3.24 m. As long as w1 and w2 remain at these values,
the liquid level h will also remain constant at 3.4 m. Once more, for a change in level (the
dependent variable) to occur, w1 and w2 (the forcing functions) must vary.
Note that at a steady condition, the differential equation, Equation 1.13, becomes equal to
the algebraic equation, Equation 1.6, because dh/dt = 0.
Thus, under steady conditions, differential equations, when time is the independent
variable, become algebraic equations; only during changes is this not the case.
We have just presented that the forcing functions are the terms that, when change, force
the dependent variable to change. These forcing functions, or changes, could enter the sys-
tem at any time. A way to show when the change occurs is using the term u(t – a), which is
a shorthand notation for

 0 for t < a
u(t − a) = 
 1 for t ≥ a

Note that the value of the u(t – a) term is either 0 or 1. It starts at 0 and changes to 1 at
t = a. When t – a is equal to or greater than 0, the term is 1. Thus, the mathematical notation
u(t – a) acts very much like a switch. For t < a, the switch is open and its value is 0; for t ≥ a,
the switch is closed and its value is 1.
As an example, consider that at some time, t = a, w1(t) changes from 200 kg/min to 250 kg/
min instantaneously; this is shown in Figure 1.6. As the figure shows, the change is in the
form of a step. In this case, the expression

w1(t) = 200 + 50 u(t − a)

expresses the change of w1(t) from 200 to 250 kg/min at time equal to a. For t < a, u(t – a) = 0
and w1(t) = 200 + 50(0) = 200 kg/min. For t ≥ a, u(t – a) = 1 and w1(t) = 200 + 50(1) = 250 kg/min.

w1(t)

250

200

a Time

FIGURE 1.6
Step change in flow of stream 1.
Introduction 13

f (t)
−2
4 6 8 t, sec

FIGURE 1.7
Forcing function for Example 1.1.

The following examples should help further your understanding of the use of u(t – a).

Example 1.1
Consider the function f(t) shown in Figure 1.7. Develop the mathematical expression for f(t).
There are three changes in this figure, at times 4, 6, and 8; each change has a magni-
tude of 3. Because there are three changes, there should be three switches u(t – a) at a =
4, 6, and 8. The expression is

f(t) = 1 − 3 u(t − 4) + 3 u(t − 6) − 3 u(t − 8)

At t < 4, all u’s are zero and f(t) = 1, as the figure shows. At t ≥ 4 but less than 6, u(t – 4) =
1, u(t – 6) = u(t – 8) = 0, and f(t) = –2, as the figure shows. At t ≥ 6 but less than 8, u(t – 4) =
u(t – 6) = 1, u(t – 8) = 0, and f(t) = 1, as the figure shows. On the basis of this presentation,
the reader can understand why f(t) = –2 after t ≥ 8.

Example 1.2
Consider the function f(t) shown in Figure 1.8. Develop the mathematical expression for f(t).
This is a ramp change starting at 4 min. The expression is

f(t) = 5 + f 1(t)u(t − 4)

That is, for t < 4 u(t – 4) = 0 and no matter what f1(t) is, it does not affect f(t) and f(t) = 5.
Right at t = 4, u(t – 4) becomes 1 and f1(t) starts to be added to 5, affecting f(t). Because it is
a ramp affecting f(t), the expression for f1(t) must be that of a ramp such that right at t = 4 it
has a value of zero (0), but from then on increases. This expression is (flash back to algebra!)

7
f1 (t) = (t − 4)
4

12

f (t)

4 8 t, min

FIGURE 1.8
Forcing function for Example 1.2.
14 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

Therefore,

7
f (t) = 5 + (t − 4)u(t − 4)
4

It is worthwhile to stress again that the value of the expression u(t − a) is only 0 or 1,
depending on its argument (t – a). When t – a < 1, the expression has a value of zero (0);
when t – a > 1, the expression has a value of 1. Therefore, u(t – a) indicates when the func-
tion by which it is multiplied by starts to have an effect. In the last example, the ramp starts
having an effect at t = 4.

Example 1.3
Suppose that a power supply to an electrical circuit provides 10 V; we refer to this power
as vsupply. It is planned to add to this power, at time t = 300 s, another voltage as a sine
wave with an amplitude of 10 V and frequency of 60 radians/s. What is the mathemati-
cal expression describing this planned addition?
Let us refer to the added voltage as vadded, and it can be described as vadded = 10sin60t.
We could write

vsupply = 10 + vadded u(t) = 10 + 10 sin 60t u(t)

This says that the voltage for t < 0 is 10 V and that at t = 0 it becomes 10 + 10sin60t.
However, the plan is to start adding this new voltage starting at t = 300 s. For this speci-
fication, we write

vsupply = 10 + 10 sin 60 t u(t − 300)

Note now that up to just before t = 300 s, u(t – 300) = 0 and the sine expression will
have no effect on vsupply. However, right at t = 300 s, u(t – 300) becomes 1, and the supply
voltage becomes

vsupply = 10 + 10 sin 60(300)

Thus, there is a drastic change in voltage, actually from 10 to 11.32 V, and then it con-
tinues moving as a sine wave. If a smooth transition from 10 V to a sine wave is desired,
we then express the change as

vsupply = 10 + sin 60(t − 300)u(t − 300)

Example 1.4
Suppose a torque T of 20 N is applied to a rotating machine. It is planned to stop the
torque at time t = 3 min. Express this change mathematically.
This statement indicates a change in torque from 20 to 0 N, a step change of –20 N, at
t = 3 min.

T = 20 − 20 u(t − 3)
Introduction 15

1.5 Book Objectives
This book has the following three well-defined objectives:

1. Analytical solution of differential equations

2. Mathematical modeling
3. Computer solution of models—simulation

We have stated that Equation 1.13 describes the liquid level in the tank. As it is, the equa-
tion by itself does not tell us what is the level at some time after one of the input flows or
both have changed. That is, we would like to have an expression of h as a function of t, or
h = f(t). To obtain such a function, we must solve the differential equation. The analytical
solution of a differential equation is one that finds the function that satisfies the differen-
tial equation, including its initial or boundary condition, as we showed in Section 1.2 and
which resulted in Equation 1.23. Obtaining the analytical solution of differential equa-
tions is the sole subject of the usual differential equations course taught by mathematics
departments and taken by engineers and scientists. This book presents various methods
for obtaining the analytical solution of ordinary differential equations.
Mathematical modeling consists of developing the set of equations that describes a system;
this set of equations is termed the model. The book focuses on models that contain one or
more ordinary differential equations; models may also contain algebraic equations.
The development of a completely exact model is often rather difficult. Sometimes the
theory of the phenomena is not completely known, or sometimes the experimental facts
are not available, or sometimes there is no need to include all the details—often we sim-
ply look for trends. Always, however, the user of the model must understand its limitations, be
skeptical of the results, and analyze them to decide if they make sense. The analysis of the results is
imperative for the user to build confidence in the model.
Oftentimes, the analytical solution of differential equations is rather difficult or impos-
sible to obtain because the equations are very nonlinear, or several coupled equations
constitute the model. In these instances, the use of computer solutions using numerical
methods, or specifically designed software packages for this purpose, may be the only
possible way to reach a solution. We call simulation the solution of mathematical models
using computers. The book discusses a couple of numerical methods and a software pack-
age to solve the models.

1.6 Summary
This chapter presented an example where algebraic equations do not provide the neces-
sary information required for analysis or design; in this case, DEs did so. The chapter also
defined some terms related to DEs.
The example showed how to develop the model of a system. Section 1.1 discussed the
usual procedure in developing a model, and it is quite worthwhile to stress it again in this
summary. The first step in modeling is the use of a law (physical, chemical, biological, soci-
ological, financial and economical, and so on) that applies to the system being modeled.
The second step usually consists of using equations describing phenomena involved, physical
16 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

elements, and experimental or empirical facts that may be needed in the law. An example of
these two steps is shown in the tank example. The modeling started with the application of
the law of conservation of mass, followed by a flow element equation expressing the outlet
flow through the valve, Equation 1.5, and another equation relating the mass accumulated
in the tank to the liquid level, Equation 1.10. Obviously, other equations may also be used
in models, but the use of a law is basic. We will stress this procedure in all our modeling
efforts.
An important comment about modeling is that the user must understand well the limi-
tations of the model (often resulting from assumptions taken during its development).
Engineers and scientists use modeling for designing, specifying, and debottlenecking sys-
tems. Oftentimes, very expensive decisions are made on the basis of the solutions obtained
from these modules. More importantly, safety considerations and decisions may be made
on the basis of the solutions. Thus, it is imperative for the engineer or scientist to be skepti-
cal of the results and become as convinced as possible that the results are realistic (make
sense) and are possibly correct.

PROBLEMS
1.1 Write the mathematical expression for the function f(t) for each of the following
cases (Figure P1.1):
1.2 Consider the tank of Section 1.1 and its steady-state condition of w1 = 200 kg/
min, w2 = 100 kg/min, and h = 3.24 m. Suppose that at time equal to 10 min, w1
changes to 400 kg/min, and after a long time, the response of the liquid reaches
a new steady level.
a. How would you mathematically express the forcing function w1(t)?
b. Using the model developed in Section 1.1, what is the new steady liquid level
after the forcing function is applied?
1.3 Figure P1.2 below shows the thrust curve of a model rocket engine. Develop the
equation that provides the thrust as a function of time.

4
f1(t)

1
(a)
2 4 6 t, sec

4
f2(t)

1
(b) −16 −14 −12 t, sec

FIGURE P1.1
Graphs for Problem 1.1.
Introduction 17

24

20

16
Thrust (N) 12

0
0 0.5 1
Time (s)

FIGURE P1.2
Thrust curve for a model rocket engine.
2
Objects in a Gravitational Field

This chapter is essentially an extension of Chapter 1 in that it shows how basic physics
helps in developing mathematical models, and how basic calculus helps in obtaining the
analytical solutions of models. The chapter also shows a method to keep track of the equa-
tions and unknowns while developing models; we strongly recommend the reader to use
it. An object in a gravitational field (gravity acting on objects) is the topic of the chapter.
As we mentioned in Chapter 1, any modeling starts by using a basic physical law, followed by
equations describing physical elements and experimental facts of phenomena related to the physics
of the system. In the case of objects in a gravitational field, the physical law that helps is
Newton’s second law:
 
F = ma

where the arrows above the force F and the acceleration a indicate that these quantities are
vectors (meaning that direction and magnitude must be specified). Because in this chapter
we will only be considering forces acting on the object to be perpendicular to the ground,
in the y direction, such as gravity, we write the law again as

∑F y = may (2.1)

The summation sign is used in Fy when there is more than one force acting on the object.
In modeling the systems in this chapter, we have to choose a direction, up or down, as pos-
itive. In all cases, unless otherwise specified, the positive direction is the “up direction.”

2.1 An Example
An object of 20 kg is held in the air 30 m above the ground and released; Figure 2.1 shows
the setup. Develop the models that describe the velocity and position of the object as a
function of time once it is released.
As an object falls, the two most common forces acting on it are gravity and air resistance.
In this first example, we neglect air resistance. Thus, only the force of gravity acts on the
object, and using Newton’s second law, Equation 2.1,

Fy = may

Using the definition of acceleration from physics and mathematics, ay = dvy/dt, the equa-
tion becomes

19
20 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

y, m
30 m

Ground, y = 0

FIGURE 2.1
Object held aboveground.

dvy
m = Fy (2.2)
dt

The phenomenon in this case is the force of gravity acting on the object,

Fy = Fg = −mg (2.3)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (at sea level, 9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2); the minus sign
indicates that the force of gravity is down, which is opposite to the positive direction (up).
From Equations 2.2 and 2.3,

dvy
m = − mg
dt
dvy (2.4)
= −g
dt

Using the definition of velocity learned in physics and mathematics,

dy
= vy (2.5)
dt

To complete the model, we need to specify the initial conditions. Because the object is
released from rest, that is, at that moment it is not moving,

dy
= vy (0) = 0 m/s (2.4a)
dt t= 0

and because the object is originally 30 m aboveground,

y(0) = 30 m (2.5a)

Ground is y = 0 m.
Objects in a Gravitational Field 21

Equations 2.4 and 2.4a provide the model and initial condition of the velocity as a
function of time; the analytical solution of this model provides vy as a function of time t.
Equations 2.5 and 2.5a provide the model and initial condition of the position as a function
of time; the analytical solution of this model provides y as a function of t. We next present
the first technique for obtaining the analytical solution of differential equations, that of
antidifferentiation.

2.2 Antidifferentiation: Technique for Solving

First-Order Ordinary Differential Equations
If the differential equation is of the form

dx
= f ( z)
dz

that is, if everything on the right side is only a function of the independent variable, z in
this case, or a constant, the equation can be solved analytically using antidifferentiation.

dx = f(z)dz

Using indefinite integrals,

∫ dx = ∫ f (z) dz ⇒ x=
∫ f (z) dz + C
and the constant C is obtained using the initial or boundary condition. Using definite
integrals,
x z

∫x( o )
dx =
∫
z= 0
f ( z) dz

where the initial or boundary condition is used as a limit of integration.

For example, consider

dx
= 3 z 2 + 2 with x(0) = 4
dz

Using indefinite integrals,

∫ dx = ∫ (3z 2
+ 2) dz ⇒ x = z 3 + 2 z + C

applying the boundary condition,

4 = 03 + 2(0) + C ⇒ C = 4
22 A First Course in Differential Equations, Modeling, and Simulation

Finally,

x = z3 + 2z + 4

It is now left to the reader (don’t you dislike this comment?) to show how using the defi-
nite integral results in the same solution.

2.3 Back to Section 2.1

Let us return to the example shown in Figure 2.1. Using the antidifferentiation technique,
we integrate Equation 2.4:

vy t

∫ 0
dvy = − g
∫ dt
0

vy − 0 = − g(t − 0)
(2.6)
vy = − gt

Using Equation 2.6, we can integrate Equation 2.5:

y t t

∫ 30
dy =
∫0
vy dt = − g
∫ t dt
0

1
y − 30 = − g(t 2 − 0) (2.7)
2
1
y = 30 − gt 2
2

Equations 2.6 and 2.7 are the expressions for the velocity and position of the object at any
time after it has been released. We can now use them to answer several questions, such as
“How long will it take the object to hit ground, tfinal?” and “What will its velocity be, vy final?”
Equation 2.7 answers the time question; at ground level y = 0,

1 2 60
0 = 30 − gt final ⇒ t final = = 2.47 s
2 9.8

Equation 2.6 answers the second question about the velocity when the body hits ground,

vy final = gtfinal = −9.8(2.47) = −24.25 m/s

Note that the final velocity is a negative value indicating that it is downward (positive
is up); velocity is a vector quantity requiring direction and magnitude. The final speed
(a scalar) is 24.25 m/s.
Objects in a Gravitational Field 23

Note from Equation 2.7 that as time increases the position y decreases; however, the
equation only has physical significance up to y = 0 (ground) (unless a hole has been dug).
Engineering equations must have physical significance; otherwise, they are not much use to
engineers.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, and we take this opportunity to reiterate it again, the verac-
ity of the solution depends on the assumptions taken in developing the model. The main
assumption in the model developed was neglecting the effect of air resistance.

2.4 Another Example
The models developed in Section 2.1 assumed no air resistance opposing the falling object.
Develop the same models, but this time taking the drag force due to the air resistance into
account.
Newton’s second law is again the starting point,

dvy
∑F y =m
dt
(2.1)

This time we have two forces, the force due to gravity and the force due to the air
resistance:

∑F y = Fg + Fd (2.8)

where Fd is the drag force due to the air resistance. The expression for the force of gravity
provides another equation:

Fg = −mg (2.9)

We now need an expression for Fd, and this is another phenomenon occurring. A “crude”
expression or model is to assume that this force is proportional to the velocity, or

Fd ~ vy ⇒ Fd = −Pvy (2.10)

where ~ indicates “is proportional to” and P is an empirically obtained proportionality

constant. The minus sign is needed because the velocity is down, a negative value, but the
drag force due to the air resistance is upward, in the positive direction. Thus, the minus
sign multiplied by the negative velocity yields a positive force, as it should.
Equations 2.1 and 2.8 through 2.10 constitute the model that provides the velocity of the
object under the assumptions that the forces applied to it are the force of gravity and the
air resistance force given by Equation 2.10. For the model of the position of the object, we
use again the definition of velocity,

dy
= vy (2.11)
dt
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Early in the next year he made the tour of all the Red Sea
provinces, including Harrar. But in spite of all this ceaseless activity,
the close of the year 1878 found things worse than ever. Trouble was
once more stirring on the Abyssinian frontier. The northern provinces
were quiet, but their quiet was the torpor of exhaustion. In Darfur
Harûn had once more reappeared, and in Kordofan, too, a rising had
taken place. In the Bahr el Ghazal Suleiman had this time revolted in
good earnest. Only Equatoria was comparatively happy under the
rule of Emin. Unyoro had been given up, and the Somerset Nile was
now the southern boundary. Gessi had been despatched by Gordon
to the Bahr el Ghazal, and in March he himself undertook an
expedition to Kordofan and Darfur, with the object of pacifying the
country and preventing help being sent to Suleiman. At the same
time he made great efforts to put down the slave-trade, and captured
many caravans. In June he was able to return to Khartoum, and left
for Cairo to confer with the new Khedive Tewfik. The short remainder
of his time as Governor-General was occupied with his mission to
Abyssinia, and in December he left for England.
Meantime Gessi had been performing marvels in the Bahr el
Ghazal. Gessi is one of the heroic figures of Soudan history. An
Italian by birth, he served in the Crimea as interpreter to the British
troops. In 1874 he joined Gordon in Central Africa. Thanks to his
energy, a dangerous rising of the Shilluks at Fashoda was put down,
and it was he who circumnavigated Lake Albert. The rising he had
now to face was most serious. Zubehr, before he left for Cairo after
the conquest of Darfur, had assembled his officers and made them
swear to revolt when he should send them word that the time was
ripe. That time was now come. Their organization was complete;
their following was numerous and well-equipped; they had already
proved the incapacity of the Government troops. It seemed that there
was nothing to stop them from dividing the Soudan provinces among
themselves, and finally throwing off the yoke of the hated and
despised Egyptian. They even announced that they intended to
seize Egypt itself. But they had reckoned without Gessi. With a
handful of troops, inferior in quality as well as in number, short of
supplies and ammunition, impeded by floods and generally cut off
from his base by the sudd, in two notable campaigns he utterly broke
their power, seized and shot Suleiman and his principal
confederates, and completely liberated the Bahr el Ghazal.
His end was characteristic of the fate of those who, in those dark
days, dared to serve the best interests of Egypt. In spite of his
successful administration of his province, he found his position made
impossible for him after Gordon’s departure. In September, 1880, he
resigned. After nearly perishing in the sudd, which blocked his
steamers, he reached Khartoum. But there, under the new regime,
he was no welcome guest. He struggled on to Suez, where he soon
after died, unrecognised and unrewarded, utterly worn out by his
exertions and privations. When such a man met with such treatment,
it was clear that there was no chance of the regeneration of the
Soudan under Egyptian rule. The last ray of hope had been
extinguished with Gordon’s departure.
 CHAPTER XV
THE PAST—Continued

Gordon’s successor at Khartoum was Raouf Pasha, the very man

whom he had dismissed from his post as Governor of Harrar two
years before for oppression and other malpractices. The
appointment was not of good augury, and the improvements which
had been made in the administration fell rapidly to pieces. The slave-
traders began to lift their heads; once more the caravans, with their
miserable human freight, began to journey towards Egypt or the Red
Sea; once more the horde of tax-collectors felt themselves set free to
levy their exactions at their will. The critical position of affairs in
Egypt itself was reflected in the Soudan. Economy and retrenchment
were the order of the day; under such a Government they were not
likely to mean anything else than an increase in the burden on the
provinces. Colonel Stewart, in his report on the Soudan, published in
1883, graphically describes the character of the irregular Bashi-
Bazouks who were employed to collect the taxes.

‘Many, if not most of these men,’ he says, ‘are very indifferent characters. They
are mostly swaggering bullies, robbing, plundering, and ill-treating the people with
impunity. Probably for every pound that reaches the Treasury they rob an equal
amount from the people. They are a constant menace to public tranquillity, and
before any amelioration can be expected they must be got rid of. As soldiers they
are valueless, having no discipline, nor, except in talk, do they exhibit any
extraordinary courage. Compared with that of negroes and Egyptians their pay is
high.’

A last paper reorganization took place in 1882. Schools were to

be set up, a proper system of justice established, the slave-trade
was to be again suppressed. A capable Governor-General, Abd-el-
Kader, who might have made a great mark in happier times, was
appointed to supersede Raouf. But it was too late. The promised
reforms could be no more than acknowledgments of past
deficiencies. Egypt had wasted the golden opportunities created for
her by Baker and Gordon. The day of retribution was at hand. From
every quarter of the horizon the clouds had long been gathering, and
the tempest was now to burst. In August, 1881, the Mahdi had
proclaimed himself publicly during the Feast of Ramadan as the
prophet foretold by Mahomet.
Sheikh Mohammed Ahmed, strangely enough the son of a
carpenter, and a little over thirty years of age, was a native of
Dongola, but had been living for some time in the neighbourhood of
Khartoum, where he had acquired a great reputation for sanctity. The
Soudan was then, and still is, a soil peculiarly suitable for the growth
of prophets. The creed of Islam, as is well known, has a peculiar
fascination for the natives of Africa, owing, perhaps, to the simplicity
and directness of its essential formula. But it has generally only
overlaid, and not displaced, the old superstitions of pagan days. The
people are naturally credulous and excitable, and in the entire
absence of any education or learning there has been nothing to
restrain them. Almost any holy man can gain some kind of a
following—at any rate for a time. But the Mahdi was more than an
ordinary prophet, and the times were ripe for rebellion.
The venality and corruption of the Egyptian officials had produced
widespread discontent among the agricultural and trading classes.
The oppressive exactions of the tax-collectors had reduced many to
ruin and beggary. It seemed that any change of rulers must be a
relief. The spasmodic efforts to suppress the slave-trade had
seriously alarmed the nomad tribes, whose chief source of wealth it
was. The one thing wanted was some strong influence to bind
together the discordant elements of revolt. It was found in the idea
preached by the Mahdi of the regeneration of Islam by force of arms.
After the long years of wrong and oppression the promise of
universal equality, with one law and one religion for all, was sweet to
hear. To the people that sat in darkness it seemed that a great light
had indeed arisen. The four great sects of the Mohammedan
Soudan sank their differences in favour of the Prophet of the new
dispensation. The stern character of his teaching, his earnest
denunciation of earthly vanities and pleasures, his prohibition of the
use of intoxicants and smoking, did much at the outset to rouse the
fanatical fervour of his adherents. It was a social as well as a
religious revolution. The simple jibbeh, or cotton shirt, became the
badge of his followers and the emblem of his doctrine.
The course adopted by the Egyptian authorities was well
calculated to increase his prestige. First they ignored, then they
underrated, his power. Feeble attempts were made to seize him,
which failed utterly. At first Sennar was the centre of disturbance; a
little later the Mahdi appeared in Southern Kordofan. A small force of
regulars was sent against him in December, 1881; they fell into an
ambush and were utterly destroyed. In June, 1882, Yusuf Pasha,
Governor of Fashoda, with several thousand men, set out to crush
him finally. Yusuf had distinguished himself in Gessi’s famous
campaign. That an experienced leader of disciplined troops could
have anything to fear from a crowd of half-naked Arabs seemed to
him utterly impossible; so he neglected every precaution, with the
inevitable result of annihilation. Throughout the Soudan it was
regarded as little less than a miracle. The warlike tribes of the west
began to flock to the Mahdi’s standard. His fame spread to the
farthest extremities of Darfur. By the end of 1882 he had three
armies in the field. Everywhere the Egyptian garrisons were
beleaguered. The hated tax-collectors and outlying bodies of troops
were the first to feel the vengeance of the rebels. Early in 1883 came
the fall of El Obeid, after a most gallant resistance under Mohamed
Pasha Said. The Egyptian Government made a desperate attempt to
regain their position. Hicks Pasha arrived at Khartoum with 10,000
men, mostly raw recruits, and advanced into Kordofan. Betrayed by
their guides, suffering terribly from heat and thirst, deficient alike in
courage and discipline, the expedition was beaten before it set out.
On November 5 the massacre, for it was nothing else, took place,
and only 300 survivors were left. The effect was tremendous. On the
one side it was decided to abandon the Soudan and withdraw all the
garrisons, and Gordon was sent to carry out this task; on the other, a
gigantic impulse was given to the cause of Mahdism.
Great as Gordon’s influence had once been, it was impossible for
it to outweigh the religious fervour of the Mahdists. His position was
immensely weakened when it became known that his final object
was the evacuation of the Soudan. Many waverers felt that they
must in the end be left at the mercy of the Mahdi, and wavered no
more. Gordon’s view was that the only way to evacuate the Soudan
with honour and safety was to hold on to Khartoum, crush the enemy
if possible, and then to retire, leaving behind some form of
government capable of maintaining order. The only man, in his
opinion, capable of such a position was Zubehr. But his views were
not shared, perhaps hardly understood, by the authorities at home.
The British Government, committed sorely against their will to a
military occupation of Egypt, and earnestly desiring to make it as
short as possible, were most unwilling to undertake further
responsibilities in the Soudan. The conflict of opinion produced
paralysis. Neither policy was completely adopted. British troops
moved up to Assouan. In the Eastern Soudan the disaster of El Teb,
where once more the Egyptian troops under Valentine Baker allowed
themselves to be slaughtered like sheep, and the fall of Sinkat,
forced the Government to take military action. General Graham,
starting from Suakin, won brilliant victories at El Teb and Tamai, and
relieved the garrison at Tokar. But the proposal to make a dash on
Berber, now in the hands of the Mahdists, was vetoed, and
Graham’s troops retired. Meanwhile in the Nile Valley the golden
hours were flying fast. Gordon stood firmly by his policy of holding
Khartoum, partly in the hope, growing daily fainter, of being able to
turn the scale by his own personal exertions and influence, partly
with the intention of forcing the British Government to change what
seemed to him their disastrous and dishonourable policy of
abandoning the Soudan to the rebels. On their side, the Government
drifted, hesitating and temporizing, reluctant to reverse their settled
policy of peace. And so the tragic game was played. Month by month
the investment of Khartoum grew closer. Slatin Bey in Darfur, after
fighting twenty-seven battles in the course of 1883, was deserted by
his troops and forced to surrender. El Fasher was reduced in the
following January. In the Bahr el Ghazal, Lupton Bey, the successor
of Gessi, after holding out for eighteen months, shared the same
fate, and was brought in a prisoner to Omdurman. In the east the
garrison of Gedaref made terms with the enemy. The Mahdi was
able to concentrate his forces at the important point.
Only in August, 1884, a relief expedition was decided on, and at
the end of December two columns started from Korti, one along the
Nile towards Abu Hamed, the other across the desert by Gakdul
Wells to Metemmeh and Khartoum. But the effort that might have
succeeded six months earlier was too late. Two days before the
relieving steamers arrived the weak defences of Khartoum had been
stormed, and Gordon had fallen.
For the moment it seemed that Gordon’s death would do what he
himself could not do when alive. Great preparations were made for a
new campaign in the autumn. The columns, which had drawn back
to Merowe after much severe fighting, were quartered for the
summer along the river. General Graham was again despatched to
Suakin with orders to crush Osman Digna, and a railway from that
place to Berber was begun. For two months there was hard fighting
at Hashin, at McNeill’s Zeriba, and at Tamai. But the hot fit passed.
The railway, which had been begun without any survey, quite in the
familiar Egyptian fashion, was given up. The whole Nile Valley was
left unoccupied as far as Kosheh. The dervishes pushed on, and
occupied Dongola, and, though decisively beaten at Ginnis at the
end of the year, they continued to maintain a harassing border
warfare.
The Mahdi died in June, 1885, carried off by a malignant fever, or,
as some say, poisoned by a woman, whilst in the middle of his
preparations for the invasion of Egypt. His successor, the Khalifa
Abdullahi, a Baggara of the Taaisha tribe from Darfur, took up his
plans. To the children of the desert Egypt might well seem an easy
and attractive field for plunder. They had had a rough experience of
the quality of British troops in action, but these new antagonists had
always followed up their victories by retreat and evacuation. They
had no reason to doubt the continuation of the same nerveless
policy. The British Government talked loudly of abandoning Egypt
itself. Any resistance by Egyptian troops unsupported seemed an
absurdity. But unexpected obstacles arose. A revolt in Darfur, war
with Abyssinia, and the opposition of the great Kabbabish tribe,
combined to delay the Khalifa’s advance. Not until 1889 did he send
his best general, Wad el Nejumi, forward. Nejumi pressed on without
misgivings. Only Egyptian troops were guarding the frontier. But the
Egyptian battalions, trained and led by British officers, were no
longer mere droves of frightened sheep. Under Wodehouse at Argin,
and under Grenfell at Toski, they first checked, and then annihilated,
Nejumi’s army. Thenceforward the dervish power steadily declined.
The recapture in 1891 of Tokar, Osman Digna’s chief base of
supplies, put an end to his influence in the Suakin district. Raiding
and frontier warfare continued till 1896, but there was no serious
fighting, until the Dongola Expedition in 1896 marked the opening of
the well-prepared campaign which ended in the complete overthrow
of the Khalifa’s power.
Once more the day of punishment for the guilty had dawned. In
the disasters and defeats inflicted by the Mahdi, in the horrors of the
sack of Khartoum and many another town, Egypt had paid the
penalty for her sins against the Soudan. In blood and shame she had
reaped a full harvest. But the unhappy Soudanese had only thrown
off the yoke of one master to find themselves under that of one much
more terrible. Even before the Mahdi’s death plunder and success
had corrupted the new faith, and dimmed the first glow of religious
fervour. The Khalifa, under the guise of religion, had developed into
a cruel and bloodthirsty tyrant. He and his principal supporters,
Arabs from Western Darfur, regarded themselves as conquerors in a
foreign land. Especially since he had brought his own tribe, the
Taaisha, to settle in Omdurman, he had made it his policy to depress
the power of the Nile Valley tribes like the Jaalin and the Danagla.
On them fell the brunt of his military expeditions. Executions,
massacre, and confiscations, were the order of the day. The
inhabitants of whole districts, especially in the once-populous
country along the Blue Nile, were forced to come and live at
Omdurman, which grew into a city of 400,000 inhabitants. This
concentration, by at once creating a great demand and withdrawing
the agricultural population from their proper occupation, produced
the most terrible famines. Everything was sacrificed to the
supremacy of the western Arabs. In ten years more damage was
inflicted upon the country by this pack of human wolves than in all
the sixty years of Egyptian dominion, bad as it was. Slatin Pasha
estimates that 75 per cent. of the population perished. Great as the
abominations of the slave-trade had been before, they were never
greater than under the Khalifa’s rule. The export of slaves was
forbidden, but from all parts of the country they were brought in
droves to the market at Omdurman.
The slave-dealing tribes had been the principal instrument of
vengeance upon Egypt. It was now their turn for chastisement. The
Egyptian Sirdar, Sir H. Kitchener, who fought with the railway as well
as with troops, advanced to Dongola in September, 1896, and the
banks of the river were again occupied up to Merowe. Next year Abu
Hamed and Berber were taken, and the new railway laid from Wadi
Halfa across the Korosko desert. Early in 1898 the battle of the
Atbara was won by the Anglo-Egyptian troops. In September the
great battle of the campaign was fought at Kerreri, Omdurman was
taken, and the Egyptian flag was once more flying at Khartoum, this
time with the British flag beside it. By the end of the year the
authority of the new rulers was established, after some difficult and
troublesome campaigning, throughout the Eastern Soudan as far
south as Fazokhl and Famaka; gunboats, though blocked in the Bahr
el Gebel, had proceeded up the Bahr el Ghazal and hoisted the flags
near Meshra el Rek. Before the end of 1899 the Khalifa and the
remnant of his supporters still in the field had fought their last fight. In
the hour of their downfall the dervish chieftains displayed a splendid
courage worthy of their race. Proudly disdaining to be fugitives in the
lands they had ruled, they perished to a man with their faces to the
foe.
But of far greater importance than the final destruction of the
Khalifa were the events that followed on the fall of Omdurman, which
are inseparably connected with the name of Fashoda. Since the time
when the Khedive Ismail was pursuing his wild career of annexation
without attracting any particular attention except from the natives of
the countries annexed, the whole position of affairs had entirely
altered. In every direction European Powers had appeared upon the
scene. In the east Massowah had been handed over to the Italians in
1885, and they had inflicted several severe defeats upon the
dervishes. In 1893 a British Protectorate had been declared over
Uganda and Unyoro, and in 1895 the British flag was hoisted at
Duffile. The Belgians from the Congo Free State had pressed on to
the Nile, and in 1897 an expedition under Chaltin was successful in
taking Rejaf, which had long been the southernmost dervish post on
the river.
Most serious of all was the French movement from the Upper
Ubanghi district of French Congoland into the Bahr el Ghazal
province. The Belgians had already made considerable expeditions
in this quarter, and had penetrated as far north as Hofrat-en-Nahas
in Southern Darfur. In 1894 they made over their claims to the
French. The French Governor of the Upper Ubanghi, M. Liotard,
immediately began to lay his plans with great energy and forethought
for the solid establishment of French power in the Valley of the Nile.
At the end of 1895 he crossed the Congo-Nile watershed, and
seized Tembura on the river Sueh, an affluent of the Bahr el Ghazal.
He also occupied Dem Zubehr, on the Bahr el Homr. Captain
Marchand arrived with reinforcements from France in 1897, and after
spending some time in consolidating his position by occupying posts
throughout the country, he set out on the final stage of his journey.
After great difficulties and some fighting with the dervishes, he
reached Fashoda just eight weeks before the fall of Omdurman.
The French preparations had not escaped the attention of those
responsible for Egypt. As far as the Khalifa was concerned, the
advance of the Anglo-British troops might have been delayed for
some time; but in view of the French advance it was absolutely
necessary for Egypt to reassert her rights in the Soudan
emphatically and at once. Immediately after the occupation of
Omdurman Lord Kitchener hastened on to Fashoda, and found
Marchand already there. The situation was grave. For France it was
galling in the extreme to be foiled just in the moment of success, but
for Egypt the question was vital. The stake at issue was not the
possession of a few acres of swamp, but the control of the summer
water-supply. Marchand’s mission was by no means the mere freak
of an adventurous traveller, anxious to hoist his country’s flag. It was
undertaken as part of a policy skilfully planned and deliberately
pursued.
It was no mere coincidence that in the previous year the
Bonchamps Expedition had set out from Abyssinia, and
endeavoured, though vainly, to join hands with Marchand from the
east. Firmly based in the Bahr el Ghazal, masters of the Upper Nile
Valley, and joining hands with Abyssinia, the French would have
been in the end complete masters of the fate of Egypt. If the French
had insisted, there must have been war. Happily, they gave way, and
by the agreement of 1899 withdrew all their posts in the Bahr el
Ghazal. The boundary of the Soudan was fixed along the Nile-Congo
watershed.
Thus the Soudan emerged at last, and finally, it may be hoped,
from her ordeal of blood and fire. Her history will be no longer a
record of tyranny, rebellion, war, and famine, but of steady progress
under a just and civilized government. The work of Baker and
Gordon is bearing fruit at last. Great as were the joy and relief with
which the downfall of the dervish tyranny was hailed throughout the
Soudan, it was largely due to faith in the word and just dealing of
Englishmen—a faith that was first established by them and those
who worked with them—that the whole country settled down so
quickly.
Among all the pioneers of good government in the Soudan one
name stands out conspicuously. Most of the ease and success with
which the present government works is due to the realization of the
reforms recommended in Colonel D. H. Stewart’s Report on the
Soudan. The rulers of the Soudan are the first to acknowledge their
obligation to that masterly document, an epitome of keen
observation and practical wisdom. Fortunate is the country that is
served by such men as he. A few months after he had completed his
report he returned with Gordon to Khartoum. He, at least, had no
delusions as to their prospects of success. And yet he went as
cheerfully and lightly as though
 “Tendens Venafranos in agros
Aut Lacedæmonium Tarentum.”

To die treacherously murdered on the Nile bank was a sorry fate

for such a man. The road to the Soudan is strewn with the bones of
many victims. But of them all it may be said, and especially of him:
Their work lives after them, and their memory is nobly avenged.
 CHAPTER XVI
THE NEW KHARTOUM

No one whose lot it has been to travel through the night on the
plains of a tropical country can forget the amazing effect produced
when the sun, with one great leap, as it seems, springs clear above
the horizon. All in a moment the world’s face is altered. Its features
are the same, yet utterly changed. The traveller, however hardened,
can scarcely fail to wonder at the transformation. A journey to the
Soudan to-day produces a very similar impression on one whose
mind is full of the memories of the dark past. The din of battle has
hardly ceased to echo, but the transformation is complete.
Even after Egypt, with all its fascinations, rich with the remains of
ages of civilization, full to the brim of questions and problems deeply
interesting to the student of history, archæology, politics, or
economics, the Soudan, with its triple capital, Khartoum, Omdurman,
Halfaya, comes upon you with a freshness and charm that are
indescribable. Travelling by the ordinary methods, you may go from
Alexandria to Khartoum in about six days. It is well worth while, even
for anyone who has been up and down the whole length of Egypt, to
take the whole journey in one piece. There is all the excitement of
starting for a new country, and at the same time an opportunity to
gather into a focus all the old impressions. Easily and smoothly you
swing through the fertile cotton-fields of the Delta, and its populous
cities and villages, prosperous but dirty, and at Cairo you settle down
into a most comfortable sleeping-car for the night journey to Luxor.
Early next morning you are in the cane-fields of Upper Egypt, with
the river close on one side and the desert on the other. At Luxor you
must change on to the narrow gauge for Assouan, and there is time
to refresh yourself with bath and breakfast, and to look across at the
Plain of Thebes and the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings, or to ride a
donkey out to Karnak. From Luxor to Assouan it is hot and dusty
enough, and you are glad to rest there for the night. Next day you
embark at Shellal, above the Dam, for Wadi Halfa, a voyage of some
200 miles. Coming down, the steamers do it in about twenty-four
hours, but upstream it is a leisurely voyage of three days. There is
plenty of time to see the interesting antiquities of Nubia, and, above
all, the famous rock-hewn temple of Abu Simbel, the colossal statues
of which are, perhaps, the most impressive of all the monuments of
Egypt. It is, besides, a most beautiful reach of the river; the hills
come down to the water in bold and rugged outlines, showing to
perfection in the pure, dry, desert air.
The effect of the Dam is clearly seen as far as Korosko. First of
all, at Shellal the boat is moored amid a grove of palm-trees, the
temples of Philæ are knee-deep in water, and the Nubian villages
look quaint enough as they stand on the edge of the desert, forlornly
mourning their strip of cultivated land, most of which the greedy
Reservoir has swallowed up. Probably a great part of these people
will now migrate to Dongola, but the loss of the land—for which,
indeed, compensation has been paid—is really a small matter to
them. Hardly anywhere is an able-bodied male to be seen; all are
away making their living as sailors or servants elsewhere, leaving
the women and old men to keep their homes. These Nubian
boatmen are a most happy and thrifty people, ready to work all day
and dance all night, always to the accompaniment of a song.
The boundary between Egypt and the Soudan, settled by the
Convention of 1899, runs along the twenty-second parallel; not far
beyond this is the frontier town of Halfa. There is no mistaking the
signs of British rule. The whole place is rigidly clean, an
extraordinary contrast to the filth of the Egyptian villages. The streets
are well laid out and scrupulously swept, and shady avenues of trees
are springing up. But at present Halfa is not particularly interesting,
except as the railway terminus of the Soudan. It is twenty-eight hours
to Khartoum. Nothing can be more comfortable than the well-
appointed sleeping-car train, which runs twice a week. Starting at
eight in the evening, you strike right across the Nubian Desert, most
desolate and forlorn of countries. The very stations have no names,
but are known merely by their numbers.
 In the morning you come to Abu Hamed, back to the Nile once
more. Abu Hamed is just at the elbow of the river, where it turns to
the west for its great circuit by Merowe and Dongola. Here was the
scene of one of the stiffest fights in the Soudan Campaign, when
General Hunter made his dash from Korti, in 1897, further down the
Nile, to seize the point for which the new railway was making from
Wadi Halfa, and here are the graves of Fitzclarence and Sidney,
officers of the 10th Soudanese, who fell in the battle. Around this
spot a ghostly legend hangs. It happened that the other white
officers of the battalion were wounded on the same day, and the
black troops marched back to their bivouac without any of their white
leaders. A black regiment is always accompanied by its women on
the march, and these have high notions of military honour. They
would have nothing to do with men who dared to return alive from
the field on which their officers had fallen. The warriors quailed
before their wives, and serious trouble was brewing, till a black
sergeant, who lay dying of his wounds, solved the difficulty. ‘Tell the
women,’ he said, ‘that enough of us are dead to guard the spirits of
the white men in the other world. I myself will mount the guard.’
There are innumerable witnesses to testify that he has kept his word.
The lesson was not lost. It was the same battalion which later, at the
Atbara, raced the Camerons for the enemy’s zareba, and, catching
their Colonel as he ran in front of them, bore him heels foremost right
through the camp, securely hedged by a living wall of bodies,
because a second loss like that of Abu Hamed was not to be thought
of.
From here onward the journey is full of interest. Berber is
springing up again from its ruins; it even boasts two stations, but it
has not an attractive look as a place to live in; there is as yet nothing
more than the mud huts of the country, and it is the hottest place in
the world. Next comes the Atbara River, though not the scene of the
battle, for that was thirty miles upstream; then Shendi, of fiery
memory, but now the Crewe of the Soudan, and finally, late at night,
you step out of the train at Halfaya, the railway terminus. One glance
at the sky will show you that you are really in the tropics. Canopus is
shining fiercely in the east. Right overhead the giant Orion strides
across the vault. Northwards the Great Bear stands like a huge note
of interrogation in the sky, and just over the opposite horizon the
Southern Cross is looming up.
Halfaya stands on the northern bank of the Blue Nile, near its
junction with the White. It is destined to be the workshop and
commercial quarter of the capital. At present the Government
steamboat factories and workshops are still at Omdurman, a legacy
from dervish days. But already the necessary buildings are springing
up, and as trade increases the railway terminus will attract more and
more to its immediate vicinity. The Blue Nile, just before its junction,
divides into two channels, which embrace the fertile island of Tuti.
Opposite Halfaya, and along the southern bank of the island, the
river runs in a glorious sweep due east and west for two or three
miles. Here, facing northwards, stands Khartoum, with as imposing a
situation as any capital could wish for.
A well-made road runs all along the river-front, which is being
gradually embanked and walled. Right in the centre rises the white
Palace, the official residence of the Governor-General, a handsome
building, on the site of Gordon’s old palace, set in a lovely garden.
On either side of it stretch a succession of Government offices and
the neat residences of Government officials, to the new, spacious,
and comfortable hotel on the one side and the Gordon College and
British barracks on the other, pleasantly variegated with gardens and
groves of palm-trees, acacias, limes, and bananas. Behind this
Government belt, the town is carefully laid out into wide streets and
squares in two other belts. The second of these contains, or will
contain, houses and shops built by private persons, but of a good
class and on approved plans; the third is open for the erection of any
buildings that the owners choose to construct. Finally, close to
Gordon’s rampart are the Soudanese barracks, and, right outside,
the native villages, laid out in squares allotted to different tribes,
where you may see huts of every shape, characteristic of many
different parts of Africa.
Considering that three years ago Khartoum was nothing more
than a dirty dust-heap, the work that has been accomplished by the
Royal Engineers is truly wonderful. Of course, the city is still in the
hands of the builders; everywhere are gangs of workmen levelling
roads, preparing foundations, making bricks of Nile mud, carrying,
hammering, digging, building. Women, too, are employed. Their
principal duty is bearing water for the lines of young trees that will
one day make each street a shady avenue. Already the town is
lighted with lamps far better than many an Egyptian city, and it is
hoped that in a short time a tramway will be in working order.
From November to March the climate is very delightful: it is hot, of
course, at times, but the north wind blows steadily and coolly
practically every day, and sometimes the nights are even cold. Even
if it is hot, there is always the Blue Nile to refresh the eyes. It is a
comfort to find that the Blue Nile is really blue—as blue as any Italian
lake. One is so often told that it is called blue because of the mud it
brings down during the flood—the mud which causes the ‘red’ water
so dear to the Egyptian cultivator. But anyone who looks at it cannot
fail to realize that its name is derived from its clear and limpid waters,
and not from its muddy flood-time. One of the most charming scenes
in Khartoum is the view of these blue waters seen from the windows
of the Soudan Club through a green maze of palms and lime-trees.
Khartoum, with its bungalows, offices, shops, and banks, is a
civilized town, summoned up out of nothing, as it were, by an
enchanter’s wand. Far different is Omdurman. Here, too, the
engineers have been at work, clearing, demolishing, and cleaning.
Only those who marched in after the battle four years ago and saw
those foul labyrinths of streets can realize how much has been
accomplished. But though purified and greatly shrunk, of course,
within its limits in the Khalifa’s time, Omdurman remains a real
Central African city, with nothing European about it. It was originally
intended to move all the inhabitants over to Khartoum; but the
natural convenience of its position on the left bank of the river, just at
the junction of the two Niles, makes it impossible to carry out this
intention. Its population is actually increasing at present, and it
seems far better to let natural forces work their way, and retain it as
the native quarter of the capital, distinct from the seat of government.
It possesses, too, a wide sloping foreshore, or beach, exactly suited
to the feluccas which ply upon the river.
 This beach is one of the great sights of Omdurman, and a
fascinating spectacle it is. On a busy day it is absolutely crowded
with traders and porters from all parts of the Soudan. It is the great
market-place for gum from Kordofan, feathers from Darfur, ivory from
the Bahr el Ghazal, dhurra from the Blue Nile country, and
everything else that comes in by boat or camel. All day long the
porters go to and fro, carrying their loads and chanting their
monotonous songs, chiefly tall, broad-chested, but spindle-shanked
negroes from the Nile Valley, Dinkas, Shilluks, Bongos, or Bari, with
here and there a short, thick-set, sturdy hillman from Southern
Kordofan or Dar Nuba. Women equally diverse in type sit sorting the
different qualities of gum. Naked children, brown and black, tumble
and chatter in every direction. It is difficult to drag one’s self away, so
strange and novel and varied are the sights.
But Omdurman has much more to show. First and foremost the
Khalifa’s house, the only two-storied building in the town, and built of
brick. It is occupied now by the British inspectors. Hard by are the
ruins of the Mahdi’s tomb, too solidly built to be entirely destroyed,
but even its partial demolition has been sufficient to put a complete
stop to pilgrimages. In front is the great square in which the Khalifa
used to preach to his assembled dervishes. It is surrounded by a
high wall excellently built, said to be the work of the German
Neufeld. It is witness now of scenes very different from those of the
old fanatical days, so far removed in everything but time—perhaps
the parade of a Soudanese battalion, a football match, or the arrival
of a string of camels laden with gum from El Obeid.
In the Beit el Amana are some interesting relics of the past. Here
are the brass cannon taken originally by the Mahdi from the
Egyptians, and piles of captured dervish muskets of every shape and
form, swords and caps; and here, too, is the Khalifa’s carriage, a
ramshackle, broken-down old four-wheeled chariot. It is a puzzle
how it ever got to Omdurman. It looks as if it were built for some
quiet old maiden lady in a French provincial town, but it fell on a
strange master in its old age; and Slatin Pasha, now Inspector-
General of the Soudan, had to run as a footman before it. Close by is
the great broad street leading northwards, by which the British troops
marched in on the battle. Every step is reminiscent of the last
evening of days of the dervish tyranny.
But the most fascinating sight of all is the sook, or market. The
mixture of races is amazing. It would take a trained scientist to
catalogue them all. From a camel to a silver bracelet, there is
nothing dear to a native that cannot be bought. Here are made and
sold the angarebs, or native bedsteads, woven with string across a
low four-legged wooden framework. As yet these people have not
much mechanical ingenuity, and their appliances for working in wood
and iron or other metals are rude in the extreme. The past in the
Soudan has not been conducive to the development of the arts, but
there is promise for the future.
One feature of the place is the curiosity shops, full of many
strange spears and shields, knives and sabres, and occasionally an
iron gauntlet or coat of mail such as the dervishes wore; but these
are rare now. These Arab shopmen know how to drive a hard
bargain, and love nothing better than chaffering over a price. All
curiosities are called ‘antiquos.’ There is an annual flower-show in
Khartoum, at which a prize is given for the best ‘antiquos.’ A
Soudanese turned up who was very anxious to compete for this
prize with a live porcupine, which he insisted was an ‘antiquo.’ He
was allowed to exhibit at last, but not for competition, on condition
that he himself led it about by a string, as the authorities could not
undertake its charge. With more justice a live tortoise is also
commonly offered for sale as a very choice ‘antiquo.’ In another
quarter are the rope-makers, twisting their long coils of fibre in
exactly the same way as they have been twisted for centuries;
further on, the basket and net makers are weaving dried reeds in
curious patterns. Yet another part is entirely devoted to the needs of
women. Here are combs and strings of all kinds of beads, unguents,
and the strange preparations they use for fixing the small plaits in
which they tie their hair; cinnamon bark and other scents, without
which no wedding is complete; cooking-pots and other articles of
their scanty domestic furniture; even dolls of most weird and
fantastic shapes and material, and many other quaint trifles. The
whole place is crowded with women, black and brown, many of them
tall in stature, easy and graceful in their movements, and, however
ugly they may be in other respects, nearly all with the most
beautifully shaped arms.
It is a strange contrast to go a little further on through the western
outskirts of the town, and to find a game of polo proceeding on the
hard desert sand. And beyond, again, in the middle of these great
spaces, far from the rush and turmoil of the town, are the quiet
graves of two or three of those who have laid down their lives in this
far country, and shall see their homes no more.
It would take a long time to get tired of merely riding about in
Omdurman and watching the thousand and one sights of such a
place, and reflecting on the stranger scenes that must so frequently
have been enacted there less than five short years ago. But if you
want a gallop in the desert, nothing is more delightful than to pass
along the broad street leading northwards through the deserted
quarters of the once huge city, and to ride, with the keen wind
blowing freshly in your face, to Gebel Surgham, the hill which
overlooks the field of Kerreri, that historic field of bloodshed. The
merest novice can easily follow every phase of the battle, and see
where wave after wave of the dervish hosts rushed madly but
heroically to their doom. Some of their skulls still lie bleaching in the
sun. There, too, is the khor where the Lancers made their famous
charge. Or you may take boat, and sail past the mud forts that
saluted the steamers which came just too late for the watcher
anxiously straining his eyes to see them from the palace in
Khartoum. Almost every spot has its own historic interest. Perhaps
as you skim along before the wind a battered old paddle-steamer
labours creaking past, towing a string of barges. It is one of Gordon’s
gunboats, once more patched up and restored to duty.
But of all the sights and interests of this fascinating place, by far
the most impressive, as in Cairo itself, is the ancient and mighty
river. Khartoum and Omdurman are what they are because here the
two great tributaries join their forces and set out across the waterless
desert on their great mission to Egypt. The spot where the Blue and
White rivers meet, and for some distance flow side by side
unmingled, would be still in many ways the most notable in all
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